Medieval Britain c1250-c1500

Renaissance c1500-c1700

18th + 19th Centuries c1700-c1900

TYPICAL QUESTION: Explain one way in which the methods used by doctors to diagnose illness during the medieval period (c1250-c1500) were different from the methods used during the modern period (c1900-present).

Level 1 1–2 • Simple or generalised comment is offered about a difference. • Generalised information about the topic is included, showing limited knowledge and understanding of the periods.

Level 2 3–4 • Features of the period are analysed to explain a difference.• Specific information about the topic is added to support the comparison, showing good knowledge and understanding of the periods.

Model AnswersPlease note the basic structure and length of the answers below. No more that this would be required to get full marks as both answers demonstrate the criteria of a Level 2 answer.

In the medieval period doctors believed ithe theory of the four humours so they would ask about the patient’s humours and consider whether they were flushed or sick whereas in the modern period tests and scans could be carried out to discover any internal cause of illness. This was possilble because of advances in technology, like the invention of electiricity.

ORIn the medieval period the doctor might enquire about the patient’s star sign because they believed that the patient could be affected by astrology, but in the modern period doctors might ask about other family members because they know that some conditions are hereditary.

Medieval England 1250-1500

Religion not Science

18th and 19th Century Britain

Science and Tech

1500-1700 Medical Renaissance

Enquiring Attitudes

Medieval MedicineCare/ Treatment/ Prevention

Renaissance Care/ Treatment/ Prevention

18th and 19th Century Care/ Treatment/ Prevention

Treatments based on 4 Humours:*Cutting veins/ using leeches/ *cupping all used for BLEEDINGEmetics/ laxatives/ enemas used for PURGINGOther treatments/ Methods of Prevention: *Herbal remedies such as aloe vera, mint and camomile*Regimen sanitatis - advice for a balance lifestyle giving guidelines about diet/ exercise/ cleanliness etc*Purify the air using smoke and/or removing rubbishTreatments based on supernatural theories:*Prayer and fasting*Go on a pilgrimage to a Holy place*Collect Holy relics/ lucky charmsCare provided by:Physicians/ Apothecaries/ barber-surgeons/ mid-wives/ Church run hospitals/ female relatives

Continuity: The same treatments and providers of care as in the Medieval period were still the main sources of treatment and prevention.Change:*Transference: rub an object on a boil and the disease would transfer to the object - this led to rubbing plague buboes with frogs!*More chemicals/ more complex potions from the apothecary/ Quack Dctors*Hospitals began to admit patients with fevers and wounds as well as looking after the long-time sick and elderly.*Smoking tobacco/ carrying around sweet smelling herbs/ killing cats and dogs to prevent plague.*Diets to include a lot of garlic*Improved training for doctors due to printing press (books)*Dissection legalised

Continuity: Treatment based on 4 Humours less popular as spontaneuos generation theory became the main idea, linked to miasma. 1800s - Vaccination - Jenner’s Smallpox and Pasteur’s anthrax and rabiesChanges to Hospital Care: More hospital care in filthy hospitals with untrained nurses until Florence Nightingale made changes in the 1850s and 1860s after her experiences in the Crimean War. Notes on Nursing (book) - Trained nurses, clean and well-ventilated hospitals with separate wards for different types of ailment.Changes to Surgery: 1847 - James Simpson - chloroform first used as an anaesthetic leading to pain-free surgery, which made more complex operations possible.1847-1870s: The Black Period of surgery - Increased deaths following surgery. Why? More operations. Still no understanding of the need for sterile conditions so more deaths from infections. Overdoses from chloroform (Hannah Greener - dead after having an ingrowing toenail removed.)1870s: Impact of Joseph Lister - Having read Pasteur’s work on the germ theory Lister started using carbolic acid as an anti-septic to sterilise (kill the germs) the operating theatre and surgical instruments leading to a significant fall in the death rate.1890s - Aseptic Surgery Gowns, masks, gloves, scrubbed operating theatres, purified air etc to stop germs even entering the theatre - big improvement on Lister’s carbolic regime which was harsh on skin.New attitude to government’s role in preventing disease: A new attidude towards government responsibility replaced the Laissez-Faire thinking; government now accepted it WAS their role to intervene in the health of the people. Due to the work of Chadwick in providing evidence of that poverty caused disease and that this disease caused poverty making it necessary to use taxation to raise money to improved sewers, provision of fresh water etc. Pasteur’s germ theory helped convince the doubters as did the cholera outbreaks between 1832 and 1854. Public Health Acts: 1848: Cities to set up Boards of Health to monitor infectious disease and provide fresh water but NOT COMPULSORY. 1875: Cities had to - provide clean water, dispose of sewage properly, provide public toilets, employ a public officer of health to monitor all fo this, create street lighting,

Filling in this table is a good way of revisingl

Medieval 1250-1500 Renaissance 1500-1700 18th and 19th Centuries

Theories about the Cause of Disease

Care for the Sick/ Treatments

Attempts to prevent disease

Key Individuals

Cold War 1941-1956You need to revise to following:

● The formation of the Grand Alliance

● The Conferences at Tehran(1943), Yalta(1945) and Potsdam(1945)

● Satellites and ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech

● The Long and Novikov Telegrams 1946;

● The Truman Doctrine/ Marshall Plan 1947;

● The Creation of Comincom and Comecon

● The Berlin Blockade/ Airlift/ division of Germany 1947-1949;

● The formation of NATO (1949) and the Warsaw Pact (1955);

● The Death of Stalin

● The Secret Speech and its impact

● The Hungarian Uprising 1956

As well as using your booklet, remember to look on YOUTUBE for documentaries/ clips etc

What was the Cold War? Almost as soon as the Second World War had ended, the winners started to argue with each other. In particular, a bitter conflict developed between the USA and the USSR (sometimes called Russia or the Soviet Union). This struggle continued until the late 1980s At various point between 1945 and 1989, it looked as their hatred of each other might actually result in a nuclear war, which would have seen the whole world wiped out.

Historical Context In 1917 there was a revolution in Russia and Russia became the world’s first communist country. In 1919, Britain, France and America sent soldiers to Russia to support the ‘White Russians’ (the Russians who were AGAINST the new Communist government). The USSR never forgot this and felt threatened by America and other wealthy, powerful, capitalist countries. The Russians wanted their communist ideas to spread to every country in the world, including America. Meanwhile Americans believed that the answer for all world problems was for other people to learn to live in ‘an American way’. Although the USA and the USSR worked together against Japan and Germany in the Second World War they were never true Allies.

So why did this mistrust turn into ‘The Cold War’? Here are 3 interpretations:

● The Soviet Union (USSR) was to blame. Stalin had plans for a Communist takeover of the world. His demand to control Eastern Europe was the first step towards world domination.

● America (the USA) was to blame. Soviet actions were defensive, not aggressive. The USA wanted to control its area of influence but weren’t prepared to let the USSR to do the same.

● Neither side was to blame. The Cold War was based on misunderstandings and forces beyond the control of either side.

What was the Grand Alliance?By 1941 the USA and the USSR had emerged as the two ‘superpowers’ of the world. In order to defeat Japan and Germany they had formed a Grand Alliance (along with Great Britain). Apart from being at war against the same countries, the USA and the USSR had nothing in common. Even before the Second World War was over, questions began to be asked about what would happen after the war. Whose ideas should dominate in Europe and Asia? Should the defeated nations be encouraged to be democratic and capitalist or should they be encouraged to follow the USSR and become communist states? What would happen to land in Europe and Asia which had been conquered by Germany or Japan? The end of the Second World War would be the beginning of what became known as The Cold War.

What do the terms ‘Iron Curtain’, ‘sphere of influence’ and ‘buffer zone’ mean?Just after the war had ended Winston Churchill was on a tour of the USA and gave a speech in which he came up with the expression “the Iron Curtain’ to describe the imaginary wall dividing Europe. This imaginary wall separated the Western countries who were looking to the US for help and support and the Eastern European countries, which were under the control of the USSR. The truth was that the US and the USSR wanted to create ‘spheres of influence’ in the world - regions where their particular political system was adopted. Stalin saw this as crucial because in 1941 Hitler had invaded Russia through the countries of Eastern Europe. Stalin wanted to make sure that this could never happen again. The East European countries would be a ‘buffer zone’ between the capitalist West and the communist USSR.

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What was agreed at Potsdam August 1945?1. The new boundaries of Poland were agreed.2. Germany was to be split into 4 zones of occupation and each zone would be controlled by either France, Britain, USSR or

USA.3. Germany’s capital Berlin, which was in the Soviet zone, would also be divided into the same 4 zones as the rest of

Germany.4. Each country would be allowed to take reparations from its German zone.5. Trials were to be held at Nuremberg to punish Nazi leaders guilty of war crimes.

How did the use of the atomic bomb affect relations between the superpowers?

Less than a week after the Potsdam Conference, on the 6th and 9th of August 1945 the USA used two different types of atomic bombs against Japan (Hiroshima and Nagasaki) to end the war in the Asia. This was the start of what became known as the ‘ARMS RACE’. Although the USA and the USSR were still Allies at this point, the USA was the only country with nuclear weapons because the technology wasn’t shared with the USSR. This meant that the USSR had to figure it out for themselves, which it had done by 1949. The firestorm in Hiroshima ultimately destroyed 13 square kilometres of the city. Almost 63% of the buildings in Hiroshima were completely destroyed after the bombing and nearly 92% of the structures in the city had been either destroyed or damaged by blast and fire. Estimates of total deaths in Hiroshima have generally ranged between 100,000 and 180,000, out of a population of 350,000. Approximately 22.7% of Nagasaki's buildings were consumed by flames, but the death toll and destruction was less than in Hiroshima. Estimates of casualties from Nagasaki between 50,000 and 100,000. The existence of nuclear weapons meant that a war between the USA and the USSR would no longer be a war between two armies; it would be a war between two nations and the impact would be catastrophic. If the COLD war should become a HOT war, then massive damage could be done to the population and infrastructure of the two nations.

A War of Words 1946During 1946 it became clear that, because of the Second World War, Europe had been split into two ‘spheres of influence’. This

was made even more obvious when, In 1947, Stalin and Churchill engaged in a ‘war of words’. Their speeches revealed that the

former allies now viewed each other with tremendous suspicion. Truman and Stalin were very concerned about the possibility of a

new war. Each leader asked for secret reports from their embassies, to help them understand what their opponents were thinking.

Both reports were sent as telegrams. These reports were very important because they greatly influenced the thinking and policies

of Truman and Stalin.

The Long Telegram

This telegram was sent by George Kennan, America’s ambassador in Moscow. It reported that

● Stalin had given a speech in Moscow calling for the destruction of capitalism.

● There could be no peace with the USSR while it remained. determined to resist capitalism.

● The USSR was building up its military power, even though the Second World War was over. Why would it be doing this if it

had peaceful intentions?

Novikov’s Telegram

This telegram was sent to Stalin by the Soviet Ambassador in American, Novikov. It reported that:

● Following the death of President Roosevelt, the American government had no interest in working with the USSR.

● Truman wanted to use its power and wealth to dominate the whole world and eliminate communism.

● The American public would support its government if a war broke out against the USSR.

How did the USSR become so powerful in Eastern Europe?1. The Red Army remained in Eastern Europe after defeating Germany because Stalin felt that the security of the

Soviet Union depended on these countries acting as a ‘buffer zone”. He was afraid that if these countries were allowed to choose between capitalism and communism, they might choose capitalism. For this reason he didn’t allow these countries to have free elections despite what had been agreed at Yalta.

2. Between 1945 and 1948 Stalin installed pro-Soviet ‘puppet governments’ in its satellite states: Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia; these were governments made up entirely of communists loyal to Stalin.

3. Stalin set up an organisation called ‘Cominform’ to guarantee that there was no freedom of speech and no alternative political parties in the satellite states. Cominform made sure that the Communist governments were run along the same lines as countries within the USSR.

4. Stalin also set up an organisation called Comecon in 1949. Its role was to control the economies of the satellite states. Mainly it worked to nationalise and collectivise their agriculture and industries because these were the key features of a communist economy. Needless to say, none of this pleased the USA!

What was ‘The Truman Doctrine?’Truman was determined to work out a way of making sure that America would remain more powerful than the USSR. He was concerned that Stalin would try to extend the influence of communism by offering support to communist groups in European countries which had been devastated by the war. History has shown that revolutions tend to happen when countries are in a mess economically. Communism was highly attractive to poor people because it involved taking the wealth from the wealthy few and sharing it out amongst the majority. To make sure that this didn’t happen in post-war Europe, Truman set out a new policy that soon became known at “The Truman Doctrine”.

Key Ideas within the Truman Doctrine● The world had a choice between communist tyranny and democratic freedom.● America had a duty to fight for freedom and protect the world from the spread of communism, which, he said,

was evil. ● America would give military and economic support to any nation which was threatened by a communist

takeover. An example of this was that America gave $400 million to Turkey and Greece in an attempt to stop the communists in these countries winning the civil wars which were being fought between them and pro-Western governments.

Why was the Truman Doctrine important?1. Before the Second World War America had maintained a policy of ‘isolationism’. Isolationism meant that

America did not get involved in international affairs unless it absolutely had to. The Truman Doctrine was a change of policy; the new policy was called ‘containment’. Containment meant that America would do all that it could to stop the spread of communism, apart from actually attacking the Soviet Union.

2. Another reason why the Truman Doctrine was important was because it was Truman’s way of telling the world that there could be no cooperation between the superpowers so long as the USSR remained a communist country. It formally ended the Grand Alliance and started what became known as the Cold War.

3. To Stalin, it must have seemed a bit like a declaration of war against the Soviet Union, since the USSR was the only Communist country at this time (China didn’t ‘turn’ Communist until 1949).

What was the Marshall Plan (Marshall Aid) and why was it important?Truman knew that extreme poverty was the reason why some people supported communism so he had to find a way ending poverty in the European countries. This was why was the USA made an offer of financial help to all European countries affected by the Second World War. This was called ‘The Marshall Plan’.

Key Facts about the Marshall Plan● $13 billion were made available to help the governments in democratic European countries rebuild their shattered

economies.● There was one small catch…. In order to qualify for a share of the American money, the government of a country

had to agree to trade fully with America. In this way the Marshall Plan would also help the American economy as it would mean that Europe continued to be a major market for American goods.

In other words…. ● Marshall Aid was the cheque book backing the Truman Doctrine. European countries damaged by the

Second World War could get huge amounts of financial aid to rebuild their economies. ● Marshall Aid was important because it stopped Western Europe from being weak. Providing Marshall Aid

meant that people were much less likely to support communism.What was Europe’s response to the Marshall Plan?European leaders, including representatives from the USSR, met in Paris in 1948 to discuss the American offer. Most leaders were delighted with the offer and 16 countries accepted ‘the strings’ which were attached to the deal (trade with the USA). However the Soviet delegation walked out of the conference. Stalin claimed that Marshall Aid was the first step towards a military alliance between Europe and America which was being created to attack the Soviet Union. Stalin insisted that its satellite states in the Soviet sphere of influence turn down the offer of help and promised that the Soviet Union would set up a similar scheme to help them. Stalin had stopped the Eastern European countries from having access to the prosperity which was to be experienced by Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.

Berlin Crisis (1) 1947 - 1949 Blockade, Airlift, Two Germanies

Germany had been divided into four zones and the capital Berlin (which was within the Soviet zone) had also been divided up into four zones. In 1948, Berlin became the first area where it looked like there could be a new war between East and West.

What happened in Berlin between 1947 and 1949 and why did it matter?In 1947 the USA and Britain combined their zones in Berlin to create one zone called ‘Bizonia’ and then the French joined in, creating ‘Trizonia’. Trizonia would have a single government and a single currency, which went against what had been agreed at Potsdam. Stalin was angry; he wanted to end western involvement in Germany and a good starting point would be to force them out of Berlin so In June 1948 he ordered that all land communication links (eg roads, canals, rivers and railways) between West Berlin and the rest of the world should be cut off. This was known as the Berlin Blockade. The Berlin Blockade was defeated by the Berlin Airlift.

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What did Khrushchev do?1. Khrushchev sent in 200,000 Soviet troops and 5,000 tanks to crush the anti-Communist movement. In the

two weeks of bitter fighting which followed around 20,000 Hungarians were killed. Nagy was arrested, put on trial for treason and found guilty. He was hanged in June 1958. Khrushchev said that Nagy’s fate “was a warning to the leaders of all socialist countries”.

2. A new leader, called Janos Kadar who was loyal to the USSR, was installed as leader of Hungary. Kadar promised to re-establish communist control of Hungary, keep Hungary in the Warsaw Pact and then negotiate for the removal of Soviet troops once the crisis was over.

3. Although the West protested, it ignored the pleas of the Hungarians for military help. American President Eisenhower did offer $20 million worth of food and medical aid to Nagy’s government and praised the bravery of the Hungarian people, encouraging them to fight on. However he refused to send actual military support because he said it was ‘a matter of highest priority to prevent the outbreak of war’.

What was the importance of these events and how did all of this affect the relationship between the superpowers?The Soviet response to the Hungarian Rising showed that, despite the supposed thaw, Khrushchev was prepared to use military force to defend the Soviet sphere of influence. America’s response to Khrushchev’s intervention proved that its commitment to liberating Europe from communism did not include offering military support. This discouraged opponents of communism in other Eastern countries from protesting against communist oppression.