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C M Clarke-Hill 1
Choosing a Research Strategy 2
Philosophy of Research DesignReviewing the Literature
Sources of Data
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Concreteexperience
Reflectiveobservation
Theorydevelopment
Activeexperiment-
ation
Kolb’s Learning Cycle
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� Begins with data & looks for patterns in the data
� eg. People who are risk averse in personal lives more likely to be loyal
� Forms hypothesis and tests this in data collected subsequently
� eg. Brand loyalty increases with age
INDUCTION DEDUCTION
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T. Kuhn - a philosophical template or framework that guides the production of knowledge
Concerns beliefs about what can be known about the world and how we can come to know it
Research Paradigm
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Ontology what can be known about the world
Epistemology relationship between the knower and the known
Methodology how the knower goes about the task of knowing
Involves assumptions about:
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Two Fundamental Approaches
Positivismand
Phenomenology
Lets look at both these in some detail
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Positivism - 5 Stages
This approach owes much to what is called scientific method - this approach has five
sequential stages Deducing a hypothesis from relevant theory Operationalising the hypothesis in terms of
variables that may have cause and effect Testing the hypothesis through experiment or
some other form of enquiry Confirming or denying the hypothesis Modification of theory in the light of the
evidence
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Distinguishing features of Positivism
The method is deductive It seeks to explain causal relationships
between variables It would normally require quantitative
data It employs controls to allow for the
testing of the hypothesis It uses a highly structured methodology
to facilitate replication
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Easterby-Smith lists 8 features
Independence - the observer is independent Value-freedom - objectivity in the study Causality - identify causal relationships to
explain human behaviour Hypothetico-deductive - science proceeds
through refutation Operationalisation - quantitative
methodology
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Easterby-Smith’s 8 features cont.
Reductionism - problems are understood better if they can be reduced to simple elements
Generalisation - in order to make general statements in social science we need sufficient sample sizes
Cross-sectional analysis - regularities can be most easily identified by making comparisons of variations across samples
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Phenomenology An approach to research based on the way
people experience social phenomena in the world in which they live.
Focuses on meanings that subjects attach to social phenomena and is concerned with the context in which the events are taking place
Focuses on small samples and uses the techniques of qualitative data to understand the the subject’s behaviour
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Phenomenology – three reasons for its use
Easterby-Smith offers us three reasons for using such an approach
It enables the researcher to take a more informed decision about research design
It enables the researcher to think about what will work for them and what are you looking for in terms of understanding the research questions you want answering
Access to data may constraint the research approach
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The two approaches compared 1
Positivism – advantages Economical collection of
large amounts of data Clear theoretical focus
for the researcher at the outset
Greater opportunity for the researcher to retain control of the process
Easily comparable data
Phenomenology - advantages
Facilitates the understanding of the how and why questions
Enables the researcher to be alive to changes that occur
Good at understanding social pressures
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The two approaches compared 2
Positivism – disadvantages Inflexible - direction often
cannot be changed once data collection has started
Weak at understanding social processes
Often fails to uncover the meanings people attach to social phenomena
Phenomenology - disadvantages
Data collection can be time consuming
Data analysis is difficult Researcher has to live with
the uncertainty that clear patterns may not emerge
Generally perceived as less credible by non-researchers
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the world is external & objective
observer is independent
science is value-free
focus on facts
look for causality & fundamental facts
deductive
operationalise concepts to measure
world is socially constructed & subjective
observer is part of what is observed
science is driven by human interests
focus on meanings
try to understand what is happening
inductive
multiple methods to establish different views
Positivist Paradigm Phenomenological Paradigm
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Applicability of Different Research Strategies
Research Typical Form of Researcher’s Focus onStrategy Research Questions Control of Events Contemporary Events
Experiment How, Why, To What Yes YesEffect
Survey Who, What, Why, No/Some YesWhere, How ManyHow Much etc.
Archival Who, What, Where, No Yes/NoAnalysis How Many, How Much
Historical How, Why, Who No No
Case Study How, Why, Who No Yes
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Research is independent
large samples
testing theories
experimental design
verification
Research is involved
small numbers
generating theories
fieldwork methods
falsification
Choices & Issues in Research Design
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Does an instrument measure what it is supposed to measure?
Will the measure yield the same results on different occasions?
What is the probability that patterns observed in a sample will also be present in the wider population from which the sample is drawn?
Has the researcher gained full access to the knowledge and meanings of informants?
Will similar observations be made by different researchers on different occasions?
How likely is it that ideas & theories generated in one setting will also apply in other settings?
Positivist Paradigm
Phenomenological Paradigm
VALIDITY
RELIABILITY
GENERALIS - ABILITY
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Are paradigms incommensurable?
Is a middle ground possible?
Are they recognisable in the research literature?
Are you expected to ‘choose’ one?
Key Issues
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Usually a Hybrid Strategy A small scale phenomenological type
study to identify the key attributes and variables. This could be creating and developing case studies
A larger scale quantitative study designed to verify or measure key attributes that emerge from the case studies and any model that may be developed
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Research Approaches Positivist or Phenomenological
Research Strategies action research case studies experiments surveys
Research Techniques documents observation interviews questionnaires
Research Approaches, Strategies & Techniques
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to further refine research question(s) & objectives
to highlight research possibilities that have been overlooked
to discover explicit recommendations for further research
to help avoid repetition
to sample current opinions
to provide an insight into appropriate research strategies & methodologies
Purposes of the Literature Review
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show how your research relates to previously published research
assess strengths & weaknesses of previous work (including omissions or bias)
justify your arguments by referencing previous research
through clear referencing enable readers to find the original work you cite
Content of the Critical Review
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start at general level
provide a brief overview of key ideas
summarise in brief, compare & contrast the work of key writers
narrow down to highlight the work most relevant to your research
provide a detailed account of these findings
highlight those issues where your research will provide fresh insights
lead the reader into subsequent sections of your research report which explore these issues
Structure of the Review
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Primary Literature Sources first occurrence of a piece of work eg. reports,
conference reports, market research reports, unpublished work
Secondary Literature Sources subsequent publication of primary literature eg.
books & journals
Tertiary Literature Sources search tools designed to help locate primary &
secondary literature eg. indexes, abstracts, encyclopaedias & bibliographies
Literature Sources Available
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Journals refereed academic journals professional journals trade journals
Newspapers topical events, new business developments Financial Times industrial sector reports
Books
Secondary Literature Sources
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Reports Mintel & Keynote government reports academic reports
Conference proceedings often around themed conferences
Theses Index to Theses British Reports, Translations and Theses
Primary Literature Sources
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Selected References:
Refer to the following: Jack Meredith (1993), Theory Building
Through Conceptual Models - IJOPM, Vol. 15, No 3.
Chad Perry (1998), Processes of a Case Study Methodology for Postgraduate Research in Marketing - EJM, Vol. 32, 9/10, pp 785-802.
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What we want you to do Form groups and re-arrange the geography of
the classroom Think about your research proposals for this
module – MB450 Consider the merits and de-merits of each
approach Discuss your approach and research questions
with your colleagues Prepare to share this with the rest of us in a
plenary session