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Carsharing: A Literature Review and a Perspective for

Information Systems Research

Kenan Degirmenci

Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institut für Wirtschaftsinformatik, 30167 Hannover,

E-Mail: [email protected]

Michael H. Breitner

Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institut für Wirtschaftsinformatik, 30167 Hannover,

E-Mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Private car ownership in the context of the ongoing urbanization is creating challenges concerning

environmental pollution, high energy costs, and limited and expensive parking. As a reaction to these

negative impacts, companies are developing new mobility alternatives to private car ownership. One

alternative is carsharing that provides individuals with cars from a fleet on an as-needed basis. To

create a conceptual structuring of the topic of carsharing, we conduct a literature review identifying 93

articles and six concepts, i.e., market analysis, location, travel behavior, information systems, electric

carsharing, and sustainability. Findings are discussed and implications for information systems

research are given.

Multikonferenz Wirtschaftsinformatik 2014 963

1 Introduction

Private car ownership in the context of the ongoing urbanization is creating challenges concerning

environmental pollution, high energy costs, and limited and expensive parking [36], [73], [74]. As a

reaction to these negative impacts, companies are developing new mobility alternatives to private car

ownership. One alternative is carsharing that provides individuals with cars from a fleet on an as-

needed basis [29], [80]. Carsharing is considered as a short-term car rental [50], [59], [87] allowing

members to gain the benefits of private car use without the costs and responsibilities of ownership

[25], [81]. According to Navigant Research1, the worldwide number of carsharing members will

continue to grow from 2.3 million in 2013 to more than 12 million by 2020. Carsharing services

revenue is estimated to grow from approximately $1 billion in 2013 to $6.2 billion by 2020.2 Referring

to Barth et al. [5], the growth of carsharing is substantially affected by the implementation of

intelligent transportation system technologies. In order to improve overall efficiency, user-friendliness,

and operational manageability of carsharing services, these technologies are used for various

information systems (IS) driven domains such as internet- and smartphone-based reservations, smart

card access to cars, onboard navigation, and global positioning system (GPS) technologies [4], [6],

[62], [78].

In research, the topic of carsharing is becoming more and more important as well. This paper makes a

theoretical contribution by creating a conceptual structuring of the topic and uncovering key concepts,

i.e., market analysis, location, travel behavior, information systems, electric carsharing, and

sustainability. An increasing number of studies investigate the topic of carsharing. With regard to IS

research, carsharing is becoming more important as well due to the growing relevance of Green IS

themes addressing issues of environmental sustainability (see, e.g., [46], [67]). This paper aims to give

an overview of the current research in the carsharing area by conducting a literature review. While our

literature review is in a holistic scope, our implications focus on IS research due to the fact that this

paper is addressed to the IS research community in the first place. We explore the following research

questions:

RQ1: What is the current state of research within the carsharing area?

RQ2: What is the perspective for information systems research in the context of carsharing?

This paper is structured as follows: first, we give a holistic literature review on the field of carsharing

and outline identified concepts. Following the discussion of our findings, we present implications for

IS research. Finally, limitations and conclusions are provided.

1 Navigant Research (2013a): Carsharing Services Will Surpass 12 Million Members Worldwide by 2020.

http://www.navigantresearch.com/newsroom/carsharing-services-will-surpass-12-million-members-worldwide-

by-2020 2 Navigant Research (2013b): Carsharing Programs: Carsharing Membership and Vehicle Fleets, Personal

Vehicle Reduction, and Revenue from Carsharing Services: Global Market Analysis and Forecasts.

http://www.navigantresearch.com/research/carsharing-programs

964 Kenan Degirmenci, Michael H. Breitner

2 Literature Review

2.1 Identifying the Relevant Literature and Structuring the Review

To give a holistic overview of the current research in the carsharing area, a literature review was

conducted. Following Webster and Watson3, an effective review “creates a firm foundation for

advancing knowledge” and “facilitates theory development, closes areas where a plethora of research

exists, and uncovers areas where research is needed.” Our underlying methodology is based on the

structured approach by Webster and Watson. First, we searched the following research databases for

relevant literature: ACM Digital Library, AISeL, Emerald, IEEE Xplore, INFORMS PubsOnLine,

JSTOR, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Taylor & Francis Online, Transportation Research Board’s

TRID, Web of Science, and Wiley Online Library. We used “carsharing” and “car sharing” as search

keywords, and intensively analyzed the literature for relevance. Only literature in the English language

and with a strong focus on commercial carsharing was considered; literature referring to peer-to-peer

carsharing, carpooling, ridesharing, bikesharing, etc. was excluded. Second, we conducted a backward

and a forward search. The backward search was carried out by reviewing the references of the

identified articles, and the forward search was performed using Web of Science to identify further

literature citing the identified articles. We identified 93 articles from 16 different journals and 8

conferences of the last ten years. Note that there is a dominant stream of carsharing literature from the

Transportation Research Board, which is well regarded in the transportation research community.

Third, as we read each article, we compiled a concept matrix identifying six concepts in the field of

carsharing research, i.e., market analysis, location, travel behavior, information systems, electric

carsharing, and sustainability (see Table 1). Thus, we structured our review by synthesizing the

literature and discussing each identified concept.

Articles Concepts

Market

Analysis Location

Travel

Behavior

Informatio

n Systems

Electric

Carsharing

Sustaina-

bility

[1] Andrew and Douma

2006 X

[2] Awasthi et al. 2007 X

[3] Bardhi and Eckhardt

2012 X

[4] Barth et al. 2003 X

[5] Barth et al. 2004a X

[6] Barth et al. 2004b X X

[7] Barth et al. 2006 X

[8] Bieszczat and

Schwieterman 2012 X

3 Webster, J; Watson, RT (2002): Analyzing the Past to Prepare for the Future: Writing a Literature Review. MIS

Quarterly 26(2):xiii–xxiii.


[9] Briest and Raupach

2011 X

[10] Burkhardt and

Millard-Ball 2006 X

[11] Catherine et al. 2008 X

[12] Celsor and Millard-

Ball 2007 X X X

[13] Cervero 2003 X

[14] Cervero and Tsai

2004 X

[15] Cervero et al. 2007 X

[16] Chatterjee et al.

2013 X

[17] Chen and Regan

2009 X

[18] Cheu et al. 2006 X

[19] Ciari et al. 2009 X

[20] Ciari et al. 2013 X X

[21] Clavel et al. 2009 X

[22] Clemente et al. 2013 X X

[23] Concas et al. 2013 X X X

[24] Correia and Antunes

2012 X

[25] Costain et al. 2012 X

[26] Douma and Gaug

2009 X

[27] Duncan 2011 X X

[28] Engel-Yan and

Passmore 2013 X

[29] Fan and Xu 2013 X

[30] Fan et al. 2008 X

[31] Febbraro et al. 2012 X

[32] Firnkorn 2012 X


[33] Firnkorn and Müller

2011 X X

[34] Firnkorn and Müller

2012 X X

[35] Grasset and

Morency 2010 X

[36] Habib et al. 2012 X

[37] Heling et al. 2009 X X

[38] Hinkeldein et al.

2012 X

[39] Huwer 2004 X

[40] Jorge et al. 2013 X

[41] Karbassi and Barth

2003 X

[42] Kato et al. 2012a X

[43] Kato et al. 2012b X

[44] Kek et al. 2006 X

[45] Kek et al. 2009 X

[46] Khanna and Venters

2013 X X X

[47] Kim and Yoon 2012 X

[48] Lane 2005 X

[49] Le Vine et al. 2013a X

[50] Le Vine et al. 2013b X

[51] Leclerc et al. 2013 X X

[52] Lee et al. 2011 X X

[53] Loose et al. 2006 X

[54] Lorimier and El-

Geneidy 2013 X

[55] Martens et al. 2011 X

[56] Martin and Shaheen

2011 X

[57] Martin et al. 2010 X


[58] Millard-Ball et al.

2006 X

[59] Morency et al. 2008 X



[62] Mukai and

Watanabe 2005 X

[63] Musso et al. 2012 X

[64] Nobis 2006 X X

[65] Ohta et al. 2013 X X

[66] Rabbitt and Ghosh

2013 X X X

[67] Rickenberg et al.

2013 X X X

[68] Rivasplata et al.

2013 X

[69] Rodier and Shaheen

2004 X

[70] Schaefers 2013 X

[71] Schure et al. 2012 X

[72] Schuster et al. 2005 X

[73] Shaheen and Cohen

2007 X

[74] Shaheen and Cohen

2013 X X

[75] Shaheen and Martin

2010 X

[76] Shaheen and Novick

2005 X

[77] Shaheen and Rodier

2005 X

[78] Shaheen et al. 2003 X






[83] Shaheen et al. 2013 X X

[84] Sioui et al. 2012 X

[85] Stasko et al. 2012 X

[86] Stillwater et al. 2009 X X

[87] Tal 2009 X

[88] Uesugi et al. 2007 X

[89] Wang et al. 2012 X

[90] Xu and Lim 2007 X

[91] Zheng et al. 2009 X

[92] Zhou 2012 X

[93] Zhou and

Kockelman 2011 X X

Articles per Concept 45 27 18 11 10 7

Table 1: Concept Matrix

2.2 Concepts in the Field of Carsharing Research

The findings of the literature review show that most of the articles address the market situation for

carsharing services (45 articles). Further areas of interest include location considerations (27 articles),

travel behavior (18 articles), information systems (11 articles), electric carsharing (10 articles), and

sustainability (7 articles).

Market Analysis

The first identified concept is the concept of market analysis. It describes various aspects of the

carsharing market such as the market potential of carsharing in an international scope, the impacts of

carsharing, and market trends and future development of carsharing. For example, Kato et al. [42]

analyze the market potential of carsharing in four Japanese cities by conducting a survey focused on

respondents’ awareness and preferences of carsharing services. Rabbitt and Ghosh [66] evaluate the

market potential of carsharing in Ireland using multiple alternative scenarios which examine the

geographic, financial, and environmental factors influencing carsharing adoption. Further studies

assess the market potential of carsharing, for example, in China [75], [89], the United States [1], [11],

[27], [93], the United Kingdom [50], France [21], and Germany [34], [53], as well as in a global

context [73], [74]. As of October 2012, most of the carsharing members are from North America


(51%) and Europe (39%), followed by Asia (9%), Australia (1%), and South America (>1%).4 Some

articles examine the market potential of carsharing by introducing and evaluating different pilot

carsharing programs like PhillyCarShare [48], CarLink [76], [77], and City CarShare [13], [14], [15].

Location

The concept of location addresses one of the main challenges in carsharing systems: the relocation of

cars. There are three types of carsharing systems: round-trip, one-way, and free-floating. In round-trip

systems, members have to return a car at the station where they picked it up [88]. One-way systems

allow members to pick up a car at one station and return it to a different station [40], while free-

floating systems are operating without any fixed stations [32]. One-way and free-floating carsharing

systems are causing car imbalances across the stations and locations of the cars [6], [24]. The

imbalance of cars attributes to scholars’ efforts in trying to optimize the relocation of cars [22], [31],

[44], [45]. Further studies investigate the optimization of carsharing locations [67] and the role of

parking requirements [28], [58].

Travel Behavior

This concept examines the impact of carsharing on several dimensions of travel behavior including

attitudes of carsharing members, motivations of carsharing usage, and frequency of usage. For

example, Costain et al. [25] present an analysis of a case study with a carsharing company in Toronto,

Canada, to enhance the understanding of members’ behaviors like attitude towards environment,

attitude towards safety, frequency of usage, etc. Ohta et al. [65] conducted a survey in Japan targeting

driver’s-license holders to investigate the acceptance of carsharing. To explore the motivations of

carsharing usage, Schaefers [70] performed 14 personal in-depth interviews with members of a

carsharing provider in the United States and presented the results on the basis of a qualitative means-

end chain analysis. Several other studies examine the motivations of carsharing usage [16], [26] and

the frequency of usage [36], [60], [61], [84].

Information Systems

The concept of information systems in the context of carsharing examines various technologies such

as intelligent transportation systems, geographic information systems, and information infrastructures.

With regard to intelligent transportation systems, for example, Barth et al. [4] investigate different car

access methods, i.e., lockbox, common key, and smart card access, by presenting a trade-off of costs

on one side and security and user convenience on the other side. Further studies investigate wireless

and mobile information systems, suggesting that Wi-Fi is a suitable communication technology for

carsharing in urban areas [17] and providing insights into the usage of mobile devices such as

smartphones for carsharing [23], [52]. In view of geographic information systems, Celsor et al. [12]

undertake a geographic information system-based analysis of a carsharing program in Austin, Texas,

presenting a tool that analyzes the neighborhood characteristics of existing carsharing locations.

Regarding information infrastructures, Khanna and Venters [46] carry out a case study of the

development of an information infrastructure in Berlin. The purpose of this particular information

infrastructure is to develop a sustainable mobility service, which integrates electric carsharing into the

public transport system.

4 Shaheen, SA; Cohen, AP (2012): Innovative Mobility Carsharing Outlook: Carsharing Market Overview,

Analysis, and Trends - Fall 2012. http://tsrc.berkeley.edu/node/701


Electric Carsharing

Electric car usage is considered to be capable of reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions [38], which

is why electric carsharing is predicted to increase in the near future [74]. For example, Shaheen and

Cohen [74] conducted 25 interviews with carsharing experts worldwide to examine future trends of

carsharing considering electric cars as one aspect. According to McKinsey’s electric vehicle index that

assesses a nation’s readiness to support an electric vehicle industry based on supply and demand, as of

January 2012, the leading countries in the field of electric mobility are Japan, the United States,

France, Germany, and China.5 Further studies in this concept compare cost and CO2 savings between

electric and conventional cars [66] and investigate the attitude towards electric carsharing [37], [38].

Sustainability

Carsharing is considered to have potential in helping to create a sustainable transportation system [27].

The concept of sustainability is regarded by many carsharing research articles, of which some put a

stronger focus on environmental issues. For example, Firnkorn and Müller [34] conducted a survey

with carsharing members to examine environmental effects caused by the reduction of private car

ownership. Further studies investigate the reduction of greenhouse gas and CO2 emissions through the

implementation of carsharing services [37], [56], [66]. In particular, Martin and Shaheen [56] examine

the greenhouse gas emission impacts of carsharing in North America. They conclude that carsharing

services are used by carless households with some increase in emissions and as an alternative with

emission reductions, resulting in a net effect with an overall reduction in annual emissions.

3 Discussion and Implications for Information Systems Research

With regard to the defined parameters of our literature review, the concept of market analysis reveals

the strongest interest in carsharing research counting approximately half of the reviewed literature.

Since carsharing is a growing trend, it can be assumed that the analysis of the carsharing market all

over the world will continue to attract research interest. In terms of the other identified concepts, it can

be concluded that carsharing research demands an interdisciplinary approach. For example, the

concept of location examines relocation algorithms for carsharing systems derived from operations

research. The investigation of the electric car technology, on the other hand, addresses the engineering

research community, e.g., the analysis of power electronics, batteries, and charging stations for electric

cars, against the background of the integration of electric cars into carsharing fleets. This can be

ascribed to the interdisciplinary nature of transportation research that additionally covers the further

concepts of travel behavior, information systems, and sustainability.

This paper is addressed to the IS research community in the first place. Thus, the implications of the

literature review focus on the field of IS research. Based on the findings of the literature review

regarding the concept of information systems, three IS domains for carsharing research are identified,

i.e., intelligent transportation systems, geographic information systems, and information

infrastructures.

5 Krieger, A; Radtke, P; Wang, L (2012): Recharging China’s electric-vehicle aspirations.

http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/energy_resources_materials/recharging_chinas_electric-vehicle_aspirations


Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)

The reviewed literature suggests that intelligent transportation systems (ITS) are an important domain

for IS research. Considering that carsharing providers deploy wireless and mobile information systems

for ITS, several implications can be derived. Mobile applications are used more and more by

carsharing providers to support various fields such as car search, reservation, and booking. In addition,

there are applications that compute the driving behavior and the related consumption of fuel

(conventional cars) and electricity (electric cars) or that are used as a digital key. Further research

could examine the integration of mobile devices into in-car telematics. Hence, we call for an

investigation of technical capabilities of the interface between mobile devices of carsharing members

and the CAN bus of carsharing vehicles, e.g., using Bluetooth technology. For example, information

about desired energy- and cost-efficient driving behaviors could be communicated to carsharing

members using mobile applications as incentive systems. Thus, we recommend that further research

examines wireless technologies as well as mobile application development and evaluation for

carsharing systems.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Geographic information systems (GIS) are another important domain to consider for IS research. For

example, in order to enhance the understanding of carsharing members’ travel behavior, further

research could focus on the analysis of travel routes, e.g., using GPS technology (see [51]), or using

artificial neural networks (see [18]). The investigation of GPS traces can contribute to a better

understanding of carsharing usage motives. For example, in a study with 8,141 carsharing members in

Montreal, Canada, using 362 cars equipped with GPS, Leclerc et al. [51] found that carsharing trips

are mainly made for non work purposes (shopping, leisure, medical). Referring to artificial neural

networks, the development of trip-forecasting models can help to estimate vehicle flows in a

carsharing system. For example, Cheu et al. [18] developed trip-forecasting models to estimate the

number of vehicles available from a station at a particular time of a day. GPS technology and artificial

neural networks are relevant in GIS, which is why these two fields should be taken into consideration

for further examinations. With regard to GIS for location optimization and decision analyses,

developing decision support systems for round-trip carsharing (see [67]) and programming relocation

algorithms for one-way and free-floating carsharing systems (see [44], [62]) are further promising

research areas as well.

Information Infrastructures (II)

Information infrastructures (II) for carsharing services are another domain that should be addressed.

For example, Khanna and Venters [46] examined II in the context of the development of a sustainable

mobility service by conducting 53 interviews with relevant stakeholders. They conclude that the

importance of II for mobility services will increase. Therefore, it is important to examine the

understanding of II to improve the communication between carsharing members and carsharing

providers. This includes consideration of the approach of business process management, for example,

information, booking, and billing processes as well as data management for carsharing vehicles. In this

context, the back end processes data regarding, e.g., the booking, the billing, and the deployment

planning of carsharing vehicles. On the other hand, the front end as a provider-customer interface

involves, e.g., portal solutions for desktop computers and mobile devices. Thus, we recommend to

analyze and compare carsharing and electric carsharing II by investigating business processes and data

management in terms of, e.g., economic efficiency, usability, and the software quality of the systems.


4 Limitations and Conclusion

Our literature review is subject to the following limitations, which present useful opportunities for

further research. First, we limited our search for relevant literature to research databases in the field of

IS and transportation research. Although several interdisciplinary research databases were also

observed, no further discipline-specific databases were considered. We encourage researchers from

other disciplines to extend a literature review on carsharing to further disciplines. Second, we only

considered literature in the English language dealing with commercial carsharing. For example,

regarding peer-to-peer carsharing, worldwide growth is predicted [74]. Hence, literature from other

carsharing-related fields such as peer-to-peer carsharing, carpooling, ridesharing, bikesharing, etc.

could be taken into account. Literature in other languages might be of interest as well. Third, although

we outline all six identified concepts, our implications focus on IS research. This is due to the fact that

we address the IS research community in the first place. Thus, we call for an extension of our

implications to further carsharing-relevant disciplines such as transportation research, engineering

research, operations research, and others.

In this paper, we presented a literature review on the topic of carsharing, which is considered as a new

mobility alternative to private car ownership. In order to address Research Question 1, a conceptual

structuring of the topic was created and six concepts were identified: market analysis, location, travel

behavior, information systems, electric carsharing, and sustainability. With respect to Research

Question 2, implications for information systems research were presented. A holistic view on the

current research in the carsharing area suggests diversified and interdisciplinary possibilities for future

research.

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