CaliforniaState UniversityDominguezHills

FINDING AND FIXING COMMON GRAMMAR AND PUNCTUATION

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5 stages: Pre-writing (Think) Drafting (Write) Revising (Make it better) Editing/Proofreading (Make it correct) Publishing (Share it)

Focus on improving your content and expressing your ideas as clearly as possible before you worry about punctuation and grammar errors that do not confuse meaning.

THE WRITING PROCESS

Before we go on, we will assume that your paper has been organized eff ectively and each paragraph revolves around one main idea.

This is an important concept in organization, but it will also help you identify grammar and punctuation errors within smaller, related chunks of text.

One paragraph: one idea.

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

Using proper punctuation depends on an understanding of the diff erence between independent and dependent clauses.

An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence: Suzie studied for her English exam in the coffee shop.

A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often, a dependent clause is marked by a dependent marker word:

When Suzie studied in the coffee shop for her English exam . . . (What happened when she studied? The thought is incomplete.)

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even

though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while.

Knowing these dependent markers will help you identify dependent clauses.

DEPENDENT MARKERS

Conjunctions come in several varieties: Coordinating conjunctions Correlative conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions Conjunctive adverbs

Conjunctions make connections and show relationships between words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.

CONJUNCTIONS

For (reason)And (addition)Nor (“and not”)But (shows contrast)Or (option)Yet (outcome)So (result)

The FANBOYS are used to join independent clauses or “grammatically equivalent” elements like multiple nouns, multiple prepositional phrases, or multiple verb phrases.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Before we move on, it is important to diff erentiate between the two most common uses of the comma.

We can use the comma to separate items in a series: I like apples, oranges, and plums.

Or we can use the comma with a conjunction to separate two independent clauses: I like apples, and my mother likes plums. We use a comma because I like apples and My mother likes

plums are independent clauses and could stand alone as complete sentences.

THE COMMA

The following items join “grammatically equivalent” elements:

I like oranges and bananas. (Two elements: no comma)

I like oranges, bananas, and strawberries. (Using three or more elements requires commas). Discussion - The serial or “Oxford comma”

I like to play softball, tennis, and golf.

I like to play tennis, swim laps, and drink smoothies.

I don’t know if Suzie went to work, to school, or to the store.

Discussion: starting a sentence with a conjunction (a style choice). It is not wise to start a sentence with a conjunction. And that is my

final word on the subject.

GROUPS OF ITEMS AND ITEMS IN A LIST

With words: I l ike apples, bananas, and oranges. With –ing verbs: I l ike hiking, swimming, and bicycling. With infi nitive phrases: I l ike to hike, to swim, and to ride a

bicycle.

Don’t mix forms! INCORRECT: I like hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.

With clauses: INCORRECT: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of

sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.

After a colon: INCORRECT: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word

meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.

The same rules of parallelism also apply to bulleted lists!

PARALLEL STRUCTURE

PARALLELISM ACTIVITY

Parallel

Whoops! Not parallel!

Correlative conjunctions work similarly to coordinating conjunctions; however, correlative conjunctions always work in pairs: Neither…nor Either…or Not only…but also… Whether…or

The instructor was not only dull, but also quite mean.

In addition, unlike traditional coordinating conjunctions, it is acceptable for one part of the pair to appear at the beginning of a sentence: Neither Suzie nor her daughter are interested in playing board

games with overzealous relatives.

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Subordinating conjunctions are used in more complex sentences.

The subordinating conjunction has two jobs: Provides a necessary transition between two ideas in the

sentence. Reduces the importance of one clause so that the reader

knows which idea is more important.

Thus, the “less important idea” becomes the subordinate clause.

It helps to keep in mind the definition of subordinate: “of less importance; secondary; subservient or inferior.“

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

A FUNNY TO HELP YOU REMEMBER

The most common subordinating conjunctions are: if, since, after, although, because, before, though, until, when, where, whether, which, while, who, and why.

Subordinating conjunctions appear at the beginning of an independent clause.

It introduces the subordinate/dependent clause. Although Suzie loves her dogs, her sister does not care for pets.

Don’t forget to include a comma when using subordinating conjunctions. If you forget, your subordinate clause becomes a sentence fragment. Example: Although Suzie loves her dogs. Her sister does not.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

There are a few more things you need to know about the comma:

Introductory bit Small – Generally, dogs are loyal creatures. Medium – Frankly speaking, dogs are better than cats. Large – As far as I am concerned, dogs are far superior to cats. Caution! Be careful with large introductory bits that include a

dependent phrase. Because he kept barking incessantly, we let the dog outside to play. We let the dog outside to play because he kept barking incessantly. Keep in mind that the clause listed first conveys importance in the sentence. If

it is not more important, it is probably best to reverse the order of the clauses and eliminate the comma to avoid possible confusion.

INTRODUCTORY BITS

If you have two or more adjectives (describers) that are not joined by a conjunction, put a comma between them. He was a selfish, narcissistic guy.

Interrupters or “non-essential” information can be placed between two commas in the middle of a sentence. The bank’s Vice President, Suzie Reilly, was a charming

woman. Suzie Reilly, the bank’s Vice President, was a charming

woman. Suzie looked toward the future, not the past, when

implementing important changes at the bank.

DESCRIBERS AND INTERRUPTERS

Before we discuss our final conjunction, the conjunctive adverb, it is helpful to discuss the most common use for the semi-colon.

The semi-colon can be used to connect two related independent clauses with no connecting words. Related is the key word here.

It rained a lot this week; we managed to have a picnic anyway. (Related, but equal in importance.)

It is also used to separate items in a series that already have internal commas. Genius consists of a carefully trained, highly polished

ability; a thoughtfully educated, unbiased good taste; and a willingness to engage in and a persistence to do hard work.

THE SEMI-COLON

The semi-colon can also be used to connect two related independent clauses using conjunctive adverbs. It rained a lot this week; however, we managed to have a

picnic anyway.

Unlike subordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs do not make clauses dependent or subordinate.

This might make you consider why we need conjunctive adverbs at all, right?

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

While conjunctive adverbs can simply show contrast or indicate a result, they are most eff ectively used as transitions. It rained a lot this afternoon; however, we managed to have

a picnic anyway. We really needed to get the kids out of the house!

Along with however, other commonly used conjunctive adverbs are: also, consequently, finally, furthermore, meanwhile, nevertheless, next, still, therefore, and thus.

Don’t be fooled! Although is NOT a conjunctive adverb; it is a subordinating conjunction.

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

Coordinate it! Punctuate it!

ACTIVITY!

COORDINATED AND PUNCTUATED

ACTIVE: Subject – Verb – Object Suzie ate the girl scout cookie. The dog barked at the mailman.

A passive voice construction occurs when you make the object the subject of the sentence (Object – Verb – Subject) The girl scout cookie was eaten by Suzie. The mailman was barked at by the dog.

Here’s a more complex example: When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to

delay her remarriage. Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage when her

house was invaded.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Vague – Who is responsible for the action?: Both Othello and Iago desire Desdemona. She is courted.

(Who courts Desdemona? Othello? Iago? Both of them?)

Confusion – Who did what? Research has been done to discredit this theory.

(Who did the research? You? Your professor? Another author?)

Hiding holes – What’s missing? The telephone was invented in the nineteenth century.

(I couldn't find out who invented the telephone!)

Wordy and Indirect – Why make the reader work so hard? Since the car was being driven by Michael at the time of the accident,

the damages should be paid for by him. Michael was driving the car at the time of the accident; he should pay for

the damages. (Whew! That was easier!)

WHEN TO AVOID PASSIVE VOICE

The sub ject i s unknown: The cave paintings of Lascaux were made in the Upper Old Stone Age.

(We don't know who made them.)

The sub ject i s i rre levant : An experimental solar power plant wil l be built in the Austral ian desert.

(We are not interested in who is bui ld ing i t . )

You want to be vague about who is respons ib le : Mistakes were made.

(Common in bureaucratic writ ing!)

You are ta lk ing about a genera l t ru th : Rules are made to be broken.

(By whomever, whenever. I ’m bad to the bone, man!)

You want to emphas ize the person or th ing acted on . For example , i t may be your main top ic : Insulin was fi rst discovered in 1921 by researchers at the University of Toronto. It is sti l l the only

treatment available for diabetes. Insul in is our topic, not the researchers at the University of Toronto.

You are wr i t ing in a sc ient ifi c genre that t rad i t iona l ly re l ies on pass ive vo ice . Pass ive vo ice is o ften preferred in lab repor ts and sc ient ifi c research papers , most notab ly in the Mater ia ls and Methods sect ion : The sodium hydroxide was dissolved in water. This solution was then titrated with hydrochloric

acid. There is a specifi c order here, and chemicals react upon one another in specifi c ways.

WHEN TO USE PASSIVE VOICE

There is a formula for identifying the passive voice in your writing.

Forms of “to be” + past participle = passive voice

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE PASSIVE VOICE

Subject Copula “to be” Past Participle (Usually –ed,

except irregular forms)

Object

The king is hated by the Queen

Gazelles are eaten by lions

Suzie was pursued by Richard

We were portrayed incorrectly

by the reporter

Need more help deciding whether a sentence is passive? Ask yourself whether there is an action going on in the

sentence. If so, what is at the front of the sentence? Is it the person or thing that does the action? Is it the person or thing that has the action done to it?

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE PASSIVE VOICE

Passive Voice Activity!

ACTIVITY!

“That” indicates that the information is essential to understanding the meaning of the sentence. Do not use a comma before “that”

It was a movie that changed the world of cinema forever.

“Which” indicates that the information is not crucial for understanding the meaning of the sentence. Use a comma before “which”

The movie turned out to be a blockbuster hit, which came as a surprise to critics.

RELATIVE CLAUSES: THAT VS. WHICH

Items after the colon expand on or clarify what came before the colon.

Only use colons after statements that are complete sentences.

In most cases, the items or information following the colon do not require capitalization.

The colon can often be used similarly to where you might expect an equal sign. There is only one thing more important than money: love. Suzie has two hobbies: painting and running.

They can be used to introduce or list. I need three items from the bookstore: note cards, scantrons, and a binder. The author suggests three approaches to increasing a child’s fluency:

reacting calmly to stuttering, spending one-on-one time in child-directed play, and reducing stress in the child’s life.

USING COLONS

Use parentheses around material that you want to de-emphasize or to surround something that seems a bit out of place in the sentence: an aside, a clarifi cation, or some commentary.

Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost (we remember him at Kennedy's inauguration) remains America's favorite poet.

Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost remains America's favorite poet. (We remember him at Kennedy's inauguration.) Periods go inside a parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the

parentheses.

Parentheses are also used to introduce an acronym The American Speech-Language Hearing Association (ASHA) believes

that effective communication is a human right. ASHA also believes that communication should be accessible and achievable for all.

Dashes are used to emphasize strong statements; they are the opposite of parentheses – dashes are dramatic!

USING PARENTHESES AND DASHES

Have you read the assigned short story, "Flowering Judas"?

No, but I did fi nal ly get around to reading last week's assignment, "Where Are They Now?“

"Diane," she said, "put the book down and go outside for a l i tt le while.“

According to Gocsik (2004), “some ESL writers come from countries that are not capital ist. In these countries, ideas are not owned, but shared” (p. 19).

According to Gocsik (2004), “some ESL writers come from countries that are not capital ist. In these countries, ideas are not owned, but shared” (p. 19); therefore, the concept of plagiarism may be completely foreign to some English language learners.

USING QUOTATION MARKS

Foreign words Don’t italicize if the word has assimilated into English. You would not italicize a word like taco, but you would

italicize a word like pan (which means “bread” in Spanish).

Emphasis You can also use italics to emphasize certain words. This is

a style choice, but use italics sparingly so that your reader knows what is really important.

USING ITALICS

Its vs. it’s If you’re unsure, remove the apostrophe and read the

sentence using the full form of “it is.” Does it still make sense?

Dogs, dog’s, dogs’ I love dogs. (plural, meaning, more than one, or all dogs) It is the dog’s toy. (possessive, singular, one dog) It is the dogs’ toy. (possessive, plural, more than one dog) That is Chris’ dog. (possessive, singular, ends in s).

APOSTROPHES

Change the font style and size when editing, print out the document, and then read it out loud slowly.

Your brain has become accustomed to staring at this text on a screen; it also knows what you intended to write, and can trick your eyes into seeing your intentions – not what you actually wrote.

Allow your ears to do some editing for you. Our ears use an entirely different region of the brain to process language – this can help you find errors you would have missed by reading silently.

Whenever possible, allow some time to pass before editing. Even if it’s just an hour or two – walk away from the paper!

Do you know what your typical errors are? Make a list and look specifi cally for those problems in your paper.

I f holistic editing feels overwhelming, focus on one area at a time (sentence structure/clarity coordinators punctuation)

TIPS FOR SELF-EDITING

E-mail us at: pegs@csudh.eduCall us at (310)243-2700

QUESTIONS?

Berry , C . , & Br i zee , A. (2010 , Apr i l 17) . Ident i fy ing independent and dependent c lauses .

Ret r ieved f rom ht tp : / /owl .eng l i sh .purdue .edu/owl / resource /598 /01 /

Dr i sco l l , D . L . (2013 , March 22) . Para l le l s t ruc ture . Ret r ieved f rom

ht tp : / /owl .eng l i sh .purdue .edu/owl / resource /623 /1 /

S immons , R. (2013) . The subord inate con junct ion . Ret r ieved f rom

ht tp : / /www.chompchomp.com/te rms/subord inatecon junct ion .htm

Br i zee , A. , & Dr i sco l l , D . (2013) . Commas: Qu ick ru les . Ret r ieved f rom

ht tp : / /owl .eng l i sh .purdue .edu/owl /owlpr in t /607 /

Harr i s , R. (2010 , October 14) . Us ing semico lons . Ret r ieved f rom

ht tp : / /www.v i r tua l sa l t .com/semico ln .htm

Corson, T. , & Smol le t t , R. (n .d . ) . Pass ive vo ice : When to use i t and when to avo id i t . Ret r ieved

f rom ht tp : / /www.wr i t ing .utoronto.ca /adv ice /s ty le - and-ed i t ing /pass ive -vo ice

Cap i ta l Communi ty Co l lege Foundat ion . (n .d . ) . Parentheses . Ret r ieved f rom

ht tp : / /grammar.ccc .commnet .edu/grammar /marks /parentheses .htm

REFERENCES