1. C-LANGUAGE NOTESSome words about Computer Programming languagesNaturally a language is the source of communication between two persons, and alsobetween person to machine like computer. The languages we can use to communicatewith the computer are known as Computer programming languages.Generally there are two major types of languages are available are as follows: 1. Low level languages 2. The set of commands available in low level is complex and not easy tounderstandable. In this category " Assembly " and " machine codes " areavailable. Assembly programs are faster than other high-level language programs. 3. High level languagesThe set of commands available in high level language is very simple and easy to understandable. High level languages are further divided into two major categories. 1. Procedure Oriented language 2. In this category we are able to create our project or programs using proceduralapproach means in this type we can able to divide our big project/program intosmall subroutines or procedures. After making procedures we can able to call aprocedure one or more places. The lists of procedural languages are as follows: C language C++ (Object Oriented) Java (Objected Oriented) Smalltalk (Objected Oriented) Pascal language 3. Non-Procedural Languages: This category also known as Problem Orientedlanguages. In this type of languages we can able to make program only atspecific range like database. The followings are the examples of Non procedurallanguages

2. 1. 1. SQL (Structured Query Language) 2. SNOBOL (String processor)C LanguageHistory Developed at Bell Laboratories. first standard version release in 1972. Developed by Dennis Richee. Before c a Programming language is very popular in those days the name of thelanguage is B-Language so the developers decided the name of C languagebecause C is next to B.The Integrated Development Environment (IDE):Turbo c features as integrated Development environment, or IDE,. It is also referred to asthe programmers platform.) in IDE you can able to write/save/open your programs orcode, compile using short cut keys, and also perform code debugging very easily.IDECommon Short cut Keys DescriptionF2 press to Save current workF3 press to open an existing fileALT-F3 press to close currentALT-F9 press to compile onlyALT-F5 press to view the desired output of the program.CTRL-F9 press to compile+runALT-X or ALT-F-X press to exit from TC IDE C Programs Skeleton (General) 3. < Global Variable (on your demand)> main () (Necessary) { statements } < function definition> {} Remember Some common rules for writing C programUse all commands or statements in lower or small case.After completion of a statement excluding main() or loops must insert ; (semicolon) as a statement terminator.Dont use/declare identifier or variable name same as statement name suppose int include; this is a wrong statement because include has a special meaning in the language. Header Files or Preprocessor Directives contains references or links of library functions. That is built-in in the C language. Suppose if you want to use a function clrscr() ; in the main function so must be declared on top # include other wise you could have an prototype error. Some header files are as followsStdio.hConio.hDos.hString.hStdlib.hAnd many more header files are available in Cvoid main(void)Every C programs consists of one or more functions. No matter how manyfunctions there are in a C program , main is the one to which control is passedfrom the operating system when the program is run ; it is the first function 4. executed. The word "void" preceding "main" specifies that the function main()will not return a value. The second "void," in parenthesis , specifies that thefunction takes no arguments.printf()printf() is built-in function we can display with printf() any message, variablevalue on screen/file/printer.In printf() we can use many escape sequences and format specifies.Escape sequences are special notations through which we can display our dataVariety of ways:Some escape sequences and their functions are as follows:Escape DescriptionExampleSequencen Perform line feed & Carriage return operationprintf("AnB");t Prints a tab sequence on screenprintf ("Atb"); Prints a single quote character on screenprintf ("a");" Prints a double quote character on Screenprintf (""a"");r Perform carriage return operationprintf ("arb")b Remove one character from left printf ("abHi!" );Example Program #1#include #include void main(void) { printf( " Example Program (Escape Sequence) n"); 5. printf( " -----------------------------------------------n"); printf( "Escape sequnce t Meaningn"); printf( " -------------------------------------------------n"); printf("t " n"); printf(" t n");printf(" " t " n");printf(" n t line feed & carriage returnn "); printf(" t t Tab characters or eigth spacesn"); printf(" b t Erase one char from right to leftn"); printf(" r t perform only line feedn"); getch(); } This program produces following output Example Program (Escape Sequence) -------------------------------------------- Escape Sequence Meaning ------------------------------------------ " " n line feed & carriage return t Tab Characters or eight spaces b Erase one char from right to left 6. r perform only line feedExample Program #2#include #include void main(void) { clrscr(); printf( " " Pakistan ZindaBad" n"); getch(); } This program produces following output "Pakistan ZindaBad" Description : in the above we use a escape sequence " this will produce " on screen after that a message Pakistan ZindaBad is appear after the message another " ( double quotation) appear on screen because of " Variable : variables are named peace of memory in which we can store our data and manipulate our data. Variables are used so that same space in memory can hold different values at different times. In C language following are the list of data type available through which we can define our variables: int (Example :int a,b,c) float(Example:float pi;) char(Example :char opt;) long(long bigval;) double(double bigval;)Data Types Range Memory occupyint -32768 to +32767 without fractional) 2 bytesunsigned int 0 to 65,535 2 bytes 7. char -128 to 127 1 bytechar 0 to 256 1 byteenum -32768 to 32,767 2 bytesfloat 3.4 * (10**-38) 4 bytesdouble 1.7 * (10**-308) 8 byteslong double 3.4 * (10**-4932) 10 bytesVariablesIn C, a variable must be declared before it can be used. Variables can be declared at thestart of any block of code, but most are found at the start of each function. Most localvariables are created when the function is called, and are destroyed on return from thatfunction.A declaration begins with the type, followed by the name of one or more variables. Forexample,int high, low, results[20];Declarations can be spread out, allowing space for an explanatory comment. Variablescan also be initialised when they are declared, this is done by adding an equals sign andthe required value after the declaration.int high = 250; /* Maximum Temperature */int low = -40;/* Minimum Temperature */int results[20];/* Series of temperature readings */C provides a wide range of types. The most common areVariable NamesEvery variable has a name and a value. The name identifies the variable, the value storesdata. There is a limitation on what these names can be. Every variable name in C muststart with a letter, the rest of the name can consist of letters, numbers and underscorecharacters. C recognises upper and lower case characters as being different. Finally, youcannot use any of Cs keywords like main, while, switch etc as variable names.Examples of legal variable names include 8. x result outfile bestyetx1x2 out_filebest_yetpower impetusgamma hi_scoreIt is conventional to avoid the use of capital letters in variable names. These are used fornames of constants. Some old implementations of C only use the first 8 characters of avariable name. Most modern ones dont apply this limit though.The rules governing variable names also apply to the names of functions. We shall meetfunctions later on in the course.Global VariablesLocal variables are declared within the body of a function, and can only be used withinthat function. This is usually no problem, since when another function is called, allrequired data is passed to it as arguments. Alternatively, a variable can be declaredglobally so it is available to all functions. Modern programming practice recommendsagainst the excessive use of global variables. They can lead to poor program structure,and tend to clog up the available name space.A global variable declaration looks normal, but is located outside any of the programsfunctions. This is usually done at the beginning of the program file, but after preprocessordirectives. The variable is not declared again in the body of the functions which access it.Static VariablesAnother class of local variable is the static type. A static can only be accessed from thefunction in which it was declared, like a local variable. The static variable is notdestroyed on exit from the function, instead its value is preserved, and becomes availableagain when the function is next called. Static variables are declared as local variables, butthe declaration is preceeded by the word static.static int counter;Static variables can be initialised as normal, the initialisation is performed once only,when the program starts up.ConstantsA C constant is usually just the written version of a number. For example 1, 0, 5.73,12.5e9. We can specify our constants in octal or hexadecimal, or force them to be treatedas long integers. Octal constants are written with a leading zero - 015. Hexadecimal constants are written with a leading 0x - 0x1ae. 9. Long constants are written with a trailing L - 890L.Character constants are usually just the character enclosed in single quotes; a, b, c.Some characters cant be represented in this way, so we use a 2 character sequence.In addition, a required bit pattern can be specified using its octal equivalent.044 produces bit pattern 00100100.Character constants are rarely used, since string constants are more convenient. A stringconstant is surrounded by double quotes eg "Brian and Dennis". The string is actuallystored as an array of characters. The null character 0 is automatically placed at the endof such a string to act as a string terminator.A character is a different type to a single character string. This is important.We will meet strings and characters again when we deal with the input / output functionsin more detail.Expressions and OperatorsOne reason for the power of C is its wide range of useful operators. An operator is afunction which is applied to values to give a result. You should be familiar with operatorssuch as +, -, /.Arithmetic operators are the most common. Other operators are used for comparison ofvalues, combination of logical states, and manipulation of individual binary digits. Thebinary operators are rather low level for so are not covered here.Operators and values are combined to form expressions. The values produced by theseexpressions can be stored in variables, or used as a part of even larger expressions. Assignment Statement Arithmetic operators Type conversion Comparison Logical Connectors 10. Assignment StatementThe easiest example of an expression is in the assignment statement. An expression isevaluated, and the result is saved in a variable. A simple example might look likey = (m * x) + cThis assignment will save the value of the expression invariable y. Arithmetic operatorsHere are the most common arithmetic operators*, / and % will be performed before + or - in any expression. Brackets can be used toforce a different order of evaluation to this. Where division is performed between twointegers, the result will be an integer, with remainder discarded. Modulo reduction is onlymeaningful between integers. If a program is ever required to divide a number by zero,this will cause an error, usually causing the program to crash.Here are some arithmetic expressions used within assignment statements.velocity = distance / time;force = mass * acceleration;count = count + 1;C has some operators which allow abbreviation of certain types of arithmetic assignmentstatements.These operations are usually very efficient. They can be combined with anotherexpression. 11. Versions where the operator occurs before the variable name change the value of thevariable before evaluating the expression, soThese can cause confusion if you try to do too many things on one command line. Youare recommended to restrict your use of ++ and - to ensure that your programs stayreadable.Another shorthand notation is listed belowComparisonC has no special type to represent logical or boolean values. It improvises by using any ofthe integral types char, int, short, long, unsigned, with a value of 0 representing false andany other value representing true. It is rare for logical values to be stored in variables.They are usually generated as required by comparing two numeric values. This is wherethe comparison operators are used, they compare two numeric values and produce alogical result.Note that == is used in comparisons and = is used in assignments. Comparison operatorsare used in expressions like the ones below.x == yi > 10a + b != cIn the last example, all arithmetic is done before any comparison is made. 12. These comparisons are most frequently used to control an if statement or a for or a whileloop. These will be introduced in a later chapter.Logical ConnectorsThese are the usual And, Or and Not operators.They are frequently used to combine relational operators, for examplex < 20 && x >= 10In C these logical connectives employ a technique known as lazy evaluation. Theyevaluate their left hand operand, and then only evaluate the right hand one if this isrequired. Clearly false && anything is always false, true || anything is always true. Insuch cases the second test is not evaluated.Not operates on a single logical value, its effect is to reverse its state. Here is an exampleof its use.if ( ! acceptable )printf("Not Acceptable !!n");Control StatementsA program consists of a number of statements which are usually executed in sequence.Programs can be much more powerful if we can control the order in which statements arerun.Statements fall into three general types; Assignment, where values, usually the results of calculations, are stored in variables. Input / Output, data is read in or printed out. Control, the program makes a decision about what to do next.This section will discuss the use of control statements in C. We will show how they canbe used to write powerful programs by; Repeating important sections of the program. Selecting between optional sections of a program. 13. The if else StatementThis is used to decide whether to do something at a special point, or to decide betweentwo courses of action.The following test decides whether a student has passed an exam with a pass mark of 45if (result >= 45)printf("Passn");elseprintf("Failn");It is possible to use the if part without the else.if (temperature < 0)print("Frozenn");Each version consists of a test, (this is the bracketed statement following the if). If the testis true then the next statement is obeyed. If is is false then the statement following theelse is obeyed if present. After this, the rest of the program continues as normal.If we wish to have more than one statement following the if or the else, they should begrouped together between curly brackets. Such a grouping is called a compoundstatement or a block.if (result >= 45){ printf("Passedn");printf("Congratulationsn")}else{ printf("Failedn");printf("Good luck in the resitsn");}Sometimes we wish to make a multi-way decision based on several conditions. The mostgeneral way of doing this is by using the else if variant on the if statement. This works bycascading several comparisons. As soon as one of these gives a true result, the followingstatement or block is executed, and no further comparisons are performed. In thefollowing example we are awarding grades depending on the exam result.if (result >= 75)printf("Passed: Grade An");else if (result >= 60)printf("Passed: Grade Bn");else if (result >= 45)printf("Passed: Grade Cn");elseprintf("Failedn");In this example, all comparisons test a single variable called result. In other cases, eachtest may involve a different variable or some combination of tests. The same pattern canbe used with more or fewer else ifs, and the final lone else may be left out. It is up to theprogrammer to devise the correct structure for each programming problem. 14. The switch StatementThis is another form of the multi way decision. It is well structured, but can only be usedin certain cases where; Only one variable is tested, all branches must depend on the value of that variable. The variable must be an integral type. (int, long, short or char). Each possible value of the variable can control a single branch. A final, catch all, default branch may optionally be used to trap all unspecified cases.Hopefully an example will clarify things. This is a function which converts an integerinto a vague description. It is useful where we are only concerned in measuring a quantitywhen it is quite small.estimate(number)int number;/* Estimate a number as none, one, two, several, many */{ switch(number) {case 0 : printf("Nonen"); break;case 1 : printf("Onen"); break;case 2 : printf("Twon"); break;case 3 :case 4 :case 5 : printf("Severaln"); break;default : printf("Manyn"); break;}}Each interesting case is listed with a corresponding action. The break statement preventsany further statements from being executed by leaving the switch. Since case 3 and case 4have no following break, they continue on allowing the same action for several values ofnumber.Both if and switch constructs allow the programmer to make a selection from a numberof possible actions.The other main type of control statement is the loop. Loops allow a statement, or block ofstatements, to be repeated. Computers are very good at repeating simple tasks manytimes, the loop is Cs way of achieving this.Loops 15. C gives you a choice of three types of loop, while, do while and for. The while loop keeps repeating an action until an associated test returns false. This is useful where the programmer does not know in advance how many times the loop will be traversed. The do while loops is similar, but the test occurs after the loop body is executed. This ensures that the loop body is run at least once. The for loop is frequently used, usually where the loop will be traversed a fixed number of times. It is very flexible, and novice programmers should take care not to abuse the power it offers.The while LoopThe while loop repeats a statement until the test at the top proves false.As an example, here is a function to return the length of a string. Remember that thestring is represented as an array of characters terminated by a null character 0.int string_length(char string[]){ int i = 0; while (string[i] != 0) i++; return(i);}The string is passed to the function as an argument. The size of the array is not specified,the function will work for a string of any size.The while loop is used to look at the characters in the string one at a time until the nullcharacter is found. Then the loop is exited and the index of the null is returned. While thecharacter isnt null, the index is incremented and the test is repeated.The do while LoopThis is very similar to the while loop except that the test occurs at the end of the loopbody. This guarantees that the loop is executed at least once before continuing. Such asetup is frequently used where data is to be read. The test then verifies the data, and loopsback to read again if it was unacceptable.do{ printf("Enter 1 for yes, 0 for no :");scanf("%d", &input_value);} while (input_value != 1 && input_value != 0) 16. The for LoopThe for loop works well where the number of iterations of the loop is known before theloop is entered. The head of the loop consists of three parts separated by semicolons. The first is run before the loop is entered. This is usually the initialisation of theloop variable. The second is a test, the loop is exited when this returns false. The third is a statement to be run every time the loop body is completed. This isusually an increment of the loop counter.The example is a function which calculates the average of the numbers stored in an array.The function takes the array and the number of elements as arguments.float average(float array[], int count){ float total = 0.0;int i;for(i = 0; i < count; i++)total += array[i];return(total / count);}The for loop ensures that the correct number of array elements are added up beforecalculating the average.The three statements at the head of a for loop usually do just one thing each, however anyof them can be left blank. A blank first or last statement will mean no initialisation orrunning increment. A blank comparison statement will always be treated as true. This willcause the loop to run indefinitely unless interrupted by some other means. This might bea return or a break statement.It is also possible to squeeze several statements into the first or third position, separatingthem with commas. This allows a loop with more than one controlling variable. Theexample below illustrates the definition of such a loop, with variables hi and lo starting at100 and 0 respectively and converging.for (hi = 100, lo = 0; hi >= lo; hi--, lo++)The for loop is extremely flexible and allows many types of program behaviour to bespecified simply and quickly.The break StatementWe have already met break in the discussion of the switch statement. It is used to exitfrom a loop or a switch, control passing to the first statement beyond the loop or a switch. 17. With loops, break can be used to force an early exit from the loop, or to implement a loopwith a test to exit in the middle of the loop body. A break within a loop should always beprotected within an if statement which provides the test to control the exit condition.The continue StatementThis is similar to break but is encountered less frequently. It only works within loopswhere its effect is to force an immediate jump to the loop control statement. In a while loop, jump to the test statement. In a do while loop, jump to the test statement. In a for loop, jump to the test, and perform the iteration.Like a break, continue should be protected by an if statement. You are unlikely to use itvery often.The goto StatementC has a goto statement which permits unstructured jumps to be made. Its use is notrecommended, so well not teach it here. Consult your textbook for details of its use.Pointers in CPointers are not exclusive to functions, but this seems a good place to introduce thepointer type.Imagine that we have an int called i. Its address could be represented by the symbol &i. Ifthe pointer is to be stored as a variable, it should be stored like this.int *pi = &i;int * is the notation for a pointer to an int. & is the operator which returns the address ofits argument. When it is used, as in &i we say it is referencing i.The opposite operator, which gives the value at the end of the pointer is *. An example ofuse, known as de-referencing pi, would bei = *pi;Take care not to confuse the many uses of the * sign; Multiplication, pointer declarationand pointer de-referencing. 18. This is a very confusing subject, so let us illustrate it with an example. The followingfunction fiddle takes two arguments, x is an int while y is a pointer to int. It changes bothvalues.fiddle(int x, int *y){ printf(" Starting fiddle: x = %d, y = %dn", x, *y);x ++;(*y)++;printf("Finishing fiddle: x = %d, y = %dn", x, *y);}since y is a pointer, we must de-reference it before incrementing its value.A very simple program to call this function might be as follows.main(){ int i = 0;int j = 0; printf(" Starting main : i = %d, j = %dn", i, j); printf("Calling fiddle nown");. fiddle(i, &j); printf("Returned from fiddlen"); printf("Finishing main : i = %d, j = %dn", i, j);}Note here how a pointer to int is created using the & operator within the call fiddle(i,&j);.The result of running the program will look like this. Starting main : i = 0 ,j =0Calling fiddle now Starting fiddle: x =0, y =0Finishing fiddle: x =1, y =1Returned from fiddleFinishing main : i = 0, j =1After the return from fiddle the value of i is unchanged while j, which was passed as apointer, has changed.To summarise, if you wish to use arguments to modify the value of variables from afunction, these arguments must be passed as pointers, and de-referenced within thefunction.Where the value of an argument isnt modified, the value can be passed without anyworries about pointers. 19. The Standard Input Output FileUNIX supplies a standard package for performing input and output to files or theterminal. This contains most of the functions which will be introduced in this section,along with definitions of the datatypes required to use them. To use these facilities, yourprogram must include these definitions by adding the line This is done by adding the line#include near the start of the program file.If you do not do this, the compiler may complain about undefined functions or datatypes.Formatted Input / OutputWe have met these functions earlier in the course. They are closest to the facilities offeredby Pascal or Fortran, and usually the easiest to use for input and output. The versionsoffered under C are a little more detailed, offering precise control of layout. printf scanfprintfThis offers more structured output than putchar. Its arguments are, in order; a controlstring, which controls what gets printed, followed by a list of values to be substituted forentries in the control string.There are several more types available. For full details typeman printfon your UNIX system.It is also possible to insert numbers into the control string to control field widths forvalues to be displayed. For example %6d would print a decimal value in a field 6 spaceswide, %8.2f would print a real value in a field 8 spaces wide with room to show 2decimal places. Display is left justified by default, but can be right justified by putting a - 20. before the format information, for example %-6d, a decimal integer right justified in a 6space field.scanfscanf allows formatted reading of data from the keyboard. Like printf it has a controlstring, followed by the list of items to be read. However scanf wants to know the addressof the items to be read, since it is a function which will change that value. Therefore thenames of variables are preceeded by the & sign. Character strings are an exception tothis. Since a string is already a character pointer, we give the names of string variablesunmodified by a leading &.Control string entries which match values to be read are preceeded by the percentage signin a similar way to their printf equivalents.Type man scanf for details of all options on your system.Whole Lines of Input and OutputWhere we are not too interested in the format of our data, or perhaps we cannot predict itsformat in advance, we can read and write whole lines as character strings. This approachallows us to read in a line of input, and then use various string handling functions toanalyse it at our leisure. gets putsgetsgets reads a whole line of input into a string until a newline or EOF is encountered. It iscritical to ensure that the string is large enough to hold any expected input lines.When all input is finished, NULL as defined in stdio.h is returned.putsputs writes a string to the output, and follows it with a newline character.Example: Program which uses gets and puts to double space typed input.#include main(){ char line[256]; /* Define string sufficiently large to 21. store a line of input */while(gets(line) != NULL)/* Read line*/{puts(line); /* Print line */ printf("n"); /* Print blank line */}}Note that putchar, printf and puts can be freely used together. So can getchar, scanf andgets.ArraysIn C, as in Fortran or PL/I, it is possible to make arrays whose elements are basic types.Thus we can make an array of 10 integers with the declaration int x[10];The square brackets mean subscripting; parentheses are used only for functionreferences. Array indexes begin at zero, so the elements of x are x[0], x[1], x[2], ..., x[9]If an array has n elements, the largest subscript is n-1.Multiple-dimension arrays are provided, though not much used above two dimensions.The declaration and use look like int name[10] [20]; n = name[i+j] [1] + name[k] [2];Subscripts can be arbitrary integer expressions. Multi-dimension arrays are stored byrow (opposite to Fortran), so the rightmost subscript varies fastest; name has 10 rows and20 columns.Here is a program which reads a line, stores it in a buffer, and prints its length (excludingthe newline at the end). main( ) { int n, c; char line[100]; n = 0; while( (c=getchar( )) != n ) { if( n < 100 ) line[n] = c; n++; } printf("length = %dn", n); }As a more complicated problem, suppose we want to print the count for each line in theinput, still storing the first 100 characters of each line. Try it as an exercise beforelooking at the solution: main( ) { 22. int n, c; char line[100];n = 0;while( (c=getchar( )) != 0 )if( c == n ) {printf("%d0, n);n = 0;}else {if( n < 100 ) line[n] = c;n++;} }StringsText is usually kept as an array of characters, as we did with line[ ] in the exampleabove. By convention in C, the last character in a character array should be a `0because most programs that manipulate character arrays expect it. For example, printfuses the `0 to detect the end of a character array when printing it out with a `%s.We can copy a character array s into another t like this:i = 0;while( (t[i]=s[i]) != 0 )i++;Most of the time we have to put in our own `0 at the end of a string; if we want to printthe line with printf, its necessary. This code prints the character count before the line:main( ) { int n; char line[100]; n = 0; while( (line[n++]=getchar( )) != n ); line[n] = 0; printf("%d:t%s", n, line);}Here we increment n in the subscript itself, but only after the previous value has beenused. The character is read, placed in line[n], and only then n is incremented.There is one place and one place only where C puts in the `0 at the end of a characterarray for you, and that is in the construction "stuff between double quotes"The compiler puts a `0 at the end automatically. Text enclosed in double quotes iscalled a string; its properties are precisely those of an (initialized) array of characters.Functions 23. Suppose we want, as part of a larger program, to count the occurrences of the asciicharacters in some input text. Let us also map illegal characters (those with value>127or size || c < 0 )c = size; buf[c]++; nchar++; } return(nchar); 24. Any expression can appear within the parentheses. Here is a function to compute theminimum of two integers:min(a, b) int a, b; {return( a < b ? a : b );}To copy a character array, we could write the functionstrcopy(s1, s2) /* copies s1 to s2 */ char s1[ ], s2[ ]; {int i;for( i = 0; (s2[i] = s1[i]) != 0; i++ );}As is often the case, all the work is done by the assignment statement embedded in thetest part of the for. Again, the declarations of the arguments s1 and s2 omit the sizes,because they dont matter to strcopy. (In the section on pointers, we will see a moreefficient way to do a string copy.)There is a subtlety in function usage which can trap the unsuspecting Fortranprogrammer. Simple variables (not arrays) are passed in C by ``call by value, whichmeans that the called function is given a copy of its arguments, and doesnt know theiraddresses. This makes it impossible to change the value of one of the actual inputarguments.There are two ways out of this dilemma. One is to make special arrangements to pass tothe function the address of a variable instead of its value. The other is to make thevariable a global or external variable, which is known to each function by its name