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ARID AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY RAWALPINDI

SYED SHAHZAIB MUHAMMAD 14-Arid-2069 Special thanks: ARS PMAS UAAR

Calf rearing

Rearing a newborn calf can be extremely challenging and requires much patience and commitment. The key to

success is keeping the calf in a comfortable environment, well fed and free of sickness.

Calves must be kept in a clean environment with access to a dry and draught free shed area. During wet periods

hand reared calves may need to be moved into the dry area until they get used to going there themselves.

Newborn calves

Orphan calves often show signs of dehydration, depression, lack of appetite or scouring. If the calf is to survive,

proper care during the first 24 hours is critical.

It is essential for the newborn calf to receive colostrum. Colostrum is the first milk that a mother produces.

Colostrum provides passive immunity to disease and helps build up vitamin and mineral levels. The new-born

calf should get colostrum within the first 36 hours of birth – either from a mother or artificial sources. A supply

of frozen colostrum can be kept in the freezer, while some milk replacers also contain colostrum. Once the calf

has received colostrum, it can be fed solely on whole milk or milk replacers. It is handy to have a bottle of

colostrum in the freezer to feed newborn calves that may not have drunk from their mothers. Warm it up to 36˚C

before feeding and if you have ample supply, feed it for the first two days (normally up to 2 litres per feed), in

the morning and evening.

Dehydrated calves

The calf should be rehydrated before getting any milk. Feeding a dehydrated calf with milk often results in

scours and possibly death. Electrolyte mixtures are commercially available or can be mixed at home from 1

teaspoon table salt, ½ teaspoon baking soda and 125 mL glucose in 1.2 L of water. Electrolyte should be fed for

at least 24 hours before milk is given.

Teat or bucket feeding

Cattle are ruminants and have four stomachs. At birth, the abomasum or fourth stomach is the only stomach that

is functioning. Feeding using teats may be harder work however when a calf sucks, it triggers a reflex which

causes a groove in the rumen – the oesophageal groove, to close and direct milk past the rumen and into the

abomasum where it is digested. Using a teat may also stimulate saliva production and maintain fluid intake in

scouring calves. Teats have to be kept clean and replaced when they deteriorate.

In contrast if a calf drinks from a bucket, the reflex is often not activated and the milk goes into the rumen. As

the rumen is not functioning the milk is not digested and ferments causing the calf to scour. If a bucket is used,

its base should be placed at least 30 cm above the ground to help the oesophageal groove to close. To train a calf

to drink from a bucket, back it into a corner, stand astride its neck and place two fingers moistened with milk

into its mouth. Whichever method is used, each calf must receive a measured amount of milk daily.

As the calf grows and starts to graze, the other stomachs (rumen, reticulum and omasum) start to develop.

Therefore, it is important to provide clean, good quality hay for the calf to eat to help stimulate rumen

development.

Controlling sickness

Scouring can quickly lead to death. A scouring calf should be taken off milk for at least four hours and fed

electrolytes. If scours continue, treatment with commercial medication may be warranted, in consultation with a

vet. Scour medication should be kept on hand as early treatment can mean the difference between cure and the

loss of the calf. Isolate sick calves.

Practicing good hygiene and discarding teats as they deteriorate will help control sickness in hand reared calves.

A fresh supply of cool clean water should be available at all times and will help keep calves healthy. Calves will

begin to drink water between one and two weeks of age and, by six weeks, may drink four to five litres a day.

Feeding milk once or twice a day does not supply enough water. Calves eating meal may foul the water trough

necessitating regular cleaning.

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Calves need to have contact with other animals whose rumen is developed to allow them to ‘pick up’ microbes

that digest the food in the rumen. These microbes are thought to pass from one animal to another by licking and

grazing common ground.

Tips for a successful calf-feeding program

• Milk replacers should contain at least 20% protein and 10% fat and no more than 10% starch and sugars

(sucrose). Milk replacers should be reconstituted and fed as directed by the manufacturers.

• Increasing the proportion of powder is often recommended for once-a-day feeding to reduce the total

volume required.

• When rearing a large number of calves, it is best to draft them according to their feeding habit.

• Milk should be given in separate feeds in the morning and evening, preferably at a regular time. As the

calf gets older, one feed per day is acceptable – preferably in the morning with access to plenty of cool, clean

water thereafter. Split feeding is ideal.

• It is essential to practice good hygiene at all times whilst rearing calves.

• Do not over-feed calves, especially during their first three weeks of life, as it may cause scouring. As a

guide milk should be fed at 10% of the calf’s body weight per day. Thus, a 30 kg calf should be fed at least 3 L

of whole milk per day.

• Start baby and weak calves on 250 mL of milk, five times a day for the first 24–48 hours and work up to

2 L twice a day.

• The best milk temperature is between 35° and 38°C, but it may be fed as cold as 6°C.

• Do not suddenly change the quantity of milk being fed.

• Always provide clean fresh water.

• As calves grow they will drink more, however, milk replacer is expensive. It is often cheaper to

supplement the calf with pellets/grain. Make this available to calves all the time. They will gradually increase

their intake of a grain supplement as they grow. This will also make them easier to wean.

• Solid feed such as good quality hay and concentrates can be introduced in limited amounts from one to

two weeks of age.

Weaning off milk

• Calves may be weaned successfully at a young age; however, providing some milk up to 12 weeks often

gives the calf the best opportunity to grow.

• If the calf has been offered solids from one week of age, it might be weaned off milk after five weeks of

age.

• Weaning should be based on concentrate consumption of at least 650 g of meal a day—not on age. As

some calves will reach the target consumption earlier, it is best to feed concentrates separately with more than

one calf.

• Weaning can be abrupt or by reducing milk over a one-week period.

• The weaned calf will require intensive management. Poor management and poor nutrition at this early

age may result in a stunted calf that will never recover.

• Young calves need a diet of 18-20% crude protein with high energy levels of about 11-12 MJ.

• It is important to clean out old feed, i.e. just keep small amounts at any one time in the feed trough.

Feeding solid feed

• The calf should have access to hay and concentrates from one week to stimulate rumen activity. The

rumen is usually functioning well by 10–12 weeks.

• They can be fed high quality baby calf meals or pellets after about five weeks of age.

• Avoid giving excessive green grass in the first 6–8 weeks of age to prevent any digestive upsets.

• Concentrates can be introduced by placing a small amount in the milking bucket. As the calf finishes

drinking, rub a little concentrate on its muzzle to encourage the calf to taste it.

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• By three weeks of age, a calf should be able to digest small amounts of grain, meals hay and, where

possible, be given access to young green pasture. Feed changes should be introduced slowly.

• Depending on the quality of the pasture, supplementary hay and concentrates may be needed until the

calf is at least 120 kg liveweight.

• Calf concentrates should be highly palatable, coarse-textured, high in energy (12 MJ ME/kg or better)

and protein (over 16%) and low in roughage (less than 15%). A simple home-mix could consist of four parts

cracked or crushed grain (oats, barley, maize or wheat) and one part linseed, soybean, peanut, copra or

cottonseed meal. A small amount of molasses may be added to make the mix more palatable.

• Adding a rumen modifier such as Rumensin® to grain mixes will assist rumen activity and help prevent

coccidiosis. Rumensin can be included, according to the manufacturers recommendations, in premixed meals,

pellets and molasses-based mixes. It is not recommended for inclusion in urea-based supplements as it is

difficult to mix the small quantities required evenly.

• Inappropriate doses of Rumensin are toxic to calves. Rumensin is toxic to horses and other monogastric animals.

• Calves need both rumen degradable and bypass protein from a natural source such as protein meals.

• Non-protein nitrogen sources such as urea are not suitable for young calves.

• Good grassy lucerne hay is best for young calves—prime lucerne may cause scouring. It should free of

mould and weeds.

• If pasture is scarce or of poor quality, supplement it with good quality hay.

Rearing a calf can be very rewarding. By following the steps above you should be able to rear a healthy animal

that will probably become the farm pet. Contact your local beef advisor for further information or discussion if

needed.

Yard weaning and education

Weaning is far more than separating the calf from the cow. It is also the ideal time to expose cattle to the

stressors that they will need to handle later in life. Correct management and training/education of calves at

weaning sets their pattern of behaviour for the rest of their lives. Making their first experience of handling and

husbandry procedures as pleasant as possible reduces the stress experienced throughout their lifetime when

similar procedures are carried out. This results in ease of handling and increased growth performance so is well

worth the initial investment in time.

Before weaning

For the first few days after weaning, calves try to get back to their mothers and can manage to do the seemingly

impossible. To avoid injuries and escapes, check all equipment ahead of time that will be used at weaning,

including yards, hay feeders and water troughs. It is best to assume a ‘belt and braces’ approach. Calves get

bored and will often manage to open a catch by playing with it, so put another chain or wire around gate catches.

At weaning

Muster your cows and calves. After processing the cows, such as pregnancy testing and vaccinating, let them out

into a paddock close to the yards with access to a larger grass paddock. Cows find weaning very stressful too.

Many cows will break fences and jump grids to get back to their calves if they are moved too far apart on the

first day of weaning. After three to five days the cows will have forgotten about their calves and will be much

easier to move further out.

Make sure the water troughs are clean and the hay feeders full before putting the first of the calves into the

weaning yard. Then leave them overnight. There will be a lot of bellowing from both the cows and the calves,

but this is quite normal.

Training begins

For the first two days, spend time walking quietly through the calves. Move them slowly and calmly into other

yards whilst you fill the hay racks. This teaches the calves to walk through gateways and move at your direction

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and familiarises them with human interaction. Having a few quiet trained older animals with the weaners is a

good way of helping settle them down more quickly and provides a lead for fresh weaners to follow.

On the third day, run the calves into the working yards and teach them to draft and walk up the race. Do this by

letting ten or so go past and stopping the rest. Work the first group of ten through the race and crush without

stopping them. Then go back and get another group. By doing this, even the most nervous calves will learn what

is required of them. Do this every day as you fill the hay racks.

Weaning is a good time to teach weaners to eat from a trough. While they are locked in the yard and bored, they

will try new things they wouldn’t touch in the paddock.

Once the calves work well through the yards it is time to take them out and introduce them to whatever you use

on your property, such as dogs, horses and bikes. Open the gates from the yards and work the lead to slow them

up if they start to run. If they exit the yards at a trot or gallop, yard them back up and let them out again. Do this

until they have learnt to walk calmly out of the yard. They need to learn that you set the pace, not them. Work

them around the paddock, letting them graze as you do this. This makes them more manageable for future

musters, and teaches them to settle and graze when moved to new paddocks. A laneway is ideal for this work but

any small well-fenced paddock will do.

Once you are happy with the way they are working while you are handling them, let them have the full day out

in the paddock and just yard them at night. Weaners will often rush at night when they can be frightened. Yard

the weaners overnight for three or four days and let them out in the paddock during the day.

Then they can go out into another paddock to grow up. Running some older steers with weaners in the paddock

will help settle the weaners down and also help protect them from dog attacks and can also have some immunity

benefits for the weaners.

While working the weaners, make a note of any calves that do not settle down. If a calf does not respond to the

constant handling at weaning, it will always be difficult to handle and should be identified for culling.

For more information see Weaning.

Benefits

The time and cost put into training weaners is recouped many times over as the animals grow and enter the adult

herd. Well-trained weaners are a pleasure to work with, whereas cattle that have not been trained well at weaning

cause many problems.

The effects of yard weaning, vaccination, and yard training on subsequent feedlot performance has reaffirmed

the benefits of good weaning management. Good yard weaning also promotes cattle that go onto feed faster in

feedlots, have less illness, perform better and give more tender beef. Cattle weaned in the yards onto hay or

silage for 5 to 10 days adapted, ate sooner from the bunk, performed better and had less illness in the feedlot

than those weaned in the paddock. In one trial yard weaned cattle grew 28% faster over a 78-day feeding period,

giving approximately a $25 advantage.

If you buy in cattle, particularly cattle that you don’t know, try giving them a few days ‘weaner training’ before

you let them out. Steers going into the finishing paddock and replacement heifers that are to go into the breeder

herd will all benefit from a few days ‘re-education’.

Weaner supplements

Supplementation is the most critical aspect of successful weaner management. Supplementation type should be

based on weaner age and weight, which will determine nutrient requirements and intake levels. The objective is

that weaners gain weight. To achieve weight gains of 0.5 kg/head/day the total weaner diet on offer needs to be

nutritionally balanced, palatable and digestible to satisfy required daily intake.

Supplements should be available to weaners as soon as they are drafted off their mothers.

Interruption to feed supply for weaners can compromise the weaner’s immune system precipitating coccidiosis.

The best control of coccidiosis is to ensure adequate feed intake and growth of weaners.

With proper management and nutrition, there is no growth disadvantage of small weaned calves compared to

their similar unweaned counterparts of the same age.

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Key points when feeding weaners

• Weaners should have access to good quality hay in addition to the supplement while they are in the

yards.

• Good quality hay has a high proportion of leaf to stem, is green and sweet smelling. Hay containing

legume leaf is usually more nutritious and digestible than hay made from grass alone. Hay with too much

legume (as in purelucerne hay) often causes scouring in weaners. Hay should be clean and free of mould.

• Be careful when purchasing hay from areas with widespread declared weeds. Weedy hay will be less

nutritious (and a biosecurity risk).

• When reading the product label of calf meals/pellets, do not include urea in the calculation of crude

protein. Young calves cannot utilise urea as their rumen is not fully developed.

• Suitable protein sources for weaners include cotton seed meal and copra meal. Younger weaners may

perform better on copra meal.

• Segregating weaners on size reduces bullying and allows all weaners to get a fair share.

• Feeding pellets or protein meals every third day (or twice a week) results in plenty of feed available on

the day, and reduces bullying.

• Feed concentrate supplements before putting hay out so as the weaners eat the concentrate first.

• Do not change the amount or type of feed suddenly. This gives the rumen microorganisms a chance to

adjust.

• Include Rumensin® (active ingredient monensin) in weaner rations to achieve an intake of 25

mg/head/day. Rumensin may also help control a coccidiosis outbreak. Care should be exercised as over-dosing is

quite toxic. Note small amounts in horses can be lethal.

• Urea must be thoroughly dissolved into molasses supplements to avoid toxicity. Mechanical mixes

should be used. Take particular care with granulated urea.

• Calves of <100 kg liveweight must have continual access to concentrate supplements.

• Monitor intakes of weaners to ensure adequate intakes of supplement are achieved.

• Phosphorus should be included in supplements fed to weaners on phosphorus deficient country, in both

the wet season and the dry season.

• When feeding dry licks and blocks to weaners over 150 kg, the lick should supply 75 g of protein per

head per day. If weaners are not eating enough, protein meal can be added to improve palatability of the lick.

Recommended supplements

The following table is a guide to the type of supplements different size weaners should be fed to achieve target growth rates.

Pasture qualityWeight of weaners (kg)

Growth target (kg/day) Recommended feed

Suggested daily intake (kg/hd/day)

Good hay <60 0.4

• Milk replacer and high quality baby calf meal or pellets (18% or 20% protein) including Rumensin.• Free access to good quality hay.• Do not feed molasses. 1–1.5

Good hay 60–100 0.25+

• Calf meal or calf pellet (16-18% protein) including Rumensin.• Free access at all times to good quality hay. 1–1.5+

Poor pastureDMD <50%, CP <5%

100-150 0.25+Protein meals, MP***, MUP*, weaner pellets or meals, protein/enery mixes****

1–1.5 MUP; 0.5+ protein meal

150-200 0.2+M8U**, MUP*, protein/energy mixes, protein meal or pellets

1 M8U; 0.5 protein meal

Over 2000.1 0.2

Protein supplements (dry licks, blocks) MUP, M8U

Provide 75 g protein/hd/day1.5-2 MUP, M8U

Marginal pastureDMD >50%,

100-150 0.25+MUP, M8U, protein/energy mixes, protein meal or pellets

1 MUP; 0.5 protein meal

150-200 >0.2 MUP, M8U, protein/energy mixes 1

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Pasture qualityWeight of weaners (kg)

Growth target (kg/day) Recommended feed

Suggested daily intake (kg/hd/day)

CP 5-6%Over 200 >0.2 MUP, M8U 1-1.5

Good pastureDMD >55%, CP >8%

100-150 0.25+ Protein meal or pellets, protein/energy mixes 0.3 protein meal

150-200 >0.2 None

Over 200 >0.2 None

*MUP = a mixture of molasses + 3% urea + 8 to 10% protein meal.

**M8U = a mixture of molasses + 8% urea (it is essential to use a mechanical mixer).

***MP = molasses + protein meal.

****Protein/energy mixes = protein meal + grain + urea (small amounts).

Proprietary mixes should be fed according to manufacturers recommendations.

Weaning – a critical component of herd management

Benefits of weaning

The major benefits of good weaning management are improved reproductive performance of the breeder herd.

Weaning at an optimum time results in better cow condition, more conceptions during lactation, more calves the

year after, and higher steer sales in the future. Good weaning management is a critical component of a successful

management program.

Weaning is critical in managing the period of time a cow lactates and this in turn impacts on body condition.

Body condition of breeders at the end of the dry season is an important factor influencing fertility and mortality,

and also weaner weights. The key objective is to keep breeders in moderate or store condition (i.e. score 3 out of

5) or better at the end of the dry season, by reducing the amount of body condition lost during the dry season. If

a cow is in poor body condition (less than 3) there is a much greater likelihood of a failure to cycle (anoestrus).

Weaning removes the stress of lactation and may reduce further loss of body condition as it significantly alters

the nutritional requirements of a lactating heifer or cow. The extra energy and protein requirements needed for

lactation are removed.

A large amount of research has shown that lactation in itself also suppresses cycling. A cow’s chances of cycling

are improved simply because the suckling effect of the calf is removed. It should be noted that research also

shows that temporary weaning for 48-72 hours by itself has no significant benefit in increasing conceptions.

Early weaning reduces the need to survival feed large numbers of breeders should this situation arise. This is

important where segregation of survival risk cows is not practical. It is cheaper and easier to feed calves than

cows with calves at foot for survival, particularly when not all cows in the mob require feeding.

The benefits of good weaning management are well documented. Numerous experiences, trials and

demonstrations have shown that if calves weaned at 3 months and older (100+ kg) are properly fed and managed

they will be as well grown as larger (150+ kg) weaners at the end of their first wet season.

Weaning also provides an opportunity for cattle to be trained and educated early in life and this has positive

benefits for future handling, management and productivity.

Time of weaning

Managers must time weaning to achieve the best compromise between weaner growth and loss of cow condition.

Astute managers start weaning before cows start to ‘slip’, and time weaning rounds to minimise the degree of

body condition loss in lactating cows.

Calves from heifers should be weaned first and all calves from heifers should be weaned at the first round.

Weaning heifer calves earlier than normal should increase the chances of heifers cycling and conceiving

following calving.

When seasonal mating it is very important to wean strategically to manage the body condition of breeders. In

some years and in some environments it may be necessary to wean earlier to reduce loss of body condition. If

weaning is not carried out at an appropriate time, and is delayed, there is potential to have the majority of

breeders in low body condition all at once (and possibly requiring supplementation).

Weaner supplementation

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To be successful, weaners must be well managed and properly fed. This is a critical aspect of weaning – for

more information see Weaner supplements. With proper management and nutrition, there is no growth

disadvantage of small weaned calves compared to their similar unweaned counterparts of the same age. This is

because the milk production of most breeders is low during the dry season in northern Australia.

Supplementation should be based on weaner age and weight, which will determine nutrient requirements and

intake levels. Pasture quality, feeding out facilities and availability of supplements should also be taken into

account. Investigation of reports of weaners not performing well, have all shown that there has been a

breakdown associated with the management or the nutrition of the weaners.

Preparation for weaners

Adequate and appropriate weaner feed should be on the property before mustering starts. The supplements, hay,

troughs, mixing and feeding out facilities and yards should be organised so that feeding can commence

immediately following weaning. Time taken feeding, handling and educating weaners can be a major factor once

weaning starts so it is advisable to have the weaner feed organised in advance.

Adequate yard space is required to draft weaners into separate weight groups as necessary.

Once weaners come out of the yard adequate paddock space will be required. There is usually a range in weaner

size (and hence the supplements fed), and it is best to have two paddocks. The smaller the calves, the smaller the

paddock should be. Weaner paddocks need to be well grassed and spelled for nutritional and animal health

reasons.

Weaner management tips

• The smaller the animal, the higher the nutritional requirement will be. It is easiest to divide calves into

groups based on weight and age for targeted supplementation.

• Once weaners have grown out of their weight category gradually change feed to appropriate supplement

over a period of a few days.

• To reduce stress, have feed and water available in the yards as soon as the weaners are drafted off their

mothers.

• Feed a high quality ration from the first day. Hay alone is not enough for young calves. Good quality

hay should be supplied that is weed and mould free.

• Do not change the amount or type of feed suddenly – ease off and on, to allow the rumen

microorganisms to adapt and to reduce stress.

• Segregating smaller calves from larger calves and feeding separately will help reduce bullying.

• Ensure adequate trough space (20-30 cm/head) to prevent bullying.

• Make sure all weaners are getting enough to eat – monitor intakes.

• Very weak or sick calves may need to be segregated and treated as a separate hospital group.

• For improved hygiene, feed calves in feeders or troughs up off the ground.

• Ensure plenty of clean water is always available, and some shade.

• Very small and young calves weaned in winter need to be kept clean, dry and warm. Wind breaks

assembled from bales of hay may be needed if cold and windy.

• Educate weaners calmly and regularly for quieter cattle of the future. For more information see Yard

weaning and education.

• Don’t put small weaners in a large paddock. They do get lost. They need to be checked.

• Weaner paddocks should be well grassed, securely fenced with watering points and supplement troughs

that weaners are introduced to on first arrival.

• If dingoes are a problem, it pays to run a few mature cows with the weaners until dingoes can be

controlled.

Weaner health

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The secret behind maintaining healthy small weaners is to reduce all stress. Weaning in itself is stressful and this

can compromise the immune system. A compromised immune system can lead to populations of coccidia, which

inhabit the intestine, rapidly increasing in number and causing coccidiosis. Coccidiosis is seen as bloody or

black scours, indicating there is damage to the intestine. It occurs three to five weeks after the initial onset of

stress at weaning. In severe cases, calves may lose weight rapidly and die. Badly affected calves become ‘poor

doers’ due to permanent damage of the intestine.

Coccidiosis can be exacerbated if there is additional stress from poor nutrition. The best control of coccidiosis is

to ensure adequate feed intake and growth of weaners. Interruption to feed supply can compromise the gut’s

immune system precipitating coccidiosis. Management strategies to help prevent coccidiosis include:

• Supply nutritious feed to satisfy voluntary intake and nutrient requirements from day of weaning.

• Include Rumensin® (active ingredient monensin) in weaner rations to achieve an intake of 25

mg/head/day. Rumensin may also help control an outbreak. Care should be exercised as over-dosing is quite

toxic. Note small amounts in horses can be lethal.

• Provide dry yards with shade and a plentiful supply of clean water.

• Use troughs that cattle can’t walk through.

• Rotate weaning yards to reduce the build up of oocytes.

• Very small grassed enclosures are preferable to dirt yards.

In calves that suffer severe and/or chronic coccidiosis treat individually with Scourban®, a product which

includes a coccidiostat, an antibiotic and anti-diarrhoeal powders.

Most weaners will have worms and if the infection is heavy, treatment will be very cost effective. Ill thrift,

condition loss, rough coats and green scours are some of the signs of worm burdens. Poor weight gains can be an

indicator of sub clinical burdens. If you suspect worms are a problem, check worm burdens in calves and drench

if appropriate. Diagnosis by way of worm egg counts is recommended. Seek advice for treatment with relevant

anthelmintics and use weaner paddocks which have been spelled.

Inspect weaners regularly for lice and ticks, and treat accordingly. Pasture spelling of weaner paddocks will

assist with tick control.

Vaccination for clostridial diseases (‘5 in 1′) should occur at branding and weaning (assuming that these aren’t

more than six weeks apart) for maximum protection. Weaners which have not received a ‘5 in 1′ at branding

should be vaccinated the day they enter the yards. It is not recommended to give more than two vaccines at

once. Tick fever vaccination at the same time as ‘5 in 1′ is not recommended. Weaners should not be vaccinated

for tick fever just before trucking as it can induce a vaccine-induced tick fever. A single shot botulism

vaccination for juvenile cattle is recommended at branding, or at weaning if missed at branding.

Hygiene is very important when branding and castrating weaners. Ear marking pliers, castrating knives and

dehorning equipment should be placed in disinfectant at branding time, in between usage on each weaner. For

health reasons do not brand, earmark, castrate or dehorn calves until just before leaving the yards. For more

information seeHusbandry.

What weight to wean a calf?

The minimum liveweight at which calves are weaned is dependent upon the type of country, seasonal conditions

and condition of the cow. For a typical north Queensland property in an average year this weight would be 100

kg (or about three months of age). On better country in better seasons optimum weaning weight may be higher.

In drought conditions it may be desirable to radical wean (<100 kg liveweight) for breeder survival. In north

Australia all calves should be weaned down to 100 kg at the last muster of the year to prevent weight loss and

anoestrus (not cycling) in breeders early in the wet season immediately following.

Conclusions

• Good weaning practices improve reproductive performance of the breeder herd and should not

disadvantage weaners.

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• Reduce the stress on weaners by providing adequate nutrition and segregate smaller calves from larger

calves to target supplement and prevent bullying.

• Calm regular education will set calves up for ease of handling and less stress throughout their lives.

• Pay attention to weaner health and treat strategically based on expert advice.

Castration

Dennis Boothby

Formerly Queensland Government

Castration is ‘removal of the testicles’ in very young male cattle. However some of the techniques used to

‘castrate’ bull calves in Australia do not involve actual removal of the testicles.

Castration is carried out for the following reasons:

• Prevention of undesirable bull calves from breeding. This enables mating of bulls only with desirable

traits.

• Behavioural control. Castrated male cattle (steers) are generally less aggressive and easier to handle, are

less likely to fight causing injury to other animals, and are less likely to damage fences.

• The secondary sex characteristics of bulls tend to make bull meat tougher and less attractive to

consumers, especially for the higher priced cuts.

The disadvantages of castration are minor in comparison to the advantages gained. Removal of the testicles

before puberty will reduce the growth rate of the calf. This is because the testicles produce hormones as well as

spermatozoa. The major hormone produced by the testicles is testosterone, more commonly referred to as male

hormone. Testosterone has an anabolic action – it promotes muscle growth.

Castration should be carried out on bull calves when they are very young, and certainly before six months of age.

On larger properties with large numbers of breeding females this may be difficult to achieve, particularly if

calves are born at the start of the wet season (as recommended) or just after the last muster the previous year.

Methods of castration

With all methods of castration effective restraint (i.e. calf cradle) is essential for the welfare of the calf and the

operator. Whether performing surgical or non surgical castration it is important to disinfect equipment in an

antiseptic solution, between animals, and have a separate bucket of antiseptic for washing hands.

Surgical

This is the most commonly used method of castration in Australia.

An incision is made at the bottom of the scrotum using a scalpel blade to expose the testicle. In some cases the

testicles proper may still be hidden behind a thick whitish membrane – the tunica vaginalis. If this is the case it

will be necessary to make an incision in the tunica to completely expose the testicle. A deep initial incision

ensures the testicle is exposed immediately. The attached ligaments and vas deferens (sperm cord) can be

separated from the testicle with the fingers and/or blade.

The testicle can be removed by pulling on the exposed testicle (this is less suitable for older calves) or by

rubbing the sharp blade sideways on the exposed cord to scrape the blood vessels. Do not make a clean sharp

incision of the cord as this may lead to excessive bleeding. The most desirable method is to remove the exposed

testicle using triple crush emasculators which crushes and cuts the blood vessels and hence minimises bleeding.

Emasculators are the preferred option for older calves and for castrations done in hotter weather.

Good hygiene is essential when castrating. It is preferable that the scalpel and emasculators are soaked in

disinfectant between operations and that the disinfectant is changed after every 20 animals. Poor hygiene may

lead to infection which delays healing and may set back growth. Fly control should be considered at certain

times of the year. Calves should be vaccinated against tetanus.

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Elastrator rings

An elastrator ring placed above the neck of the scrotum will cut off all blood vessels and after a period of time

(usually three to six weeks) lead to that part of the scrotum and its contents (mainly the testicles) dropping off.

Some cattle breeders prefer this method because it is a non-invasive method of castration. Another advantage of

elastrator rings is that little or (usually) no bleeding occurs. There is no scientific evidence that use of elastrator

rings reduces contamination by tetanus or other organisms.

Because the elastrator rings are designed and made for use on sheep, they are generally only able to be used on

smaller calves. It is difficult to place the ring above the testicles of larger animals. The Australian Code of

Practice for the Welfare of Animals states that elastrator rings are only suitable for calves under two weeks of

age.

Burdizzo (Bloodless castration pincers)

Burdizzo is the trade name for an Italian made bloodless castration pincers. The principal of operation is similar

to that of the elastrator ring. If used correctly the blood vessels and spermatic cord are meant to be irreparably

crushed, thus stopping blood supply preventing testicle growth and function. Within six weeks atrophy of the

testicles should be complete.

This technique is successful when used by experienced operators. Due to risk of failure it is not recommended

for use by inexperienced operators. There appears to be less pain and there is reduced risk of infection as the

wound is not open.

The Burdizzo has the advantage of elastrator rings in that it is non-invasive and causes no bleeding. Unlike

elastrator rings it can be used on older animals. However the Australian Code of Practice for the Welfare of

Animals states that this method should only be used on calves under six months of age if done without

anaesthetic.

Dehorning

Why dehorn?

Dehorning is the removal of the horns from cattle. It is a labour-intensive, skilled operation with important

animal welfare implications. Cattle can have horns of different length, shape and size, but all horns are

detrimental to cattle from a welfare and production perspective, and pose a potential safety risk to cattle

handlers.

Bruising costs the Australian beef industry over $30 million each year – equivalent to $4 for every beast

slaughtered. Evidence indicates that the single major cause of bruising is the presence of horns.

Horned or tipped cattle (as compared to hornless cattle):

• Can cause injury to other cattle especially in yards and when in transport

• Can cause significant damage to hides and carcase quality

• Cause more damage to infrastructure on average

• Need more space during transport

• Harder to handle in yards and crushes and can be more aggressive to other animals

• Potentially more hazardous to people.

Tipping (removal of the insensitive sharp end of the horn) is not dehorning. It does little to reduce the

disadvantages of having horned cattle, for example it does not reduce bruising, and tipped cattle can still be a

danger to other cattle and handlers.

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Hygiene

• Good hygiene is very important to prevent infection after dehorning.

• Dusty yards, wet days, dirty equipment, high fly activity are all factors which lead to infection.

• Equipment should be placed in a bucket of water with antiseptic, in between animals. The water should

be changed frequently.

• All equipment should be cleaned thoroughly after use.

Age

The younger the animal at the time of dehorning, the better it is for the animal and the easier the job for the

operator. There is less pain and stress for the animal and there is less risk of infection or fly strike the smaller

and younger they are, particularly if they are going back to their mothers. Smaller animals are also much easier

to handle and restrain.

Removing horns from older cattle, yearlings and adults is time consuming, painful for the animal and increases

the chances of a setback. It is not recommended to dehorn animals over 12 months of age unless undertaken by a

veterinarian and is illegal in some states and territories.

Condition of the animal

Dehorning is not recommended when an animal is in poor condition, or if it has other health problems. In this

case the animal should be dehorned when it is in better health/condition as it will heal more quickly.

Anatomy of the horn

The horn core is a bony extension of the skull and the hollow centre of the core communicates directly with the

sinuses of the skull. The horn grows from the skin around its base, just as the wall of the hoof grows down from

the skin of the coronet. To ensure no horn regrowth, it is essential to cut away 1 cm of skin around the base of

the horn.

Method

The method of dehorning should be matched to the size of the horn and the age of the animal for optimum

effectiveness. The key to successful dehorning is the removal of a complete ring of hair (~1 cm wide) around the

horn base. The level of skill of the operator and personal preference for a particular method will also be a

consideration. There is no one method for a particular animal age or horn size.

1. The dehorning knife

The dehorning knife has a curved blade and is easy to use. The procedure is very quick and has shown good

results with no regrowth if the job is done properly. It is essential to take around 1 cm of hair around the horn

bud. The knife must be kept sharp.

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You can dehorn calves from two weeks to about six months of age without exposing the sinus cavity (leaving a

hole in their head after dehorning) as they can still have a loose, unattached horn bud. Once the bud has grown

solid to the skull a small scoop dehorner may be a better choice. The dehorning knife will give excellent results

with practice.

2. The dehorning iron

The use of dehorning irons does not result in an open, raw wound. Dehorning irons are made like number ‘O’

branding irons and can come in a variety of sizes but usually have a diameter of 50 mm. The hot iron is placed

over the horn bud and the surrounding tissue and twisted a few times. This technique ensures that the blood

supply will be seared off and the horn bud area will die and drop off. This technique is limited in its use when

dehorning a line of animals as it is only effective on certain size horn buds. They are ideal for intermediate aged

calves.

3. Scoop dehorners

Scoop dehorners are used by passing them vertically down the horn and pushing the handles outward thereby

scooping out the horn. As with other methods the head of the animal must be well restrained. Scoop dehorners

come in a number of sizes and it is important the right size instrument is used on the appropriate animal. The

larger size scoop dehorners can leave a deep hole if used on too smaller animal, but are useful for weaners and

older cattle.

4. Cup dehorners

Calves that are too big to dehorn with a knife, hot iron or scoops can be dehorned with cup dehorners, which will handle cattle up to 12 months of age. Again it is necessary to take a complete ring of skin around the horn base.5. Guillotine dehorners, surgical wire, horn saw and tippersGuillotine dehorners, surgical wire, horn saw and tippers are used on adult cattle with larger horn growth and should only be used for tipping.Horn saws, parrot teeth tippers and surgical wire should only be used to tip the horns of adult cattle i.e. remove only the insensitive part of the horn. If used to remove more horn, or dehorn cattle, these instruments should then only be used by a veterinarian, or under the direction of a veterinarian. Local anaesthetic should be used. Dehorning cattle over 12 months of age is not recommended and is illegal in some states.Tipping as compared to dehorning does not reduce bruising.Treatment after dehorning• Animals bleed freely after dehorning. This is normal and helps to clean the wound.• Fly strike is a problem when animals have an open wound but if dehorning is carried out in a hygienic manner, wounds heal up quickly. Do not apply an insecticide straight on the wound, but rather around the wound. Wound disinfectants can be applied to the wound to reduce infection risks.• Avoid leaving animals in the yard after dehorning.• Put dehorned stock onto good nutrition.