PERSONAL VIEWS OF BOYCE THOMPSON INSTITUTE

1974 - 2000

by

Leonard H. Weinstein and Richard C. Staples

March 2005

Preface

Originally, this period in BTI’s history was to be written by Dewayne C. Torgeson, scientist, ProgramDirector and Corporate Secretary. It was interrupted by his untimely death and we were asked to takeover the task in 2003. Other long-time colleagues were lost during this same period, Richard H. Mandl,environmental scientist, Dorothy Reddington, Director of Development, and Colleen Sloan, Secretary andAdministrative Assistant for the Environmental Biology Program. We dedicate this history to them.

If this continuation of the McCallan history (“A Personalized History of Boyce Thompson Institute”, whichcovered the years from dedication in 1924 to 1974), is not written in the traditional manner, it is becausethe actual events that make up a history always have degrees of humor, irony and cynicism, as well aspoints of view.

We wish to thank especially, Valleri Longcoy and Elizabeth Estabrook, who have been creatively helpfuland collegial. This should not diminish the value of the willing help also provided by John Dentes, acritical review of a draft of the text by Alan Renwick and Bob Kohut, and other helpful support from BrianGollands and Carl Leopold.

Len WeinsteinDick StaplesBoyce Thompson InstituteMay 1, 2005

Colonel William Boyce Thompson1869 - 1930

This history is dedicated in their memory with appreciation for their importantcontributions to the Boyce Thompson Institute.

Dewayne Torgeson

Richard Mandl

Dorothy Reddington

Colleen Sloan

CONTENTS

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………3The End of an Era……………………………………………………………………………....4The Move to Cornell………………………………………………………………….…………5Acquisition and Divestment of Land……………………...………………………………….17

The Stanfordville FarmThe BTI Home Campus and LenoirThe Beaumont Texas LaboratoryThe Grass Valley California LaboratoryThe Nepera Park Farm

The Richard Wellman Years (1974-1980)………………………………………………..…25The New Institute Building at Cornell UniversityInternational ProgramsA Sea Change

The Roy Young Years (1980-1986)………………………………………………………….40The Ralph Hardy Years (1986-1995)………………………………………………………..42The Charles Arntzen Years (1995-2000)……………………………………………………51The Daniel Klessig Years (2000-).....………………………………………………………..54The Endowment………………………………………………………………….…………….55Reunions………………………………………………………………………….…………….56Selected Research Accomplishments………………………………………….……………56

Biological Control of InsectsBioregulant Chemicals (Sponsored Research)Environmental BiologyEstuarine BiologyNitrogen FixationPlants and Human HealthPlant ProductionPlant StressPlant Molecular Biology

Faculty Biographies…………………………………………………………………………..66PhotosAppendixIndex

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IntroductionIn 1917, immediately prior to the Communist revolution, Colonel William Boyce

Thompson, a wealthy mining entrepreneur, visited Russia as part of a 20-person

mission appointed by the American Red Cross. It was one of President Wilson's

initiatives to bring peace to that region of the world. There, Colonel Thompson saw at

first hand the abject poverty and starvation of Russian peasants, and he became

convinced that Russia might be stabilized if the production of food and fiber could be

improved. In 1924, following the model of New York City's Rockefeller Institute for

Medical Research, Colonel Thompson founded and endowed the Boyce Thompson

Institute for Plant Research with the objective "to study why and how plants grow, why

they languish or thrive, how their diseases may be conquered, and how their

development may be stimulated". Although endowed from its inception, the breadth and

scope of its research activities would not have been possible without outside support

from individuals, foundations, and government agencies. In 1975, S.E.A.

McCallan wrote “A Personalized History of Boyce Thompson Institute” that included the

Institute’s history from its founding on September 24,1924 to the period when we

planned the move from Yonkers to Ithaca. In 2003, the authors were asked to continue

the history of Boyce Thompson Institute from 1974 onward. We chose to cover the

period up to 2000, leaving the period beginning in the 21st century to a future “historian”.

There have been many changes in the Institute during its “rebirth” on the Cornell

University campus. One of these changes is the fewer number of women staff

scientists (now called faculty). In the first 50 years, there were 28 women scientists

listed by McCallan as Senior Scientists, and even as early as 1924, at its founding,

there were nine women scientists listed on the staff. In 2000, there were also nine

women listed, two of whom were senior staff, the other seven research associates.

From 1975 through 2000, there has been only one tenure-track woman, but she was not

given tenure and left the Institute. A number of women scientists had distinguished

careers. Among the early senior staff, one must list Irene Dobroscky, a virologist who

was at the Institute in 1924. She studied the transmission of plant viruses (some of

which are known now to be phytoplasmas) by insects in L.O. Kunkel’s laboratory, where

4

each scientist worked independently. Helen Purdy (Beale) was also a virologist

responsible for the precipitin reaction and she also published “Bibliography of Plant

Viruses and Index to Research”. Lela Barton was a preeminent seed physiologist and

was responsible for giving us “Bibliography of Seeds” and “Seeds: Their Preservation

and Longevity”, among many other contributions. Norma Pfeiffer was an eminent

taxonomist, classifying a number of plant families on the basis of megaspore

characteristics. Sophia Eckerson was an accomplished plant pathologist and virologist.

These are only a few of the women who contributed to the Institute’s reputation in the

early days of BTI. One hopes for a more realistic distribution of faculty in the future.

Since 1975, there has been a strong emphasis by the Institute on molecular genetics

leading to a reduction or elimination of other disciplines. By the end of 2000, it

appeared that programs for which the Institute has been renowned in the past would be

eliminated, in part because funding had become difficult to obtain for the more

“traditional” sciences. Today, its research program has become adapted to the

stimulating environment at Cornell, where it continues to change and to take advantage

of the sophisticated technology becoming available during the 21st century.

The End of an Era

From his appointment on September 1, 1949 until his retirement

on May 31, 1974, George L. McNew devoted all his energies to

making Boyce Thompson Institute a leader in the plant sciences,

developing strong programs in entomology, plant pathology

(including virology) and environmental biology. At the same time,

perhaps not consciously, he molded an institution that was tightly-

knit and had a family aura. It is difficult to describe this feeling of

‘family’. Dr. McNew, and his wife Elizabeth, took a great interest

in the Institute employees, from the maintenance workers to the

scientific staff, although some people felt that this interest was

excessive and overly paternal. The McNews showed their interest in several ways.

They entertained often at their beautiful home overlooking the Hudson River. Both Dr.

Dr. George McNew

5

and Mrs. McNew were concerned with the employees’ welfare. In a financial

emergency, it was not unusual for Dr. McNew to make a personal loan or in a health

emergency; both of them were known to pitch in with necessary housekeeping and

cooking.

On May 6, 1974, the Annual Meeting of the BTI Board was convened at the Hilton Inn in

Tarrytown, NY, where the affiliation agreement with Cornell University was approved.

This was followed by a reception in Dr. McNew’s honor, attended by Board members,

senior staff and their wives. No Managing Director before or since McNew has

dedicated so much time and energy to the administration of BTI or demonstrated such

extreme concern for the scientific staff and other personnel. At the same Board meeting,

Dr. Richard H. Wellman was appointed to assume the position of Managing Director as

of June 1, 1974. Wellman had close ties to BTI. He was hired by S.E.A.McCallan, after

receiving his Ph.D. from Washington State University, as a plant pathology fellow in a

new Carbide and Carbon (later Union Carbide) project. Wellman was head of the

project until 1954, when he left for the New York office, where he eventually became

General Manager of the Chemicals and Plastics Group of Union Carbide. He joined the

Institute Research Advisory Committee in 1968 and was elected to the Board of

Directors in 1969.

The Move to Cornell

The desire that the Institute be associated with a university actually traces back to its

founding, when William Boyce Thompson had his vision of creating an institution that he

hoped would be to plant science what the Rockefeller Institute was to human and

animal science. As a start, he asked advice from a number of prominent scientists.

Among them was H.H. Whetzel, a professor of plant pathology at Cornell University,

who suggested that this new institute be located in association with a university,

preferably Cornell, but Thompson, although aware of the advantages of a university

affiliation, had already decided it would be built across the street from his mansion,

“Alder”, where he could observe its construction and operation. Little did he know that

Whetzel’s proposal would someday become a reality. Further details of the Institute’s

6

founding years are described in S.E.A. McCallan’s “A Personalized History of Boyce

Thompson Institute” (1975).

In the 1950s, mild rumblings were heard from Dr. McNew and other staff members

(which for convenience only, we shall hereafter refer to as ‘faculty’). At that time, both

biological sciences and BTI were making great strides and there was a greater

realization that BTI was isolated from other research and academic institutions.

Although there were a few graduate students from Columbia, Rutgers, Fordham and

Cornell universities who pursued their thesis research projects at the Institute, there was

no day-to-day interaction with colleagues from other institutions with whom ideas could

be shared, discussed, developed and modified, or collaborative studies could be carried

out. Attendances at an occasional meeting was not sufficiently fulfilling, and talk of

moving BTI to a college or university became a frequent subject among the faculty and

administration. Indeed, the increased urbanization surrounding the institute, pollution

from motor vehicles and home heating (actually an advantage for the Environmental

Biology program which stressed the effects of air pollution on plant life!) were becoming

a serious problem. It was very difficult to modernize the building (because it was so well

constructed that any change was exceedingly costly). But it also became clear among

the administration that we would eventually have to seek another home.

7

Aerial View of The Boyce Thompson Institute Building and Grounds in Yonkers, New rk.York. The property extended from the homes to the right of the photo,

along the trees at the top, to the home visible on the left.

8

Despite occasional flirtations with moving, the first actual step in its relocation was

offered in 1973 by Dr. Roy Young, a former graduate student of Dr. McNew’s and Vice

President for Research at Oregon State University. Dr. Young began discussions with

McNew and members of the BTI Board and he interested OSU’s President McVicar, the

Oregon Governor, Tom McCall, and members of the Oregon State Legislature. They

were sufficiently interested that a bill was passed providing a sum of $6,750,000 to build

and equip a headquarters for the Institute on the OSU campus, and a formal invitation

was sent to BTI’s Chairman of the Board, William T. Smith. The Executive Committee

traveled to Oregon where they were feted for a couple of days and met with important

university and State officials. Smith took a straw poll of the Board members, which

turned out to be very favorable to a move to Oregon State and he initialed a

Memorandum of Agreement on May 15, 1973. This was confirmed in a letter from Dr.

McNew to Roy Young of May 17, 1973, but McNew’s bias toward Cornell and his use of

mild pressure in the negotiations became evident:

“After we completed the visit to the Campus (OSU), I believe every

member of our group was ready to accept Oregon as a future home for

BTI provided there were firm assurances that the building would be

provided and a suitable formal contract could be developed to implement

the brief Memorandum of Understanding [actually it was a Memorandum

of Agreement] upon that afternoon in Corvallis. Of course, there were two

of us who felt that Cornell certainly had an advantage in general prestige

and financial support for the project but we would not have insisted in

exploring these possibilities further if we had a firm plan at Oregon State.

The key people were definitely enthusiastic over what they saw in

Corvallis and were ready to firm up an agreement along the lines of the

Memorandum of Understanding as soon as the Board of Directors had

approved the basic concept.”

When the early negotiations with Oregon State became public, New York’s Lieutenant

Governor, Malcolm Wilson, a native of Yonkers, moved to keep the Institute in New

York State, and along with Chancellor Boyer of SUNY, convinced Governor Rockefeller

9

to bring a bill before a special session of the Legislature in July that would provide a

“Biological laboratory, greenhouse facilities” on the Cornell campus. The bill was passed

in the Senate, but encountered difficulties in the Assembly because some from Ithaca

and some from the Yonkers area did not know what it was all about or did not want the

Institute to leave Yonkers. (There were also allegations in the State Assembly that BTI

was running an “exclusive and racist country club” in Stanfordville for BTI employees.

What they were actually referring to was a 400+-acre farm that had been acquired for

experimental purposes. At the behest of Dr. S.E.A. McCallan and others, a 1.3-acre

pond was constructed and a cottage was built using volunteer employee labor. This

cottage was designated for use by researchers and other employees for weekends or

even week-long vacations following a specific set of rules and guidelines. It was hardly

a country club, and certainly wasn’t racist; but it was a place where employees could go

for short stays or drive up for the day, and it was the site of the BTI Annual Picnic, an

extremely well-attended event that featured, in addition to lots of eating, swimming,

volleyball, softball, horseshoes, fishing and other activities. At any rate, the allegations

were somehow defused and the bill was passed under the able leadership of

Assemblywoman Constance Cook.

Following the invitations from both Oregon State and Cornell, there was a flurry of

activity. Visits to OSU and Cornell were made by Secretary McCallan and the

Executive Committee; and by Alva App, Dewayne Torgeson and Leonard Weinstein

representing the Program Directors. Reports were made by all visitors to the Board of

Directors. The positive sentiment on the Board to accept the OSU offer did not translate

to the faculty, a great majority of whom favored Cornell. When examined

dispassionately, Cornell appeared to be the superior choice. Some faculty, including

Leonard Weinstein, decided that if OSU were chosen, they would not make the move.

In Weinstein’s case, this had less to do with geographical than family reasons (aging

parents and in-laws). The tip-off that BTI was favoring a Cornell affiliation became

obvious in a letter from Dr. McNew to Miles Romney, the Vice Chancellor of the Oregon

State System of Higher Education on July 30, 1973, a paragraph of which follows:

10

“In all honesty, I should advise you that Governor Rockefeller introduced

a bill into the special session of the New York State legislature on

Wednesday afternoon, July 25, upon recommendation of the State

University of New York, proposing Cornell University be provided with

$8,500,000 to build and furnish facilities for Boyce Thompson Institute

....... My latest advice is that the Senate passed the bill 54-5 but it is hung

up in the Assembly by our local representatives who do not want us to

leave Yonkers .... At the moment, Cornell expects the bill to pass but I

have no data one way or the other.”

And, as late as August 28, 1973, the Vice Chancellor of the Oregon State System of

Higher Education requested that the President of that organization approve a change in

the Affiliation Agreement with OSU. To make matters more cloudy, after approval by

the New York state legislature, the BTI Board reversed its earlier animus toward Cornell

and voted 16-0 to accept its offer and move the Institute to the Cornell campus. Dr.

McNew, a man of many words, and in a voice that sounds a bit neo-Victorian, discussed

the decision in a letter to Dr. Young dated September 14, 1973. This mea culpa is

given in its entirety below:

“As Dr. Wellman has advised you, the general sentiment at our Board

meeting on September 12 was to see if a satisfactory contract could be

developed with Cornell that would gain the approval of the SUNY Board.

The set of very definitive principles developed in negotiations between Dr.

Wellman and Dr. Palm [Dean of Agriculture and Life Sciences at Cornell]

and approved by officials at Cornell was sufficiently attractive to warrant

their reduction to legal language, something which could not be done

adequately earlier in the compressed time schedule imposed upon us. It

is impossible to predict what obstructions and frustrations will be

encountered in this process, but I concur with the Board that it had to be

done before a final decision could be made.

11

“I was surprised to find that strong sentiment prevailed not to sign a

provisional agreement with Oregon State while we were seriously

negotiating with Cornell. Two members strongly objected to the morality

and possibly the legality of entering into such an arrangement in poor faith

and the others concurred in spite of Dr. Wellman’s and my explanation of

your and President McVicar’s viewpoint. I sincerely hope this has not

caused you any embarrassment because of the Emergency Board moving

its session up before our meeting date.

“The growing sentiment for Cornell, as I see it, come from many

considerations. The primary factor, of course, is that at long last they

have a definite proposal with money to back it up to implement their

suggestions to me of last October and their proposal of last December to

the Board. Our Board was deeply impressed that they willingly modified

their stand for complete consolidation to affiliation of two coordinated

agencies on campus and even went so far as to seek status of BTI as an

absolutely independent entity in its own facility provided by the State. The

administration at the College of Agriculture had actually proposed to the

State Department of Commerce and later to the State University that they

build and assign the building to BTI without formal affiliation with the

College, but this could not be legally done with State funds.

“Of course, Cornell had $8.5 million or $1.75 million more than you for

construction of facilities. This position of strength did not overwhelm us;

but they were in the process of accepting from the contractors on August

22 a veterinary research tower of 160,000 square feet constructed at a

cost of $8.4 million. We could see exactly what could be obtained from

their appropriation in constructing and equipping two thirds as much space

for BTI with appended greenhouses.

“With all due respect to your fine facilities in the Bioscience building, their

veterinary creation was out of this world in architectural design, tailored

usefulness for various purposes, versatility and capabilities of

12

modification, so it could be essentially as good 50 years from now as today. If

any one thing swung some of us over to their column, it was this facility

which included a remarkable array of furnishings and equipment as part of

the construction cost. There were many supporting items such as a site

where our greenhouses and labs could be attached directly, a mass of

surrounding research activities within 100 yards in veterinary microbiology,

plant pathology, entomology, soils and nutrition and bioclimatic facilities

(which we can use gratis when desired), 24-hour service for our

environmental installations, convenience to the Mann Library, a free

shuttle bus service operating on a 15-minute schedule from our front door

to all points on campus and ready access to large nearby parking lots.

“Convenience to business contacts was most favorable with two flights in

each direction from the Ithaca airport (10 minutes from the proposed

laboratory site) to New York City (53 minutes), Cleveland (1-1/2 hours),

Pittsburgh (1 hour), Washington (1-1/2 hours) and Chicago (2-1/2 hours)

[Ah, for the good old days!!] with major nationwide flights from Syracuse

airport (70 minutes) and Elmira airport (95 minutes). Conferences in these

cities could be held 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. without overnight delay. The staff

preferences for Cornell undoubtedly had a strong bearing with Program

Directors, Senior Scientists, Research Associates and Post-doctoral

Fellows presenting an almost completely united front to the Board. While

several (Referring to a few faculty scientists and Board Members] would

have liked to see us in Oregon for personal reasons, they seemed to feel

the weight and strength of Cornell could not be denied as benefiting BTI.

“You should know and take pride in the reaction of everyone at BTI toward

OSU as it was presented to us. Our Executive Committee and the visiting

Program Directors were no less impressed than Dick Wellman and myself.

The evidence of dynamic growth and progressiveness everywhere on

campus was tremendous. The quality and scope of facilities and the

dedication of your staff were evident everywhere. I believe that the

13

warmth and friendliness of your administration, deans and scientists will live in

our minds and hearts forever.

“No one should ever interpret the reverses on our Board as derogatory to

OSU or the energy, skill and dedication with which you, Dean Krause and

President McVicar presented your invitation and followed up in presenting

your case. Our Board feels that we were presented with two generous

and appealing alternatives from two of the most meritorious institutions in

our field of science. It is almost a flip of the coin as to which should

receive preference because one is fully established and progressing

constructively while the other is excitingly dynamic and alive with

possibilities for the future. Had we not been a foundation incorporated in

New York State, had the State political structure not shown such

determination to retain us in this State or had Cornell and the State

University of New York not been so perceptive in analyzing the worries

and needs of our Board, there is no question but that we would have

signed the agreement with OSU last Wednesday and probably broken off

negotiations with Cornell.

“I need not dwell on my personal frustrations during the past five months.

Regardless of my personal desires and the warmth of our personal

relations, I had to be guided entirely by what I believe to be to the best

interests of Boyce Thompson Institute. If I had done less, I would not be

worthy of the trust bestowed upon me by the BTI Board or the mutual

respect and friendship which prevail between the two of us. Dick and I

have debated item by item the considerations that have come before us

step by step. While not agreeing in all personal appraisals, we have

agreed decisively that we should be guided by what we see to be the most

practical in achieving the best posture possible for BTI and its long range

future and that personal considerations had to be ignored insofar as

possible. I pray you will understand it has not been easy for either of us.”

14

Once the decision was made to move to Cornell, a Building Committee was formed,

consisting of Donald Melhop, Chairman, Richard Lankow, Richard Mandl, Alan Wood

and S.E.A. McCallan. Albany selected the architects, Ulrich Franzen and Associates.

The building, exclusive of the greenhouse, was to be 63,132 square feet, somewhat

larger than the building in Yonkers.

The move to Cornell was scheduled for 1974, but New York State’s lagging economy

postponed building construction and we all wondered when, and if, we would ever make

the move. Dave Cutting, a local businessman, community leader and President of the

Tompkins County Area Development Committee, was told by Arthur H. ‘Pete’ Peterson,

the Cornell treasurer, at a Citizen Savings Bank Board meeting that BTI was not coming

to Cornell after all and, because of the State’s financial problems, had decided to go to

Oregon. This rumor had only a passing relationship to the truth. What happened was

that there were members of the Board who felt strongly that Cornell had reneged on its

promise and that we should renegotiate with OSU. When Cutting heard the news from

Peterson, he went to see Raymond van Houtte, President of the County Trust Company

bank and a community leader. They immediately flew to New York City, apparently

under terrible weather conditions (so extreme that they weren’t confident that they

would survive another day) to speak with the Chairman of the New York State Dormitory

Board, to whom they asked the question: If we can raise the money for the building, will

you issue the construction bonds? Receiving a positive answer, they obtained pledges

for $9.4 million, $0.9 million more than required. Cornell University faculty and staff

pledged $1.5 million, local banks $3.5 million, regional banks $2.4 million and BTI $2

million. In the final tally, the construction bonds were oversubscribed and BTI was let

off the hook and was not required to invest any of its endowment funds. The bonds

were to pay an interest rate of 9% but, when issued, paid 8% and ended up being called

by the State in 2 years, much to the disappointment of the bond holders.

In preparation for the move, members of the Building Committee, administrators,

Program Directors, other scientists and key maintenance personnel made numerous

trips to Cornell to attend meetings of various kinds, to present talks to Cornell faculty,

staff and students about BTI, its history and goals for the future, and to look for housing,

15

check school quality, neighborhoods, etc. Dewayne Torgeson especially made trips to

negotiate details of the Affiliation Agreement (see Appendix ix). Donald Mehlhop and

Richard Mandl were the two most involved with the building’s construction and they

attended many meetings with the architects and building contractors and sub-

contractors until the building was completed. As an aside, Don Mehlhop had been a

submarine commander in World War II and was an experienced leader of men (actually,

he and his submarine sat at the bottom of Tokyo harbor when Japan surrendered).

Dick Mandl was a faculty member in the Environmental Biology Program who had

remarkable natural talents for instrument design and construction basics. Mandl took

primary responsibility in making certain that the plant growth facility and scientific needs

were suitable. They made a strong team (although accompanied by occasional loud

disagreements) that helped to develop a building that was not only beautiful and award-

winning, but also functional, and that met, and continues to meet, the needs of the staff.

Scientists who made the move to Cornell were allowed to select and design their offices

and laboratories. Years later, renovations were made because of changes in

equipment and style of furnishings, as new scientists arrived.

Building construction started in 1977, and by October 1978, nearly the entire scientific

staff, many technicians, the building superintendent and the head of the maintenance

department began moving from Yonkers into the new building. A Yonkers mover, the 7

Santini Brothers, was contracted to move all of us who chose to relocate in Ithaca.

There were few restrictions on what and how much we could move. Some people even

moved dozens of clay pots and lumber. For a few years after the move, 7 Santini

Brothers boxes were as common in the new building as cockroaches were in the old

one. Occasionally one still runs onto 7 Santini Brothers boxes around the Institute and

in many basements and attics.

Upon Col. Thompson’s death, the Institute was left a number of paintings from the

Thompson estate and most, if not all, of them could be found hanging in the building ---

in administrative offices, the library, the entrance foyer and in a number of scientists’

offices. Just prior to the move to Ithaca, Park Bernet, a New York auction house,

catalogued and made cost estimates of the paintings for auction. Len Weinstein was

16

fond of a small still life (signed ‘Hurst’) in his office in an ornate gold frame. The

appraiser valued it at $300. Weinstein would have been allowed to buy it at that price,

but he decided that $300 was too much money for such a small painting. Later, it

fetched $8000 at auction, a foretelling of Weinstein’s future financial dealings

(divestments).

During trips before the move

and after our arrival, the

Cornell community warmly

welcomed us. Somehow,

though, Cornell personnel,

realtors and the Ithaca

community as a whole had

the impression that we were

being paid outrageously high

salaries. In fact, before the

move, realtors often arrived in

Yonkers with photographs of homes available for purchase, invariably mansions and

accompanied by, “We understand this is the kind of home Institute people will be

looking for.” This, of course, was light years from the truth. One of the photographs

shown to Weinstein was of the mansion that is now Cornell President Lehman’s home.

After being revived, Weinstein said that he didn’t want to heat more than 15 rooms. As

it turned out, the Institute raised most salaries to conform generally to Cornell’s pay

scale. This may have been due partly to the wording regarding comparability in the

Affiliation Agreement with Cornell (see Appendices).

The first few months after the move were heady indeed. The excitement of being

affiliated with a university, let alone a great one, was exhilarating. The Environmental

Biology Program was especially welcomed because of its reputation as one of the best

and largest air pollution groups in the U.S., and because there was no equivalent group

at Cornell. Their experimental farm of 12 acres, just adjacent to Rt. 366, was set up and

ready for the summer following the move. Many BTI scientists were also invited to

The Current Boyce Thompson Building

17

become adjunct professors of various departments, among which were Plant

Pathology, Natural Resources and Plant Biology. No one was invited to join Ecology

and Evolutionary Biology or Entomology. There were very few sour notes associated

with the move, but those that did present themselves were based on the exaggerated

salary story and complaints that SUNY turned over to us outsiders, a beautiful building

to occupy while so many other building at the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences

were old and substandard. This was true.

The dedication ceremony for the new building was held on April 24, 1979, in the Law

Auditorium at the School of Veterinary Medicine. At the time of the dedication, BTI’s

research was concentrated in five areas: biological nitrogen fixation, biological control of

insects, air pollution effects on agriculture and forestry, plant stress and [the

development of] bioregulant chemicals. On April 25-26, 1979, there was a Dedication

Symposium, “Linking Basic Research to Crop Improvement Programs in Less-

Developed Countries”, co-sponsored by Cornell University and partially supported by

the Ford Foundation. The program stated that it was “A celebration of affiliation with the

N.Y. State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences at Cornell University”. Richard

Staples organized and chaired the symposium, and the subjects were clearly selected

to be a template for the “new” directions of BTI under its new Managing Director,

Richard Wellman.

It did not take long before we noticed a discernible change in BTI’s reputation as

Cornell’s incandescent standing began to rub off on us. This is still true today.

Acquisition and Divestment of Land As McCallan (1975) stated in his history of BTI:

“Mr. Searls, a rugged individual of the old school, was to become

something of a stormy petrel who was not satisfied with the status quo at

the Institute and wanted to shake things up for the better”.

Fred Searls, who liked to list himself as “Mining Engineer, 14 Wall Street, New York

City”, worked for Col. Thompson in mining explorations around the world and eventually

became President of Newmont Mining Corp., the organization founded by William

18

Boyce Thompson. Searls often told stories about “fighting off bandits” during mineral

explorations in China, which, when told in full, would undoubtedly be far more

interesting than this history.

At McCallan’s second BTI annual meeting as a Director (in 1947):

“he [Searls] called the attention of the Directors to the ravages of beetles

and other insects to pine and other timber in the Northwest and desired to

know whether the Institute could save the situation. Dr. Crocker (then

Managing Director) did not take kindly to Searls’ suggestion and replied

‘that the U.S. Government was already spending huge sums for this

purpose’.....

Word filtered down to the staff that the new Member wanted the whole

Institute to work on ‘reforesting the Rocky Mountains’. Thus at this point,

Fred Searls became in the eyes of the staff something of a villain on the

Board. Little did we think that in 1953 he would become Chairman of the

Board.”

As Chairman of the Board, Searls was persistent in pushing the Institute toward a bark

beetle program. He also pressured the Institute into other things. For example, he

prodded the Institute into investigating, for his friend Bernard Baruch1, the value of

Cellular Therapy, a cult medical treatment to ensure perpetual youth begun in 1930 by a

Swiss physician, Paul Niehans. Earlier, Niehans had been involved in the infamous

transplantation of monkey glands for a similar purpose. ‘Graduates’ of the cellular

therapy program included Konrad Adenauer, Pope Pius XII, Gloria Swanson and many

other notables. (Winston Churchill applied but was turned down because of his

inveterate cigar smoking and drinking). Assigned by McNew to the “investigation” were

Walter Tulecke and Leonard Weinstein. Although little was accomplished, they

attended several meetings in New York City of a cellular therapy group, met many

“interesting” people (including Wolfgang Goetze-Clarens, a disciple of Niehans’, who

was fawned over outrageously all that evening. The New York Times the next day

published a list of foreign doctors, including Goetze-Clarens who were caught falsifying

1 Baruch was a wealthy entrepreneur and advisor to many Presidents of both parties.

19

their medical exams. Some youth doctor!). It was not all a complete waste because

Tulecke and Weinstein ended up having Thanksgiving dinner

in South Carolina with Searls, Baruch and Baruch’s “nurse” (who was called “Navarro”)

not on the traditional Thursday but on the previous Tuesday! Details of the

Weinstein/Tulecke escapade are not germane to this document, but they could be

considered adventures in the occult. As we departed for the airport, Baruch gave each

of us a bag of persimmons. It was Weinstein’s first (and last) persimmon and his only

Thanksgiving dinner with Bernard Baruch! Fortunately, the story of BTI’s involvement

with the founding youth doctor, Paul Niehans, and how BTI was able to extricate itself

from being further entangled in this activity, is a long story, but the “youth” doctors are

still in business.

The Stanfordville Farm

Although we were far from being a “forestry institute”, Dr. Clyde Chandler had been

carrying on a breeding program on larch at the Institute arboretum, located about a mile

from the main building. But in 1956, when the New York State Thruway Authority

condemned and purchased 52 acres of its best land, which included the nursery area,

the arboretum was doomed. BTI sold the remaining land for what seemed to be a

pittance, after which it changed hands several times, each sale at a progressively higher

price. This may have been a portent of future Institute land dealings. The area

condemned by New York State is now the Yonkers toll booth area of the New York

State Thruway. The remaining property eventually became a Westchester County park.

In order to continue the larch breeding program, and perhaps for other reasons, the

Institute acquired a 441.5-acre farm in Stanfordville, Dutchess County, New York in

1959. Dr. Chandler’s larch seedlings were transplanted to a 17-acre parcel on the farm.

By diverting a stream and creative use of a bulldozer, a small lake of 1.3 acres was

formed. A cottage was built, ostensibly for the use of researchers, although the lake

and cottage became an employee benefit and the site of the annual Institute picnic.

Jerry Way, who supervised activities at the Yonkers arboretum moved to a house

nearby and took over everyday management of the farm. Later, when the New York

State legislature was debating a bill for funds to construct the building at Cornell for our

20

use, the farm was used to accuse BTI of running an exclusive and private ‘Country

Club’.

With the impending move to Cornell, the property was sold in December 1975 and

March 1976 for a total of $297,000. Contrary to most past and future BTI land dealings,

there was a net profit to the Institute of $193,800!!

The BTI Home Campus and Lenoir

At the Annual Meeting of Members of BTI on May 12, 1975, the move to Cornell

appeared to be more and more imminent and the Members spent most of their time

discussing the divestment of land: properties in Beaumont, Texas, Grass Valley,

California, Stanfordville, NY, and the Institute’s home campus, which now comprised a

parcel of about 130 acres, including the Hudson River Country Club (which surrounded

the Institute’s original campus of 7 acres on three sides), and was formerly restricted

Annual picnic at Dutchess county farm. Left to right: Jane Beardo, Joan DeFato, Jill (Goldman) Mancini.

21

(which meant no Jews, Blacks, Latinos and few Catholics) and ‘Lenoir’, an estate of

16 acres across North Broadway from the Institute and immediately north and adjacent

to the beautiful Thompson estate, ‘Alder’. ‘Lenoir’ and the Hudson River Country Club

were acquired when Dr. Orrin Wightman (who became the heir to the estate and

country club through marriage), died and the Institute exercised its right of first refusal

as had been agreed upon at an earlier date. The original acquisition of the property

seemed essential to the Institute’s future at that time, but it became a liability when the

real estate market turned sour and we had to pay taxes to the City of Yonkers for all but

a 40-acre parcel that was incorporated as an experimental farm and part of the main

campus. There were many suitors who wanted to continue the golf course and country

club, start a new university or build a shopping center, each of which failed because

they were not financially sound, were far beyond our capabilities or were vigorously

opposed by neighbors. (Even today, there is a move to tear down the original Institute

building and replace it with modern medical offices, a health club and, allegedly, a

Dunkin’ Donuts shop. Naturally, there is also an opposition group that wanted the

building to be declared a historic landmark home. The building will not be demolished,

but will not become a historic landmark.)

In the meantime, the U.S. economy went into a steep decline and there were few

serious customers for the land. Also, the city of Yonkers had changed the zoning of the

property to Industrial Park, which more than doubled the taxes. With the initial

investment in the land of $2,960,000, taxes for several years and loss of interest on the

capital, the Institute became desperate to find a buyer. It was finally agreed to sell the

property to the Robert Martin Corporation, developers of executive parks. At the May

12, 1975 meeting, the Members authorized the Executive Committee to conduct

negotiations to sell the property for a price that most Members and Directors felt was

too low, but had to be accepted because time was short and there were no other

prospects. At the Executive Committee meeting of June 19, 1975, recognizing the poor

condition of the real estate market and the somewhat awkward location of the property,

the Committee voted nearly unanimously to sell the property (without the Lenoir estate)

for $2,300,000. Dr. McNew cast a negative vote stating that the price was much too low

and that we should continue to seek out purchasers. As an aside, one of us (LW) was a

22

close friend of the attorney for Robert Martin. He rarely spoke of anything associated

with his legal activities, but because of our friendship he told me that the Institute

lawyer, claiming that he was too busy to write the contract, asked him, the Robert Martin

lawyer, to write it, a monumental error in this kind of negotiation. After that, the lawyer

friend said, it was like “taking candy from a baby”. The ‘Lenoir’ property (a mansion and

16 acres of land overlooking the Hudson River) was sold to the County of Westchester

in 1977 for $504,000. These negotiations were not the last in the Institute’s policy of

divesting land at a large real or potential capital loss. In this case, considering the

original cost of acquiring the country club and Lenoir, the selling price, taxes on much of

the property for eight years and the lost interest from capital, a conservative estimate of

the loss to the Institute’s endowment was about $8,000,000.

The Beaumont, Texas Laboratory

Bark beetles were raising havoc with longleaf and loblolly pines in the South and the

Institute was asked by the Southern Forest Research Institute (a consortium of several

lumber companies) to establish a laboratory on 390 acres of low-lying land west of

Beaumont near the village of Sour Lake. Patrick Hughes, a remarkably versatile

entomologist, who retired from BTI in 2003, and Alan Renwick, an outstanding chemical

ecologist, were resident or part-time scientists there, with Jean Pierre Vité, who came to

BTI from Göttingen, Germany, as the overall director. Vité was a brilliant and dynamic

entomologist. The group found, among other discoveries, that the pheromones,

frontalin, trans-verbenol and verbenone were produced by three species of

Dendroctonus bark beetles and that synthetic samples of these compounds were useful

in concentrating the beetle attacks for exercising control measures.

As McCallan (1975) said, the Southern Forest Research Institute “....decided to

dissolve and withdraw their support in September of 1974. Presumably they felt that the

major goals had been accomplished and they were not about to support long-range

basic research especially when the U.S. Forest Service was funding such......” The

Boyce Thompson Institute land and holdings were sold, and the sole resident scientist,

Patrick Hughes, was transferred to Grass Valley. According to contemporary sources,

the land was sold for a price far below its market value.

The Grass Valley Laboratory

23

As mentioned earlier, Fred Searls, Jr., the Chairman of the Boards of Newmont Mining

and of Boyce Thompson Institute was insistent that something be done about the

damage being caused to forests and shade trees by various species of bark beetles; the

estimated damage being about five times that caused by forest fires. Because it was

felt that a basic study of bark beetles and forest trees could not be accomplished in

greenhouse and laboratory studies, Mr. Searls proposed that the North Star Gold Mine

property, a tract of 660 acres south of Grass Valley, CA, be given to the Institute for

future studies. This was augmented by a gift of 20 acres and a house by Mr. James D.

Hague, and the purchase of two adjoining tracts lying along the southern boundary,

giving a total of 740 acres for research. Funding also came from the Margaret T. Biddle

Foundation (Margaret Biddle was the only Thompson child) and the Institute

endowment. Title to the property was acquired in December 1957. The director of the

laboratory (as well as the one in Beaumont, TX) was again Jean Pierre Vité. Alan

Renwick worked both there and at Beaumont, TX with Vité. Patrick Hughes also

worked there after being transferred from Beaumont.

The forest consisted mainly of ponderosa pines with some black oaks, the only

broadleaf species. A summary of the research carried out and their trials and

tribulations has been summarized earlier (McCallan, 1975). A decision was made to

BTI Bark-beetlelaboratory

building at GrassValley, California

24

move the activities of the Grass Valley operation to Oregon State University. In 1977,

the Grass Valley property was under contract to Robinson Enterprises for $840,000.

Several Board Directors and scientists who had worked there protested this price. BTI

had been receiving about $100,000 per year in timber sales and another $100,000 per

year in sales of rock from the earlier mining activities, but the protests were to no avail

and the land was sold. This was another ‘feather’ in BTI’s land-dealing misadventures.

Despite the fact that there was no financial loss, because the land and buildings had

been donated to the Institute, there was a loss in what could have been received for the

property.

The Nepera Park Farm

From its early days until it was sold, the Institute’s farming activities took place at the

25-acre Nepera Park Farm, located east of the Hudson River Country Club boundary.

The farm had been used extensively by Percy W. Zimmerman and A.E. Hitchcock

during the period when they were actively studying rooting and other plant hormones. It

was also used for field-testing of pesticides and other miscellaneous activities. But its

greatest use was by the Environmental Biology Program for studying the effects of air

pollutants on plant growth, yield and quality. After the Institute acquired the Hudson

River Country Club property, the farm activities were moved from Nepera Park to a

somewhat larger tract behind the Institute building.

The Nepera Park Farm was then sold to the Gestetner Corporation. They, in turn, sold

the property to the Wilmorite Corporation, a large real estate development company.

Wilmorite, apparently feeling a downturn in the economy and not seeing an immediate

use for the property sold it to Consumer’s Union for a headquarters building. Thus

began a saga that led to a lawsuit against the Institute and culminated in a settlement

never made public. The story began when Consumer’s Union, in considering the

purchase of the property from Wilmorite, insisted that it must be a pristine,

uncontaminated parcel. Wilmorite contracted with an environmental consulting firm to

take soil samples for wide-spectrum analysis. Traces of chlordane were found in

several cores, particularly in one. Concerned that they might lose the sale, Wilmorite

had the areas where chlordane was found excavated and sent the potentially

contaminated soil to a special incinerator where anything organic would be

25

decomposed. Wilmorite then asserted that the problem was caused by BTI and filed

suit for reimbursement of costs of more than $3 million. Dr. Ralph Hardy was the

President of the Institute at the time, and he was energized by this claim because of its

potentially negative impact on the Institute’s endowment. BTI retained a law firm in

Albany (Whiteman, Osterman & Hannah, LLP) that specialized in environmentally

related litigation. Our insurance company initially asserted that coverage did not exist

and, at this point, the records of further actions have been blurred intentionally. Even as

a Board member, Leonard Weinstein was not informed of the actions. The denouement

was that our insurance company paid a significant portion of the costs, but BTI was

responsible for an amount that probably reached seven figures.

The Richard Wellman Years (1974-1980)Richard H. Wellman was BTI’s third Managing

Director. He was no stranger to the Institute, having

been hired by the first Managing Director, William C.

Crocker in1939 as a Fellow in the new Carbide and

Carbon Chemicals project. The goal of the project

was to test organic chemicals produced by the

sponsor (or its parent company, Union Carbide) for

biological activity as fungicides (and later as

insecticides, miticides, herbicides, plant growth

regulators, etc.). The project grew significantly over

the years. From these screening efforts, the most

important compound to see the marketplace was the insecticide ‘Sevin’. Unfortunately

for BTI, the patent was owned by Union Carbide. During the project’s tenure, about

14,000 compounds were screened. (This period was during the heyday of the

introduction of new pesticides.) During the McNew years, industrial groups were

allowed to establish “fellowships” to carry on research or chemical screening, or both.

After the Union Carbide project began, the Institute had projects sponsored by the Ethyl

Corporation (later changed to Diamond Shamrock), and a few smaller assorted projects.

Dewayne Torgeson headed the miscellaneous projects; and David Sirois and Earle

Richard H. Wellman, FormerManaging Director

26

Butterfield were faculty scientists. In many ways, these screening projects were not

too unlike the aborted project begun by Charles Arntzen in the 1990s with the Axis

Corporation, a kind of equivalent in molecular biology, except that it went bankrupt.

In 1954, Wellman left the Institute to take up the position as Assistant Manager of Fine

Chemicals at Union Carbide Corporation, but his contacts with the Institute continued.

He was appointed to the Research Advisory Committee in 1968 and a member of the

Board of Directors in 1969. At the BTI Annual Meeting of Members and Directors on

July 26, 1973, Wellman was nominated and elected to succeed Dr. George McNew as

Managing Director, a position he assumed on June 1, 1974. At this same meeting,

Leonard Weinstein was elected to the Board of Directors as the first ‘faculty’

representative. Weinstein resigned as a Director in 1992 at the same time as Dewayne

Torgeson. (Weinstein was not only the first representative of the faculty elected to the

Board, but also the last. In 1999, the Chairperson of the Executive Committee

proposed and passed a by-law that would eliminate any future election of faculty

representatives to the Board. When asked why this was being proposed, the response

was that this is the way modern corporations operate. Because we were not a modern

corporation, a more plausible explanation might have been to provide an opening on the

Board for a new Director with business and industry contacts and/or “deep pockets”.)

The following are the concluding remarks made by McCallan (1975) in “A Personalized

History of the Boyce Thompson Institute”.

“[Dr. Wellman] is well equipped to handle Institute affairs having spent his

first 14 professional years on the Institute staff and all subsequent years in

industrial management with Union Carbide culminating in a vice-

presidency. He is faced with grave problems: the necessary increase in

Institute income, and a reasonable solution to the real estate holdings.

The broad question of improving world agriculture and the possibility of the

Institute’s contribution is being studied. Plans satisfactory to all parties for

the new building at Cornell must be developed. Already some changes in

operation are evident, the Program Directors have been given more

responsibility, meetings are short and to the point, the new Managing

27

Director is a listener. May this new era rank in accomplishments with the

earlier ones and the years with Cornell be fruitful and happy.”

In the internal annual report for 1974, Wellman’s first, the minutes stated that the Board

Executive Committee approved a 12% salary increase for faculty, an almost presidential

amount, but this move was probably in anticipation of the move to Cornell. Wellman

mentioned in the report that:

“During the year we have devoted a great deal of effort to selecting

projects in International Agriculture where our scientists have the expertise

to make a contribution and where there are good possibilities of obtaining

outside funding.”

As will be seen subsequently, our efforts in International Agriculture were only modestly

successful, realized in part primarily by Alva App and Donald Roberts. Wellman’s first

years were difficult ones financially. Inflation was high and the stock market had

slumped. Foundation endowments had been seriously eroded and government

agencies were experiencing severe cutbacks in funding. This may have been

instrumental in Dr. Wellman’s move into International Agriculture, although it was also

consistent with the Institute’s original goal to increase food production on a global scale.

After arriving at the new building at Cornell, several months were spent unpacking and

setting up the new facilities. Program Directors and other faculty members were given

more responsibility, especially in maintaining existing grants and finding new sources of

income because the move, as expected, added to the already significant drain on the

endowment. Meetings were blessedly short, Dr. Wellman believing that after one hour

meetings became repetitive and soporific. But, within the first couple of years on the

Cornell campus, it became obvious to many people that Dr. Wellman’s health was less

than perfect. His movements became somewhat uncoordinated and halting, and some

wondered if he had left Union Carbide to take the position at BTI because of early

symptoms of his condition which, sadly, turned out to be Parkinson’s disease. It

became worse during his tenure and near the end of his 5-year appointment, he was

having balance and other problems. Dr. Wellman’s tenure as Managing Director

continued the Institute’s tradition of supporting a multifaceted research program and

was characterized by strong individual endeavors. His background was more in

28

industry than academics, government grants were tight and his contacts were more in

the international scene than in granting agencies, so it was natural to emphasize the

latter direction. Dr. Wellman retired as Managing Director on August 31, 1980, but

stayed on as a Member and Director of the Board and was also appointed as a

consultant to the new Managing Director. The consultancy was for five years at a

significant stipend each year. He was also allowed to purchase the house he occupied

from the Institute at fair market price.

The New Institute Building at Cornell University

Plans for the new building at Cornell were received with great enthusiasm because the

design, unlike the preliminary box-like design for a building at Oregon State, appeared

very avant-garde. According to the plans for construction, the building should have

been available in 1976 but, as with many best-laid plans, there was a fiscal crisis in New

York City which was quickly reflected in New York State’s financial situation, resulting in

deferment of the building’s construction. The possibility of funding from a consortium of

banks, private citizens, Cornell employees, etc., as discussed earlier, was a major topic

at the February 17 Executive Committee meeting. William Smith, the Board Chairman,

emphasized that the bonds would be moral obligation rather than full faith and credit

bonds of New York State, backed by the University’s tuition and hospital income and a

small endowment. Arthur H. Peterson, the Cornell University treasurer indicated that if

BTI would agree to purchase the bonds, the payment would not come due until the

building was completed The Institute’s brokers estimated that, because of the State’s

financial problems, the bonds would sell in the range of 80-85, not an ideal price. It was

estimated that the bonds would probably be issued in the 9 or 9.5% range with a 30-

year maturity. (Actually, they were issued at 9%, but the rate was dropped to 8% after

the first year). Although a risky investment, the Executive Committee was of the opinion

that the State, and if not the State, the Federal government, would not allow the bonds

to default. Dr. Wellman reviewed the Institute’s alternatives at this point and stated that

the Institute had three options: (1) we could sit by and hope that in a year or two the

State would allow SUNY to initiate new university construction; (2) we could attempt to

get a 2-year delay in vacating the Yonkers buildings from the Robert Martin Corporation,

the purchaser of the land; or (3) we could drop the Cornell affiliation and attempt to find

29

a similar type of arrangement with another university. But there were negatives

associated with each of these options. They would delay our moving from Yonkers and,

of paramount importance, would prevent us from realizing an anticipated annual savings

of $500,000 in services that would be provided by Cornell if we moved.

The actual move was now becoming even more tenuous. In a series of meeting of the

BTI Executive Committee and the BTI Board on February 17, 1976, the problems posed

by the State of New York financial problems cast serious doubt on whether we would

continue to work toward a move to Cornell. Christian Hohenlohe, the great-grandson of

William Boyce Thompson, pointed out that we had acted in good faith in agreeing to

affiliate with Cornell and that it was their responsibility to find a solution to the problem

of financing the building. As a trustee, he was reluctant to commit such a large part of

our capital to purchasing bonds that he considered to be a risky investment. Robert

Fulton, the Chairman of the Executive Committee, was also against purchasing the

bonds. He went further and said that we had an agreement with Cornell, entered into

by us in good faith, and proposed that we not accept anything less than what was

offered and approved originally. Later that day, at a special meeting of Members and

Directors, this issue was brought up again. A number of options were discussed among

which was one to abide by our affiliation agreement with Cornell and SUNY and wait

two years until the State was in a more favorable financial position and could construct

the building, or, we could seek a similar arrangement with another university. Chairman

of the Board William T. Smith pointed out that both options would require seeking an

extension from the Robert Martin Corporation for vacating the building, since we were

now in danger of becoming homeless, having sold all our land holdings and our home

for over 50 years!! There was much give and take at this meeting because of its

importance to the future of the Institute. Leonard Weinstein, who represented the

Institute staff on the Board, pointed out that the previous years of poor finances and the

tumult related to a possible move had brought about marked changes in the quality and

quantity of research. More and more faculty time had been spent in seeking funds and,

frequently, as a matter of necessity, accepting routine and mundane research projects.

He said that every effort should be made to increase income from the endowment.

Furthermore, a move to Cornell would help morale and strengthen us scientifically and

30

financially. Responding in part to Weinstein, C. Wadsworth Farnum expressed his

opinion that the risk of purchasing $3.5 million in bonds was worth it “since we would be

placing the Institute for the long term in the right climate to do good research.” On the

other hand, Fulton was concerned with Weinstein’s comments and pointed out that

there were also hazards in associating with a university “with all their [Cornell’s] financial

problems”. He went on to again oppose putting an investment such as New York State

bonds in our portfolio and suggested that we inform Cornell that we “either get the deal

originally signed or we look elsewhere.” Of course, “looking elsewhere” at this point

was only hypothetical. The deal with Oregon State University, for example, would have

had to be completely renegotiated and the Oregon legislature would have to re-

authorize the invitation and construction monies. And, of course, the enthusiasm for BTI

may have waned after we turned down their offer and they were never able to throw

their bridal bouquet. So, the Board meeting ended with uncertainty, but with a

consensus that we not purchase State bonds and that the Board officers be authorized

to explore other possibilities. Before adjournment, Rodman Rockefeller, a son of

Nelson Rockefeller, the New York State governor, and Dr. Roy A. Young, Vice

President for Research at Oregon State University, were elected as Directors. Young’s

election may have been partly an apology for our rebuff of OSU, but he also had long

and close ties to the Institute. (During the next 5 years, Mr. Rockefeller rarely came to

meetings and the largesse bestowed upon him in the form of a group of magnificent

Japanese threadleaf maples and a number of large hybrid rhododendrons far exceeded

that received in return. By contrast, Dr. Young faithfully attended meetings and was

destined to become BTI’s fourth Managing Director. Rockefeller resigned on May 8,

1980 and was replaced by Dr. Sterling Wortman, Acting President of the Rockefeller

Foundation).

At the Executive Committee Meeting on May 14, 1976, and sounding like a broken

record, there was a strong feeling that BTI should push Cornell for a solution, “but

unless we had a good answer from Cornell by the end of August, we should look

elsewhere”. Although Christian Hohenlohe agreed with this approach, Mr. Fulton

thought that we should immediately look elsewhere for the best arrangement. Later that

day, meetings of the Members and Directors were held. At this stage, Cornell was

31

suggesting that BTI purchase $2 million of Certificates of Deposit from a bank, which

in turn would purchase an equivalent amount of tax-exempt bonds. Dr. Wellman was in

favor of this approach. The ‘missing’ $1.5 million was to be purchased by local

Ithacans. Chairman Fulton restated his opinion that we did not have a viable agreement

with Cornell and therefore should not use any Institute funds. Dr. McNew, Mr. Farnum,

Mr. Hohenlohe and Mr. Smith indicated that they were in favor of the Cornell proposal

and that view was carried. It was now up to the Board, which met in a special session

on July 21, 1976. Chairman Smith announced that pledges from banks in Ithaca and

nearby and the Cornell and Ithaca community to purchase $6.5 million in New York

State bonds had been obtained. If the Institute would commit $2 million of the bonds,

the State would be enabled to issue a call for bids so that construction could begin in

the Fall. He recommended approval. The architect of the building, Ulrich Franzen,

indicated by letter to Dr. McNew that the total of $8.5 million would still be sufficient for

construction of the building. At last, the Board unanimously approved purchase of the

bonds and the Institute was on its way to the beginning of a new era. Did the Institute

purchase bonds? After all the controversy on the Board, the answer is “no”. Because

of a more favorable market for New York State Agency bonds, we were not required to

purchase any.

Now that the move to Cornell was to be a reality, the Institute began a serious review of

its portfolio. In past years, there had been intermittent calls from members of the Board

to place our portfolio under professional management. At the time, we had one or more

financial advisors to assist Chairman Smith in portfolio management. So at the

December 6, 1976, meeting of the Finance Committee, the head of BTI’s team of

financial advisors, Mr. Ramsay Wilson, President of Schroeder Naess & Thomas, stated

that he and his colleagues saw no immediate problems in endorsing the Institute’s three

major holdings, Newmont Mining, Phelps Dodge and Continental Oil, but suggested that

they be watched carefully because they offered limited opportunities. From a clinical

point of view, he stated, they would prefer that no single stock exceed 10% of a

portfolio’s value, but each of these did. Rumblings were again to be heard for

professional stock and bond management. At the Finance Committee meeting held on

July 11, 1977, Mr. Farnum expressed particular concern about our holdings in Newmont

32

Mining and Phelps Dodge, which were providing about 50% (!) of the Institute’s

portfolio income, and which recently had reduced their dividends. He reasoned that

they would probably not appreciate significantly in the near future and, because of

inflation, we needed to increase income while protecting the Institute’s corpus. The

outcome of the subsequent discussion was that we should reduce our holdings in

Newmont Mining and “purchase selected stocks”. The initial move toward professional

portfolio management was made at the Annual Meeting of Members on May 9, 1978.

Dr. Wellman proposed that the management of the Institute’s portfolio be given to

Schroder, Naess & Thomas with discretionary authority, that the Finance Committee be

dissolved, that the Executive Committee be empowered to set basic investment policy

and monitor the actions of the financial advisors, and that William T. Smith (Chairman of

the Board) serve as coordinator between the Executive Committee and the portfolio

manager. This was approved. At the Executive Committee meeting of November 28,

1978, the portfolio manager stated that the holdings in Newmont Mining and Phelps

Dodge would be reduced to not more than 5% of each. For some reason, this was not

done. In fact, in 1980, the Institute’s position in Newmont Mining was reduced from

16% to 10% of the total portfolio by the sale of 18,125 shares. The Pension Fund,

however, did not hold any Newmont Mining stocks in its portfolio.

In the minutes of the Board meeting of May 12, 1977, Chairman Smith introduced the

possibility that the Institute should purchase a residence upon the move to Ithaca that

would then be leased to the Managing Director at a fair rental. The home was to

provide “room appropriate to the entertainment of visiting scientists and other guests of

the Institute”. The proposal was unanimously passed, but the specific use of the home

for entertainment of Institute people or visitors never became a reality. At the same

meeting, and according to the Affiliation Agreement, the following four nominees of

Cornell President Dale Corson were elected as Directors:

• W.D. Cooke, Vice President for Research, Cornell University

• James F. Kelly, Executive Vice Chancellor, State University of New York

• W. Keith Kennedy, Dean of the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences,

Cornell University

33

• Noland L. VanDemark, Director of Research, College of Agriculture and

Life Sciences, and Director of Cornell University Agricultural Experiment

Station (Ithaca)

Over the years since the first Directors were nominated by the President of Cornell, they

not only have represented Cornell’s interests on the Board, but they have also been

generally helpful to BTI in many ways.

In late summer and fall of 1978, we moved into our new building. It was a bittersweet

move, with considerable sadness in leaving the Institute’s original home, a building

which carried so many fond memories, the separation from friends, etc., but it was also

a great adventure, acquiring a brilliant, new facility in a challenging environment. The

usual problems of a complex move were solved by year-end and we were warmly

welcomed by the Cornell and Ithaca communities. It was a remarkable tribute to the

Institute that nearly all scientific and support staff members moved to Ithaca. The new

building was somewhat larger than the old Institute, and had four floors of offices and

laboratories.

International Programs

Dr. Wellman felt that his lasting contribution for a new source of funding would be the

area of international programs. He had good contacts with the Ford and Rockefeller

Foundations, both of which were major players on the international scene. George

Harrar of the Rockefeller Foundation seemed to be an especially good contact. In 1974,

to learn what was out there, Dr. Wellman sent Drs. Richard Staples and Robert

Granados on a tour of the important International Centers. Indeed Staples was happily

on vacation where he and his family had rented a small rural house in Vermont when

Wellman asked Staples to return home to begin the travel. The urgency was necessary

because the travel was scheduled to coincide with the annual scientific reviews of the

Consultative Group on Agricultural Research (CGIAR) stations to be visited: the Asian

Research and Vegetable Development Research Center (AVRDC) in Taiwan was first,

followed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines, the

International Crops Research Institute for the Semiarid Tropics (ICRISAT) in India, the

International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria, and the International

Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Columbia.

34

This trip was followed by one in 1975. Leonard Weinstein, who was in contact with a

scientist in Mexico, learned that there was interest in establishing a collaboration to

study effects of pollution emanating from Mexico City on the forests and agriculture in

the Valley of Mexico. Wellman saw this as a means of entry into Mexican agriculture

and sent a team down at BTI’s expense to meet with the people at the university, with

foundation people and to make any other contacts. The team consisted of Weinstein,

Robert Granados and Delbert McCune from BTI, and Steven Reich, a member of the

Science and Technology Program at Cornell who had worked on projects in South

America and was fluent in Spanish. On the flight down, Weinstein came down with the

flu and never left the Mexico City airport terminal, fantasizing several versions of his

demise while waiting six hours for the next flight back to New York. The rest of the team

went on to a hotel in the Zona Rosa, met with Edward Wellhausen, the Rockefeller

Foundation’s “man in Mexico”, went to the International Maize and Wheat Improvement

Center (CIMMYT) located near Mexico City, talked to a few people, and then returned to

the U.S. empty-handed. Over the next two years, Alva App and Richard Staples visited

the International Potato Center (CIP) in Peru and the CIMMYT in Mexico. However,

neither station was very interested in supplementing their programs by collaborating

with other institutions. While this was typical of our attempts to crack into the

international agriculture scene, Granados and Donald Roberts did spend two to three

months each at ICRISAT as part of a Rockefeller-sponsored grant. By 1976, Alva App’s

program, Cell Physiology and Virology, was conducting research on pathogens of

insects in cooperation with ICRISAT. App began studies on nitrogen fixation in rice

paddies in collaboration with Martin Alexander of Cornell University, and App himself,

went off to IRRI to continue these studies with grants from the UNDP and UNEP.

To further support the development of an International Program, Wellman arranged for

Staples to join the Science and Technology Policy office from 1975 to 1976. The office

was located in the National Science Foundation in Washington. The OSTP office was

run by President Nixon’s science advisor, Guyford Stever, Director of NSF. Nixon had

little patience with science advice, and directed that the office be transferred out of the

White House. Staples moved his family to Washington and spent a year there where he

wrote policy papers on alternative sources of energy and helped to establish the

35

Competitive Grants office in the US Department of Agriculture. He also advised the

Office of Management and Budget on various aspects of the federal budget for the

USDA. While Staples learned a lot about science funding and the politics of biological

science and agriculture, contacts useful for the support of international collaborative

research were illusory. However, the Washington experience provided insight that

pointed the way for Staples to redirect his research toward a new focus on the

molecular biology of fungal development, research for which he eventually received

international recognition.

Upon Staples’ return in 1976, the Physiology of Parasitism Program was expanded and

renamed the Plant Stress Program under his leadership. The new program was to

include not only disease stress in plants, but also drought, aluminum ion toxicity and

temperature stresses. In 1977, a new program was formed under Robert Granados, the

Biological Control of Insects, to meld work on insect pheromones, carried over from the

Forest Biology Program, with the ongoing work on insect pathology. This was to

provide a concerted effort toward the control of pest problems of the world. Upon

relocation to Cornell, a USDA Insect Pathology Research Unit (IPRU), headed by

Richard Soper, joined BTI. The USDA-IPRU located within BTI to create a center of

excellence in entomopathogenic fungal research at Cornell.

In 1980, the Insect Pathology Resource Center (IPRC) was formed. The center was

comprised of the insect pathology specialists of the Biological Control Program, the

USDA Plant Protection Research Unit at BTI, and Cornell’s Department of Entomology.

The functions of IPRC included training, maintenance of a repository of pathogens,

consultation and conducting research that bridged basic and applied studies on

microbial control of pests. The Center even organized a graduate-level, three-credit

hour course (Entomology 653), the first full-semester course at Cornell that was taught

within the Institute building.

Despite the difficulties in starting International research programs, several were active

by 1977. These included one on rice at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)

located in the Philippines. Alva App, in cooperation with Alan Eaglesham and Martin

Alexander, a Cornell professor, developed a very complex program that combined pure

and applied science focused on nitrogen fixation in the rice paddy. They especially

36

studied the enhancement of rice productivity by soil microorganisms and the

contribution of nitrogen fixed by legumes and green algae growing in the rice paddy.

App spent extensive periods at IRRI, and the team learned much about how to improve

the productivity of paddy rice by improving nitrogen fixation in the paddy, nitrogen that

could be utilized by the rice plant. The studies were funded by grants from the UNDP

and UNEP.

Donald Roberts and Robert Granados developed a broad program of research on the

biocontrol of insects in 1980. The objectives were to search for new efficacious and

readily mass-produced isolates and species of pathogens for the biocontrol of insect

pests. Brazil was one of two primary research sites. Richard Daoust, a BTI scientist,

was stationed in Brazil principally at the Brazilian Federal Agriculture Research

Organization (EMBRAPA) laboratory. Two other BTI Research Associates, who served

in Brazil were Jeffrey Lord, and Stephen Wraight. Michael Rombach was stationed at

IRRI in the Philippines where he was specifically interested in new isolates and new

species of fungi pathogenic to rice insect pests.

Don Roberts’ research was funded primarily by grants from USAID, and was carried out

using a combination of cooperative research with local scientists and frequent, but

short, visits to the research sites complemented by laboratory research at BTI. Overall,

the studies included field and laboratory trials using several fungal pathogens to control

cowpea insect pests. The fungal entomopathogen, Metarhizium anisopliae, was

integrated into the Brazilian programs of insect control. As a result, Roberts' laboratory

research at BTI was expanded to include a basic program of research on the infection

processes by the fungus in cooperation with Richard Staples and Raymond St. Leger.

Roberts’ research on biocontrol of insects in Brazil continued at BTI until his retirement

at the end of 1996.

By 1982, Allan Eaglesham had established a collaborative program of research at IITA.

The research sought to improve nitrogen fixation by bean and cowpea, and was

supported by funds from the UNDP under their program of support. Eaglesham's overall

objective was to improve the contribution of nitrogen from rhizobia to legumes growing

in the farming systems of the lowland humid tropics. In order to do this, Eaglesham and

his group sought to identify competitive strains of rhizobia for use in inoculation trials

37

using bean and cowpea crops growing in tropical soils. The diversity and relatedness

of strains of rhizobia between the various field locations was also studied. Eaglesham

spent considerable periods of time at the IITA station in Nigeria. At about the same time,

Eaglesham and Alidar Szalay, established new studies at BTI on the molecular biology

of nitrogen fixation by rhizobial bacteria to complement the fieldwork at IITA. It was their

objective to construct new strains of rhizobia that would fix atmospheric nitrogen more

efficiently, and that would better tolerate the harsh climate of the humid tropics of West

Africa. Eventually such strains were developed and made available to IITA.

Alan Renwick moved back to other activities at the Institute in 1976 when the forest

biology program was closed. He began studies on the mechanisms by which the

cabbage looper recognizes the cabbage plant and spaces eggs on the plant. So in

1980, Renwick, along with Patrick Hughes and Frank Messina established a program of

research on the cowpea weevil in Cameroon using funds from USAID. Messina was

then stationed there. The cowpea weevil is a cosmopolitan pest of stored cowpea seed

that infests cowpea seed in the field. Beetles are able to disperse their eggs evenly

among seeds by recognizing and avoiding seed with previously laid eggs. Egg

recognition was found to involve a combination of chemical and physical cues, and the

object of the research was to identify these cues.

In 1982, Alva App began a two-year leave of absence to become Deputy Director of the

International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology in Kenya. In 1983, he resigned

from BTI to join the UNDP in New York City. Eaglesham also left BTI. Staples, Wood

and Granados by then had turned away from any involvement in international research.

So, except for Roberts, most of the International group had either left BTI or returned to

their own laboratory science by 1983.

While a review of Institute programs in 1982 found that the collaborative international

programs proved to be less productive for the time invested than research programs

carried out at BTI, involvement with research in the less-developed countries enriched

its research programs. BTI added research on the molecular biology of nitrogen fixation

under Szalay to better understand how legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen. In a similar

way, research was started with Roberts and St. Leger to learn the mechanisms that

fungal insect pathogens use to colonize their insect hosts. Staples also changed his

38

program on the study of rust fungi to learn how the very virulent fungal pathogens

colonize their host plants. Because the Institute was able to broaden its interests to

replace research that had to be left behind, or had matured when it moved to Cornell, its

involvement with the CGIAR institutions aided its transition to the rich research

environment at Cornell University.

A Sea Change

The move to Cornell marked the beginning of a sea change in the future scientific

direction of the Institute, although its full manifestation would take more than two

decades. From its beginning, the Institute had strong programs in plant pathology, e.g.,

the ground-breaking research carried out on fungal and viral pathogens [L.O. Kunkel,

F.O. Holmes, Helen Purdy Beale, S.E.A. McCallan] to name only four, plant physiology,

including seed physiology, photobiology, and plant growth regulation [F.E. Denny, L.P.

Miller, P.W. Zimmerman, A.E. Hitchcock, J.M. Arthur, and Lela V. Barton], air pollution

[William Crocker, P.W. Zimmerman, A.E. Hitchcock, C. Setterstrom, the latter being the

Institute’s unofficial social chairman], development of new fungicides and their modes of

action [S.E.A, McCallan, F. Wilcoxon] and entomology [A. Hartzell]. At the time of the

move to Cornell in 1978, there were five programs: Environmental Biology, Nitrogen

Fixation, Biological Control, Plant Stress and Bioregulant Chemicals. Although the

program names had changed, the major areas of research were still present. They

represented a broad range of scientific subjects, including effects of air pollutants on

agriculture and forestry; nitrogen fixation in rice and legumes; viruses and mycoplasma

that infect insects and behavior-modifying chemicals; stress physiology, physiology of

disease tolerance and rust uredospore physiology; and testing of chemicals for

biological activity. The major change was the gradual displacement of holistic plant

studies with molecular genetics, finally, to the exclusion of other scientific disciplines for

which the Institute had been known. This culminated during Charles Arntzen’s

presidency in the late 1990s with the dissolution of all programs that had existed in

1978, including Environmental Biology, converting them into Centers, a singularly ill-

conceived and unsuccessful decision. The former programs were now essentially in

free fall, without a program director to coordinate decision-making. This represented a

39

shift in power from a management team that shared decision–making, to a more top-

down style of management.

The first taste of molecular genetics was served in the person of A.A. Szalay and his

colleagues, especially William Langridge, who studied the transfer of gene clusters of

nitrogen fixation from a procaryote (Klebsiella, Clostridium, Rhizobium) to a eucaryote

(yeast, higher plant). Following Szalay and Langridge, molecular biology became the

main focal point of the Institute. By 2005, all non-molecular biologists had either been

induced to take early retirement or asked to leave. So much for Family.

The Roy Young Years (1980-1986)

Roy Young was selected as the top candidate to succeed Richard Wellman as

Managing Director after Charles Hess and Ralph Hardy withdrew as candidates. His

selection provoked a considerable amount of controversy among some faculty. A

meeting of the Executive Committee on April 18, 1980 was held at the Boyce Thompson

Southwestern Arboretum in Superior, AZ. At the

meeting, Charles Palm (formerly Dean of the College of

Agriculture and Life Sciences at Cornell) and Leonard

Weinstein (both of whom were present in Superior

because of membership on the Arboretum Board) were

asked to attend the meeting and discuss the problem

from the standpoint of the Cornell Administration and

Boyce Thompson faculty. They reiterated the nature of

divisiveness at both institutions and urged a prompt

resolution of this situation. The Executive Committee

decided in favor of Roy Young as the best qualified

person to serve as Managing Director, subject to

approval of the Board of Directors. Thus ended perhaps the most controversial

appointment of a Managing Director, equaled only by the challenge to Dr. McNew by

John Arthur in 1948. (See McCallan, 1975, p. 144). Dr. Young assumed the duties of

Managing Director on September 1, 1980.

Dr. Roy Young

40

As part of his compensation package, Dr. Wellman proposed that the Institute

purchase a residence in Ithaca, “including rooms suitable for Institute functions”, to be

leased to Dr. Young at a fair rental. A vehicle was also to be provided for his use. It is

interesting to note that neither Wellman nor Young made use of these “rooms” for

Institute functions and, in fact, entertainment at home by all subsequent Managing

Directors/Presidents had all but ended with Dr. McNew in 1974. Providing a residence

and an automobile did not continue with later chief executives.

At Dr. Young’s first meeting of the Executive Committee on October 17, 1980, he

commented that his goal was to operate with a balanced budget, something the Institute

had not accomplished for a number of years. Dewayne Torgeson gave a detailed

overview of the Institute’s pension and other benefit plans, comparing them with

Cornell’s (particularly the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences [CALS]). Health plan

benefits (hospital, medical and major medical) compared favorably with Cornell’s but the

Institute’s employee contribution was higher. Cornell provided a dental plan, which the

Institute looked at over the years but never activated because the cost was apparently

too great. Life insurance coverage was superior to Cornell’s plan at CALS. Cornell

offered a scholarship plan for children of employees for study at Cornell or other

associated institutions. It was not available to Institute employees. Today, 24 years

later, no system has been devised for the education of children of Institute employees.

Torgeson concluded that the statutory colleges had a superior plan, at least at that time.

A related issue that has been brought forth to the Board on occasion was that the

pensions of retirees of CALS were supplemented on a periodic basis, depending upon

the rate of inflation. The Institute felt that it could not match this, but there was an

informal agreement on the Board to visit this problem every five years for a possible

adjustment. For the most part, this was not followed and, on the rare occasions when it

was, adjustments fell far short of the previous years’ rate of inflation.

Because the Institute had not operated with a balanced budget for a number of years,

Dr. Young expressed his unhappiness with a projected deficit of $180,000 (it turned out

to be $132,000). On May 8, 1981, at the annual meeting of Members, Dr. George

Frangos of the State University of NY was reappointed as a Cornell representative on

the Board. This is mentioned here only because Dr. Frangos and a close friend of one

41

of us (LW) were in the Greek underground together during the military junta period.

Meetings of two or three members would be held in church pews. They were both

fortunate not to have been caught and jailed for subversive activities.

At the Board meeting that same day, there were two important retirements from the

Board. William T. Smith, asked to be relieved of that position and recommended the

election of Christian Hohenlohe (great-grandson of William B. Thompson and already a

Board member) as Chairman and Robert Pennoyer (a partner in Patterson, Belknap,

Webb & Tyler, a New York City law firm) as Vice Chairman. Mr. Smith had served as

an officer on the Board of Directors for 43 years and as Chairman for 16 years. On the

occasion of his retirement from the Board, S.E.A. McCallan was also recognized for his

52 years of service to the Institute as a plant pathologist, 14 of which were as Corporate

Secretary. Both were elected as Emeritus Board members. Dr. Young also requested

permission to “initiate a fund drive to enhance the BTI endowment”. This may have

been the first official action to supplement the endowment, and we would soon learn

what a herculean task this would be. We were a small institution, had a limited core of

‘alumni’ and little past history of receiving gifts from outside sources. A number of

wealthy individuals had served on the Board over the years, but only one of them had

made significant contributions to BTI, and they were usually made anonymously.

Shortly after the meeting, the Institute’s first Development Officer, Jerry Passer, was

hired.

The Ralph Hardy Years (1986 -1995)Ralph Hardy joined the Institute as its President in September 1986, after holding senior

positions at DuPont (Director of Life Sciences) and BioTechnica International. For its

first 62 years, the title of the head of the Institute was Managing Director. Hardy

objected to this because he felt it was old fashioned and, furthermore, it was more

appropriate for a British head officer, and he requested that his title be ‘President and

CEO’. The by-laws were changed to accommodate all future Presidents. Roy Young,

who was completing his term as Managing Director, spent the last few months as

President and CEO. Hardy’s initial aims were to tighten control of the President’s office

over the Institute’s activities, especially the research programs. He worked to increase

42

faculty performance and to upgrade research quality. He favored research that was

focused clearly on utilitarian goals, especially research that could be patented or would

underpin government regulations, especially agricultural and environmental regulations,

and he worked to insert molecular biology into the programs wherever possible. These

aims were clearly expressed by the National Agricultural Biotechnology Council, an

organization he founded and led initially. Although a few patents had been secured in

earlier years, the goal of research at BTI to secure patents had been discouraged.

Hardy saw patents as a benefit to help pay for the costs of research, and he now

encouraged patent applications. Indeed he wanted to restructure the Institute to become

a world leader in the generation of new knowledge and its application to agriculture that

would contribute to its altered needs as agriculture changed from an emphasis on crop

yield to a reduction in production costs.

To implement this in part, he formed the Management

Advisory Committee (MAC) to improve communication

with the faculty. This committee was intended to

represent all levels of job classification, so that

concerns could be dealt with at an early stage. For

example, in 1988, some of the staff wanted to organize

a union shop of the United Auto Workers, an initiative

that might have been averted had there been a forum

for better discussion of working conditions. The support

staff, especially, felt that a union would help to reduce

inequality and arbitrary treatment in the non-scientist

positions. They assembled the “BTI Staff Organizing

Drive” and published seven issues of a newsletter called

“The Expression Vector”. A number of “messages” were produced and distributed by

both sides in the drive, which lasted about 6 months. Hardy worked hard to defeat the

union, which he eventually did by a narrow 47 to 46 vote. Several of the flyers, letters

and newsletters related to the attempted unionization are shown in the Appendix.

Hardy also developed a mechanism under the Pension Plan for early retirements,

including tenure-track scientists, and this was coupled with the expanded use of a non-

Ralph Hardy

43

tenure track by employing new research staff as ‘Research Scientists’ hired on 5-year

contracts.

Hardy was especially concerned with the quality and productivity of the faculty. He

instituted regular staff evaluations for merit supplemented by an early retirement

scheme that allowed early retirement on an “enriched retirement basis” supported by

the Pension Plan which was over-funded at the time. A change in tenure rules was also

begun to encourage faculty turnover. A tenured employee would be evaluated each

year, and would be expected to maintain a record of innovative research of seminal

importance, publication in peer-reviewed publications, continued funding, and

meritorious service to the Institute. Later, in the Klessig administration, the policy was

modified so that if during the annual review, a tenured faculty member received

evaluations that were unsatisfactory in two consecutive years, a formal post-tenure

review would be triggered, a review that would determine if a the scientist must leave

BTI. An Assistant scientist (pre-tenure) could be dismissed for lack of productivity,

his/her research area was discontinued, or the financial exigencies of the Institute

required dismissal. This was a new ‘take’ on tenure and gave the administration nearly

total control over the composition of faculty.

In 1991, Hardy appointed Robert Kohut as Director of Operations and Frederic “Ben”

Williams as Director of Public Affairs. Kohut accepted the position contingent on being

able to continue his research program. Two years later, Sherry Ashton succeeded

Williams in Public Affairs. By 1997, new changes were initiated. Arntzen appointed

John Dentes as Vice President for Finance and Treasurer, Stephen Howell as Vice

President for Research and Joyce Frank as Vice President for Operations. The latter

change was made by Arntzen, who brooked little hint of opposition, and Bob Kohut was

replaced (as Director of Operations) by Joyce Frank. After a relatively short time, she

was replaced by Larry Russell, but the title did not make the move and he became

Director of Operations. The Vice Presidents for Finance and Research continued,

however. The appointment of Vice Presidents caused a stir on the Board because

there were no provisions in the by-laws for such titles. The by-laws were changed

accordingly to accommodate this new title.

44

Weekly internal seminars were begun to allow a close look at research project

productivity and relevance. Hardy also reorganized the Board’s Research Advisory

Committee and called it the ‘Research Oversight Committee’, a committee of scientists

not affiliated with BTI. Dr. John Oswald was the first chair followed by Harvard

Professor Laurence Bogorad. Research Programs were to be evaluated every five

years. To upgrade the scientific skill level of project leaders, Institute scientists were

encouraged to take sabbatical leaves. While these were generally intended to be

relatively short 6-month leaves, productivity was to be monitored after return, and

ineffective performers were to be encouraged to leave. Eventually, one faculty member

was dismissed.

The Board of Directors was also changed in order to reduce age and to appoint

members with a greater knowledge of science and those with ‘deep pockets’. With the

Chairman of the Board (Paul Hoffman) and other members of the Executive Committee,

Hardy instituted a selection committee to choose new Board members as openings

occurred. These new members were then appointed for 5-year terms with a retirement

age of 70, although, as it turned out, as with several other Hardy edicts, was never

enforced.

To help raise the visibility of BTI within the scientific community, Hardy began a

‘Distinguished Lecture Series’. A committee of Institute scientists invited prominent

researchers to present well-publicized lectures at the Institute. The speakers were given

a plaque and honorarium to mark the event. Occasionally, an auditorium larger than the

99-seat “lecture hall” at BTI was used because of the large audience that was attracted.

These lectures continue today.

Hardy also initiated development of a long-range plan for the Institute. Initially, his plan

included a small group of socio-economists who were to integrate research in BTI’s

major research areas with the hope that the integrated approach would serve as a

model for future agricultural research, and be attractive for broad support from

foundations, special relationships with large corporations or an equity or other research-

support relationship with a start-up company. Eventually the initiative faded from view

probably reflecting the reality that university research is usually performed by individuals

45

working within small groups. Although this did not reach its apex until the presidency

of Charles Arntzen, Hardy was a proponent of faculty turnover.

To move the Institute more strongly into biotechnology, Hardy realigned the programs,

and added a new program in Plant Molecular Biology. In the summer of 1988, BTI

appointed Steve Howell from the University of California at San Diego as the first

Program Director for Molecular Biology. Howell was soon appointed as the Boyce

Schultz Downey Scientist in honor of the founder’s granddaughter, Peggy Schultz

Downey. Howell headed a group that studied hormone-regulated gene expression in

plants, the expression of virus genes and the mechanisms of aluminum toxicity in

plants. The new program also came to include the study of chloroplast function under

David Stern, and the synthesis of amino acids under Robert Last.

In 1995, following a discussion of patent royalties, Hardy proposed that the Institute

establish the following scale with a significant incentive to the inventors:

Net Annual Patent Income % Inventor(s)% Operations% Endowment

Up to $100,000 30 63.0 7.0$100,000 to $500,000 30 17.5 52.5$500,000 to $2,000,000 30 7.0 63.0More than $2,000,000 30 -0- 70.0

The program on Plant Stress under Dick Staples was merged with Biocontrol of Insects

under Robert Granados, who then became the Program Director of the new Plant

Protection Program. Staples was appointed the G.L. McNew Scientist, and became

independent of program affiliation, a long-sought goal of his. Staples retired at the end

of 1991.

The Environmental Biology Program under Leonard Weinstein, the largest and best

integrated program at BTI, was largely untouched by the reorganization. The major

focus of the program remained the effects of various air pollutants on plants, and the

program added Mary Topa to study root transport systems as affected by air pollutants

and, somewhat later, Jonathan Comstock, an expert in plant physiological ecology,

particularly in the area of plant-water relations. In 1987, the program was presented

with a “Distinguished Achievement Award” by the EPA for its outstanding research as a

participant in the National Crop-Loss Assessment Program. Weinstein served as

46

Director of Cornell’s Ecosystem Research Center in 1989-1990. He was also named

to the EPA Science Advisory Board and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory Science

Advisory Committee. Weinstein retired at the end of 1992. John Laurence was then

named Program Director, a position he held until he left BTI in 2001, although he was

on a leave of absence for several years before.

Hardy assigned to himself a new program that emphasized Plant Production. It was a

heterogenous program meant to draw together a group of projects that didn’t fit within

the existing programs. At its core, were several projects on plant roots and symbiotic

nitrogen fixation under Thomas LaRue and projects left behind when Alidar Szalay and

William Langridge left the Institute. The Plant Production Program also included a

project on the impact of the human population on estuarine biology under Ted Buckley,

the remains of a much larger study of the Hudson River biota that ended when BTI

moved to Cornell. A project on gravitropism and another on the stability of seeds under

long-term storage were also included in the Plant Production Program. Both studies

were initiated and led by Carl Leopold. Leopold has won numerous international awards

for his work with seeds, and his book ‘Plant Growth and Development’ is a classic. He

was named earlier as the William C. Crocker Scientist.

After its merger with Plant Stress, the Plant Protection Program under Robert Granados

was focused on biological pest control. The virologist, Gary Blissard, and the

entomologist, Ann Hajek, joined the program early in 1990. Research objectives

included studies to understand the genes and gene products important for host

colonization and infection by fungal and viral pathogens, and information from these

studies was to be used to develop biological control strategies. Other projects included

the ecology of plant-pest-insect interactions and the survival and persistence of

engineered microbes in the environment. In addition to his own research, Blissard, with

his strong background in molecular biology, was an important resource person for the

Program.

Donald Roberts continued his cooperative work in Brazil until his early retirement in

1996. He particularly wanted to find insect pathogens that might be used to control the

mosquitoes that carry the malarial parasite, but he was also interested in seeking to

control other insects that impacted the health of the South American population as well

47

as their crops. In addition, he collaborated with Raymond St. Leger and Richard

Staples to clone the genes from the fungal insect pathogen, Metarhizium anisopliae,

that coded for proteins involved with the penetration process used by the fungus to

penetrate the insect cuticle. In 1999, a patent was issued for one of the proteases, Pr1,

the first enzyme secreted by M. anisopliae during cuticular penetration. Roberts, St.

Leger and Staples shared in the patent.

This highly sophisticated research was expensive. The faculty was continually engaged

in seeking outside support, especially from foundations like the Rockefeller Foundation,

and government sources like AID, NSF, EPA and NIH. However, funds from the Boyce

Thompson endowment were always needed to supplement salaries, buy capital

equipment and pay for the services required to operate the stockroom, the library, and

the business office with its many functions mandated by government agencies in some

way. Yet the Board felt that the usual 7% to 9% draw was preventing the endowment

from growing and Hardy decided to adopt a goal of a 6% draw. To do this, he

inaugurated a Development Office, and Ben Williams was appointed to help raise funds

to offset the reduced draw. Williams had expertise in Development at Cornell, and was

particularly well positioned as a lobbyist to state government at Albany. Hardy also

moved strongly to reduce research costs at BTI. He provided incentives for tenure-track

scientists to retire, structured a program whereby distinguished emeritus scientists could

continue their work at BTI after retirement (the DESIRE program, which continued only

during his tenure), expanded use of a non-tenure track for employing senior scientists,

provided incentives for scientists to transfer research costs to sponsors’ funds and

sought in various ways to reduce operating expenses. There was also an initiative to

shift, where possible, to NIH funding and away from the USDA which capped the

overhead of its grants at 14%, a rate far below the actual overhead costs of a project at

BTI.

Hardy also had to solve a very difficult problem involving Cornell’s Entomology

Department. During the early years at Cornell, efforts by Roberts and Granados to

obtain appointments as Adjunct Professors were rebuffed. The objections appear to

have been based on a marked reticence by the Entomology faculty to lose control of the

direction of the field. Yet other departments like Plant Pathology readily appointed

48

Staples and Howell to their faculty where they gave lectures and even taught courses.

Hardy worked hard to establish a bridge to Entomology, and eventually succeeded in

getting the required votes for adjunct appointments. By the time he left BTI in 1995,

there was a warm relationship between Entomology and BTI, and it was with real

gratification to learn that Ann Hajek had been awarded a professorship there. She was

granted tenure shortly afterward.

In his nearly 10 years as President, Hardy achieved most of his goals. By 1994, the

endowment draw had been reduced to 6.7%. He attained a tighter control over the

Institute’s programs, which he realigned to reflect his views that research should be

carried out with clear, narrowly defined goals that would yield a useful product. He

adored patents. The Institute became what many on the faculty really wanted, an

institution devoted to applied science. The dreamers drifted away, and in later years we

were to see some rather tragic results of the decision to hire scientists without tenure

because the policy led to the arbitrary dismissal of several very productive and well-

funded scientists. There was also a downside to the policy of encouraging faculty

turnover because eventually Steve Howell, John Laurence and Robert Last, among the

most creative and productive scientists, left BTI for positions at other Institutions. These

changes did, however, produce a more well defined, easy-to-grasp package that could

be sold to industrial sponsors, and charitable foundations. Indeed these kinds of

changes occurred across the Cornell campus as government-supported research

declined. By the time Hardy had stepped down, the Institute had changed to fit the

campus culture of high quality, cutting-edge research that yielded clear practical results,

and was funded by a wide-array of industrial and government sponsors. But we became

a group of entrepreneurs barely distinguishable from anyone else on the campus.

At his last meeting of the Board of Directors, Hardy outlined some examples of key

scientific contributions that took place during his tenure:

• In 1989, the first field release of a genetically engineered virus was

accomplished by H. Alan Wood, in collaboration with a Cornell scientist.

• Enhancins, capable of destroying the gut lining of insects, enabling viruses

to kill the insect, was discovered by Robert R. Granados and was licensed

to industry.

49

• An understanding of the signaling, or cross-talk, that enables fungi to

determine the ‘right moment’ to make infectious structures in plants

resulted in awarding Richard Staples and Cornell scientist Harvey C. Hoch

the Ruth Allen Award from the American Phytopathological Society.

• Control of gypsy moths by a fungus was researched successfully by Ann

Hajek, now a professor at Cornell.

• An aromatic amino acid-derived secondary metabolite, found to be crucial

in protecting plants from UV-B, was found by Robert Last.

• A gene responsible for the systemic movement of viruses in plants was

identified by Stephen Howell.

• A computer model, TREGRO, simulates tree growth and is used to project

long-term environmental damage from ozone, acidic precipitation or

drought to trees was developed by David Weinstein and is being used by

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, The U.S. Forest Service and

the National Park Service.

• Discovery of glassy-state technology by Carl Leopold that has wide

application for the stabilization of biomedical materials.

• A new understanding of plant-insect-pollutant interactions was gained

from studies by Patrick Hughes.

On January 7, 1995, a special meeting of the Executive Committee was held to

interview candidates for President. Following interviews with each of the three

candidates, Charles Arntzen, Wilhelm Gruissem and Michael Unsworth, the Executive

Committee selected Arntzen as the first choice, although the faculty and search

committee favored Unsworth.

The need to reduce the Institute’s draw on the endowment through individualized

severance arrangement with tenured scientists was explored by Hardy at a special

meeting of the Executive Committee on July 7, 1995. Hardy reported that he had

received favorable responses from two scientists and willingness for further discussions

from others, based on a severance arrangement to be determined. He stated that the

average cost of severance would be recovered in reduced draw from the endowment in

two or three years, after which there would be a net saving. He also pointed out that in

50

accordance with law, the Institute had no mandatory retirement policy. These

severance arrangements were to be continued by Dr. Arntzen if severance agreements

had not been reached by Hardy’s retirement date.

Later that year, on June 23, a. symposium entitled “Agricultural Biotechnology: Science

and Public Policy” was held in Hardy’s honor “to recognize his many accomplishments

while President, his national scientific leadership, and the distinguished service he

provided not only to the Institute but to the broad field of plant research and

biotechnology”. Each of the speakers had been colleagues of Hardy’s, but other

participants included Stephen H. Howell, Program Director for Plant Molecular Biology

and the Boyce Schulze Downey Scientist; Robert Granados, Program Director for Plant

Protection and the Charles A. Palm Scientist; and John A. Laurence, Program Director

for Environmental Biology. At the banquet that followed, several speakers paid tribute

to Hardy.

The Charles Arntzen Years (1995-2000)

Charles Arntzen took over the reins of the Institute on September 1, 1995. Before

coming to BTI, he had held faculty positions at the University of Illinois and Michigan

State University. He was a research scientist with the USDA and Director of the

Michigan State University-Plant Research Laboratory, funded by the department of

Energy. In 1984, he joined the DuPont Company as Director of Plant Science and

Microbiology and, later, Director of Biotechnology in the Agricultural Products

Department. In 1988, he became Dean and Deputy Chancellor for Agriculture at Texas

A & M University, followed by a stint as the University’s Director of the Plant

Biotechnology Program of the Institute of Biosciences and Technology.

Charles Arntzen was arguably the most able scientist and most active president in BTI’s

history and was only the second BTI scientist to be elected to the National Academy of

Sciences (the first was L.O. Kunkel, who left BTI for the Rockefeller Institute). From the

outset of his administration, it was clear that there would be a major emphasis in plant

molecular biology. Because funding had been significantly reduced, those who read tea

leaves could have predicted that other programs were going to be diminished, a

situation which came to pass. He stated in his first Annual Report in 1995 that:

51

“This increasingly competitive scientific environment presents interesting

challenges at this time as I start my presidency at the Boyce Thompson

Institute......I am a firm believer in the axiom that ‘the strong do best when

the going is tough.’”

But his plans to divest programs other than those in molecular biology had obviously not

been fully formed, since he stated,

“Our laboratory building, with its phytotron complex and closely situated

field research facility, is a plant research facility unparalleled in an

academic setting”

He was presumably referring to the Environmental Biology Program. And, a statement

that was highlighted in the report,

“We are positioned to expand into new research in global environmental

biology which could be of interest to important U.S. and international

foundations that support research. Designing this and other programs that

are innovative and novel and creating ties with other for-profit or not-for-

profit organizations will be a top priority for me in the coming months”.

In his 1996 President’s Report, he stressed biological biodiversity and sustainable

development as his keynote subjects. BTI had been awarded a $3,000,000 grant for

the establishment of the Park Foundation Biodiversity Project. Arntzen’s definition of

biodiversity, however, was restricted to mean the “untapped wealth providing new

sources of foods, pharmaceuticals, or other biological materials” rather than the usual

accepted definition of “the variety of life on Earth, that includes genetics, species,

ecosystems and the ecological processes of which they are a part”, or, for the

geneticist, the “totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region”. It may appear to

some that Arntzen’s definition was tailored to the new grant. After the grant was

announced, Dr. Arntzen said, “While many international biodiversity projects are

creating catalogs of existing life species, we are studying the ‘hidden biodiversity’ at the

molecular level in natural species by developing the tools to identify and manipulate the

diverse chemicals organisms produce”. It would therefore appear that there was a new

definition of biodiversity. Perhaps, the research conducted by the foundation grant could

be more accurately defined as chemical ecology. Also in 1996, an agreement was

52

formed with the Cornell Program in Biogeochemistry and Environmental Change, with

plans to have four participating scientists at BTI. Two laboratories were assigned for a

mass spectrometer laboratory for natural abundance isotope analysis. Jonathan

Comstock, a plant ecophysiologist, was put in charge of this laboratory. Unfortunately,

Comstock, who was the Principal Investigator of a $4+ million NSF grant was essentially

fired from BTI because his research was not primarily in molecular biology. At this

writing, both Comstock and the laboratory have left BTI.

At the Board Meeting held on May 9, 1996, the Cornell Relations Committee, which

evaluates the activities and interactions with Cornell, reported that 17 of BTI’s faculty

had adjunct appointments, 16 had graduate field appointments and 13 were on

graduate committees. Weinstein, who had chaired the

committee since its inception, became an emeritus board

member at the close of the meeting and Arntzen became the

chair of the Cornell Relations Committee.

Dr. Arntzen was the first chief executive of BTI to have his

own major research agenda and to bring in research

scientists to support it. Much of his time and effort, both

scientifically and in publicity activities revolved around the

use of bananas to produce edible vaccines for various

diseases, including common childhood maladies such as

diarrheal disease. This research evoked a tremendous amount of publicity and it was a

common sight to see reporters and television crews setting up in various parts of the

building and greenhouses. Within one or two years, this probably resulted in more

news articles about edible vaccines than all other publicity about BTI since its inception

more than 70 years earlier.

Shortly after assuming the presidency in September, a document was issued (on

December 7, 1995) with the title “Implementation of a Reduction in Staff at Boyce

Thompson Institute”. By 1996, four senior members of the Environmental Biology

Program were encouraged to take early retirement (Delbert McCune, David MacLean,

Jay Jacobson and Richard Mandl), a situation which essentially emasculated the

program. Tom LaRue, Vladimir Macko and Donald Roberts also joined in. Although

Dr. Charles Arntzen

53

their departure left large intellectual gaps, the change in direction was clear and the

gaps were never filled in those research areas. Along with the greatly encouraged early

retirement of scientists, several long-time technicians (research assistants and research

specialists) were laid off (a softer, alternate term for being fired), an event that had

never in memory happened before. The plan compensated these people according to

years of service and did not interfere with retirement benefits, although most of these

people were many years from receiving them. Each person laid off was given health

insurance coverage for up to 12 months. But the “lay off’ created a lasting bitterness

toward BTI by many.

By 1997, BTI was, for all practical

purposes, an institution for molecular

biology with the exclusion of other areas of

research for which we had been well-known

internationally. For example, what had

been the largest environmental biology

program in the U.S. was now a bare

shadow, known euphemistically as Forest

Biology and often referred to as the vEBP

(virtual EBP). On the plus side, there was

no doubt that the overall quality of research at BTI was on the rise, due partly to astute

hiring by Arntzen and by the large pool of excellent and available scientists having

difficulty finding good positions due to hiring freezes and reduced research funding.

The Institute also was very supportive of Educational Outreach activities, which started

as a volunteer effort with high school students, teachers and community groups and

today is an integral part of all National Science Foundation grants. Ties with Cornell

were also strengthened and BTI scientists became more involved in Cornell activities

than before. Dr. Arntzen also pressed for continuing the reduced withdrawal from our

endowment with a goal of 5%. When he left in 2000, BTI had changed irrevocably from

an institution with a broad mandate in several important areas of research to essentially

a monoculture, with most of its efforts in molecular biology.

Dr. Daniel Klessig

54

Daniel Klessig, 2000-Daniel Klessig was named President of the Institute after having served as Associate

Director of the Waksman Institute in New Brunswick, NJ. He brought several post-

doctoral associates with him, working in the general area of understanding signal

transduction in plants. His scientific and managerial accomplishments must wait for the

subsequent history covering from 2000 to some period in the future.

The EndowmentIn 1924, the Institute started with $10 million in its endowment. By 1974, it had grown to

about $16.4 million. In 1984, Roy Young decided that the endowment funds should be

diversified and retained the first professional money managers.

As the number of managers increased, a financial consultant was retained to

recommend which managers to retain, which to replace, and to be present when new

managers were interviewed.

Endowment Market Value($000,000)

$0.0

$20.0

$40.0

$60.0

$80.0

1974

1979

1984

1989

1994

1999

2004

Growth of the endowment from 1974-2000 is shown above.

At the end of 2000, the endowment was $80.6 million.

55

ReunionsWe don’t know who brought up the subject or where it was brought up, but it was

probably at a Management Committee meeting in 1993 ---- it could have been Bob

Granados whose birthday and the dedication of the institute fall on the same day (but

not the same year because the Institute was a going concern before he was born) ----.

or perhaps someone realized that we hadn’t had an Institute-wide commemoration

since our 50th Anniversary nearly 20 years earlier, and it was time. Whatever energized

it, Ralph Hardy and the faculty caught the enthusiasm and away we went. Looking back

at it after a number of years, it does seem strange that we mobilized so many people

and exerted so much effort for a 70th Anniversary celebration instead of waiting for the

traditional 75th, although that was not ignored. Sherry Hoard Ashton, who headed up

our Public Affairs Office, became the coordinator for the 70th Reunion. Sherry’s

enthusiasm and energy was the driving force that made the reunion a huge success.

The following committees were assembled from Institute volunteers:

Science Carl Leopold (Speakers)

Tom Davis (Poster Session)

Len Weinstein & Dick Mandl (Historical Photos and Posters)

Sherry Ashton, Ben Williams and Brian Gollands (Video)

Tours Luke Colavito

Terry Lauver

Paul Van Leuken

Entertainment Len Weinstein

Bobbie Kohut

Sherry Ashton

Dick Mandl (Catering)

Housing Nancy DeLuca

Transportation Michelle Mogil

Dick Mandl (Local)

56

Athletics Bob Granados & Gary Blissard (Golf Tournament)

Nancy DeLuca

John Dentes

John Laurence & Mary Topa (Hike/Walk/Jog)

Actually, many other people became involved and other activities were included, such

as Winery, Museum and Ornithology Tours. A program of distinguished speakers to

commemorate “Seventy Years of Accomplishments”, was held at the James Law

Auditorium in the College of Veterinary Medicine. About 170 alumni, guests and current

Institute employees registered, but more actually attended. The Schedule of Events

and selected photographs are shown in the Appendices. Alumni and guests came from

as far as England and states ranging from California to Florida. Many of the visitors had

been at the Institute in Yonkers, and many had not returned in more than 40 years. It

was an out-of-body experience to have last seen many people as relative youths, and to

face the reality of seeing them again as senior citizens. Souvenir wine glasses, caps,

golf shirts, tee shirts, portfolios and pins commemorating the event were available at

modest prices. Sales were not as brisk as anticipated and they remained available for

quite a long time at discounted prices and some things were finally given away but it

was a wonderful event.

Five years later the Institute marked its 75th anniversary, celebrated at a much lower key

and marked by an Institute-wide banquet held at Cornell’s Statler Hotel.

Selected Research Accomplishments(Research is not listed by the name of the scientists. See staff lists for participants).

Research at BTI has covered a wide area that reflected its diverse missions as it was

interpreted by those who led the Institute before it was narrowed so drastically by Ralph

Hardy, Charles Arntzen (especially) and subsequent Presidents. A glance at the Staff

Lists (in the Appendices) will show that research included studies on the environment,

plant pathogens, the growth and development of higher plants, nitrogen fixation, and

insect pests of plants. With such a broad scope, it is hazardous to identify research

contributions that can be rated as meritorious because that designation reflects the

background and interests of the observer. What follows, then, is an attempt by the

57

authors of this history, scientists, who had quite different careers and pursued different

goals, to point out some of the many research advances made by BTI faculty over the

years 1974 to 2000. No doubt there are others. International research is discussed

elsewhere in this document under International Programs.

Biological Control of Insects

Gypsy moth is a serious pest of many trees, especially oaks, in the Northeast. During

1989 and 1990, epizootics of the fungal pathogen, Entomophaga maimaiga, were found

to be decimating gypsy moths. The fungus had been imported from Japan in 1984 for

use as a biocontrol agent but had escaped. Personnel from BTI released the fungus

anew into uninfected areas in order to study it effectiveness in controlling gypsy moth in

different environments. These studies led to improvements in the stability and

effectiveness of the fungus for gypsy moth control.

Viral pathogens of insects were also studied, and BTI scientists developed cultures of

insect tissues as a part of their experimental protocols. For example, researchers found

that baculoviruses can disrupt the peritrophic membrane of lepidopterous insects by a

protein, Enhancin, thereby greatly increasing the toxicity of the virus to its host. In turn,

this led to the development of several valuable types of tissue cultures which were

patented and licensed for commercial use. Another commercially important patent was

a method for the high-density rearing of insect larvae, which vastly reduced the cost for

rearing insect larvae required for research. Baculoviruses were also used as a model

system to study insect transcriptional and translational mechanisms relating to viral

infection. An exquisite understanding of the molecular biology of the function of the

baculovirus membrane and regulation of baculovirus replication has flowed from this

work.

One of the major problems with using baculoviruses as insecticides was that they kill

insect pests too slowly compared with chemical insecticides. However, using the new

tools of biotechnology the Institute rapidly began to adopt, pesticidal genes from many

sources could readily be introduced into the virus. The problem, then, became one of

how to introduce genetically engineered baculoviruses into crops growing in open fields

without damage to the environment, especially those caused by genetic drift where the

engineered virus might affect non-target insects in the population or even weeds or

58

other crop plants. To study this problem, BTI faculty engineered a nuclear

polyhedrosis virus from the gypsy moth insect by deleting the polyhedrin gene, the gene

required for occlusion (encapsulation) of virus particles. Without the polyhedrin gene,

the virus cannot replicate. The deleted polyhedrin gene could then be replaced with a

foreign gene whose product would enhance pathogenicity of the virus. With permission

from the U.S. EPA, this first release of a genetically-engineered virus in an open field

was approved in 1989, the engineered virus was found to rapidly decline in the field,

and the application of an engineered virus was considered a great success.

Entomopathogenic fungi are a group of fungi that colonize various species of insects,

and they and their products can be used to control insects. BTI researchers described

the structure of efrapeptins, peptides toxic to insects, from fungi in the genus,

Tolypocladium, and beauvericin, a cyclodepsipeptide from fungi in the genus, Fusarium,

secondary metabolites, might be used for the control of insects like mosquitoes.

Research on insects focused on chemical factors involved in the recognition of hosts

and the effects of the environment on the production of those factors, including

chemicals in plants that modify the behavior of insects such as host location recognition

for egg laying. For example, studies were conducted to explain the different host ranges

of related butterflies. One crucifer was shown to have compounds called 'cardenolides'

that act as deterrents to insect visitation, and it was shown that two closely-related

pierid butterflies have quite different host ranges based on their differing sensitivity to

the cardenolides.

Researchers discovered that some chemicals in plants stimulated the insect pest to lay

eggs on the host plant. One such 'oviposition stimulant' in cabbage was found to be

glucobrassicin, and the compound was studied for possible control of the cabbage

butterfly, Pieris rapae. Chemicals in plants that deterred oviposition were also studied,

and chlorogenic acid from Nasturtium was found to be such a deterrent. One twist to the

story was that chlorogenic acid was a deterrent if the insect first fed on cabbage. In

contrast, if the insect fed continuously on Nasturtium, it led to habituation, and the

larvae fed normally.

Institute scientists studied the mechanisms that fungal insect pathogens use to colonize

their insect hosts. These studies included the developmental stages used by the fungus

59

to colonize its host insect, and the virulence factors secreted by the pathogen, and

they also developed a transformation system in order to study the function of the

virulence factors. One of these factors included a proteinase, Pr1, which Institute

scientists showed were coded by the ssg gene, and the region where the Pr1 protein

bound to insect cuticle bound was also discovered. When Pr1 was over-expressed in

the insect host, death of the insect was hastened, but they also discovered that the

insect responded to entry of Pr1 by activating its polyphenol oxidase system to melanize

the cuticle and thus defend against the fungal pathogen.

Bioregulant Chemicals (Sponsored Research)

Several companies have sponsored the search for chemical pesticides at BTI, and

several remarkable compounds were discovered that were useful for the control of plant

pests. Two notable compounds developed by Diamond-Shamrock Corp. were Dacthal,

a pre-emergent herbicide, and Daconil, a foliar protectant fungicide. Sponsorship by

The Union Carbide Corp. led to the discovery of Sevin, a popular insecticide that

degrades in the soil thus avoiding chemical contamination.

Environmental Biology.

Studies on effects of air pollution on plant growth, yield and quality trace back to the

Institute’s founding. More recently, BTI scientists have studied effects on plants of

fluoride, ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, acid rain, chlorine and many other

pollutants. Program scientists have served on committees that have established Federal

and State air quality standards for sulfur dioxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and fluoride,

as well as on the Environmental Protection Agency’s Scientific Advisory Board. One

development by program scientists was the design of the open-top chamber, an

innovation that allowed researchers to study effects of air pollutants in the field in a

realistic manner. The chambers are still used throughout the world more than 35 years

after their introduction. Another important development was the widely-used computer

program, TREGRO, that evaluated the ways that the suppression of the rate of

photosynthesis by ozone exposure could cause shifts in the allocation of carbon to

individual trees. It has been used extensively by the USEPA and the US Forest Service.

For many years, much of the effort was directed to studies on the impacts of airborne

fluoride, easily the most toxic of all common air pollutants to plant life. The BTI group

60

was recognized as perhaps the foremost research group on fluoride effects in the

world and developed what are now standard methods for the analysis of fluoride in

biological materials and the atmosphere. Studies were carried out in the laboratory and

field, and ranged from biochemical and physiological effects to responses on plant yield

and quality.

As molecular biology became increasingly dominant at the Institute, the Environmental

Biology Program lost much of its cachet and support and was eliminated

Estuarine Biology

When BTI moved to Ithaca from Yonkers, it became necessary to end the study of the

Hudson River biota. The very large project was replaced with a smaller one, a project

on the impact of the human population on estuarine biology. An important separate

study was to determine the habitat and population of the Atlantic sturgeon and the

short-nosed sturgeon in the estuary. The results of the Hudson River project were

summarized in “An Atlas of the Biologic Resources of the Hudson Estuary” published in

1977.

Nitrogen Fixation

A large number of scientists were engaged in at least some aspect of studies on

nitrogen fixation by higher plants. Some of the accomplishments from these studies

have been recorded in our review of International Programs and will not be repeated

here.

At about the same time as BTI started the International Program, it established new

studies at on the molecular biology of nitrogen fixation by rhizobial bacteria to

complement the field work in less-developed countries. Studies were also initiated on

the transfer of gene clusters (Nif gene) for nitrogen fixation from a procaryote

(Klebsiella, Clostridium, Rhizobium) to a eucaryote (yeast, higher plant). Indeed, BTI

scientists completely sequenced the Rhizobium nifB gene. At its core, were several

projects on plant roots and symbiotic nitrogen fixation. This group also developed

Luciferase vectors suitable for transforming tobacco. The vectors were patented. A new

species of bacterium, Photorhizobium thompsonum, was newly described that was

shown to fix both nitrogen and oxygen, i.e., the bacterium was both a symbiont and was

photosynthetic.

61

Scientists demonstrated for the first time that both plant and microbe chlorophylls can

contribute to energy self-sufficiency for nitrogen fixation by root nodules. It was shown

that cytokinin was involved in limiting nodule numbers on roots, a step that conserves

plant energy. In addition, Institute scientists discovered a factor in a mutant of peas that

regulated nodule number on roots.

Plants and Human Health

BTI scientists have worked to create plant-based oral vaccines for use to alleviate

disease in less-developed countries. They first showed that specific, single genes from

human or animal pathogens (bacteria and viruses) could be transferred to plants, and

the gene-product retained its immune stimulating properties of the original pathogen.

Second, they showed that the "vaccine" in the plant cells did not have to be purified but

was orally active if the plant was consumed as food. Third, they showed that oral

immunization by plant-delivered vaccines was effective in human clinical trials. They

have especially focused on producing a pediatric vaccine in ripening banana fruit to

alleviate diarrhea in infants.

Plant Production

Two projects on seed physiology were included in this program area. One project was

on gravitropism, while another was on the stability of seeds under long-term storage. A

significant discovery was the 'glassy state' in stored seeds. This explained how seeds

survive long periods of dry storage to become desiccated. The discovery was patented,

and has been licensed for use as a vaccine delivery system including the delivery of

insulin to diabetics.

In the area of gravitropism, Institute scientists showed in corn, that while amyloplasts

were accessories to the gravity sensor, they were not the sensor itself as then believed.

Instead, scientists showed that the cytoplasm was the sensor and that the starch

granules potentiate the sensitivity of sensing.

Plant Stress.

BTI scientists have studied various species of the rust fungi which cause serious crop

losses. They isolated and identified chemicals secreted by the fungus that keep the

spores of the pathogen from germinating until it has been dispersed by the wind, the

self-inhibitors, and they discovered how these fungi, which penetrate their host plants

62

through the stomatal opening, are able to recognize the stomate, a signal located on

the lip of the stomatal guard cell. Genes were also cloned that were involved when a

rust fungus develops the appressorium, the structure that sits over the stomatal

opening, the first genes cloned from a rust fungus, a difficult feat since the fungus grows

only on a living host plant.

Some fungal pathogens of plants secrete toxins, virulence factors that cause the plant

host to become susceptible to infection. Institute scientists were the first to describe the

correct structures for important members of this group of compounds including Victorin,

secreted by the fungus that causes the Victoria blight of oats, the first of these host-

specific toxins to be discovered, and the toxin responsible for the symptoms of eyespot

of sugarcane. Several labs in the world now seek to understand how plants synthesize

such a complex compound.

Plant Molecular Biology

Cytokinins.

Cytokinins act as a mitogen to stimulate cell division and as a morphogen to

regulate root development. BTI scientists developed cytokinin mutants of Arabidopsis,

including one mutant for the cytokinin-response gene, ckr1. This mutant would not

respond even to high concentrations of cytokinin. They also showed that the effects of

cytokinin were mediated by ethylene.

Molecular biology of environmental tolerance. (Some of this research was carried out in

collaboration with scientists in Environmental Biology).

Mutants were used to study the role of plant pigments against UV-B radiation.

They found that sinapic esters not flavanoids were the key UV-B sunscreens in plants.

They also found that in Arabidopsis infected with the CaMV virus, it is the polyhedron

that is damaged by UV-B not the viral DNA. Other mutants developed were the first

ozone-sensitive mutant (deficient in accumulation of ascorbic acid), the SOZ1 mutant

(deficient in accumulation of ascorbic acid, the SOZ1 mutant was sensitive to UV-B,

SO2, and virulent pathogens), and an aluminum tolerant mutant that was found to

exclude aluminum.

Nutritional quality of plants.

63

To improve the nutritional quality of plants, scientists studied the genetic

regulation of synthesis of tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and anthranilate. They

developed Arabidopsis lines that were deficient in each gene. Among other findings,

they showed that enzymes for these genes were in the chloroplast, and that the

pathways for their synthesis were regulated post-transcriptionally by a variety of stress

conditions and pathogens.

Plant viruses.

BTI scientists studied the process by which the maize streak virus (MSV)

subverts the molecular machinery of a plant cell to parasitize it. Among other findings,

they found that MSV uses a corn-cell transcription factor to promote expression of the

viral coat protein gene. They discovered a natural form of virus resistance, a factor

coded by the CAR1 gene, in Arabidopsis that prevents movement of the virus from cell

to cell in a host plant.

Control of gene expression in chloroplasts.

Researchers in this area have been studying the function and metabolism of

chloroplasts from the algae, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, especially to better understand

intracellular communication at the genetic level. BTI scientists have sequenced the

chloroplast genome, and proved that gene expression in the chloroplast changes

significantly in response to abiotic stresses such as phosphate and sulfur limitation.

Among other discoveries, they showed that the activity of an important enzyme called

PNP, found in chloroplasts as well as microorganisms, declines precipitously under

phosphate stress, indicating that both PNP and the chloroplast are part of the cell's

phosphate-sensing, intracellular communication network in Chlamydomonas.

Studies like these enable BTI scientists to better understand the complex mechanisms

plants use to interact with their environment and to survive in what are now an

inhospitable place.

INDEX

Aabiotic stress 63Adenauer, Konrad 18air pollution 6, 16, 17, 38, 59Albany, New York 14, 25, 47Alder Estate 5, 21Alexander, Martin 34, 35algae 63Allen, Ruth 49aluminum 35, 45, 62aluminum ion toxicity 35American Phytopathological Society 49amyloplasts 61anthranilate 63App, Alva 9, 27, 34, 35, 37appressorium 62Arabidopsis 62, 63Arntzen, Charles 26, 38, 43, 45, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56Arthur, J.M. 38ascorbic acid 62Ashton, Sherry 43, 55Asian Research and Vegetable Development Research

Center 33Atlas of the Biologic Resources of the Hudson Estuary 60

Bbacteria 37, 61baculovirus 57banana 61bark beetle 18, 22, 23Barton, Lela V. 4, 38Baruch, Bernard 18, 19Beaumont, Texas 20, 22, 23beauvericin 58Biddle, Margaret T. 23biocontrol 36, 57biodiversity 51biological control 17, 46biological pest control 46biomedical material 49bioregulant chemicals 17BioTechnica International 41biotechnology 45, 50, 57black oak 23Blissard, Gary 46, 56Bogorad, Laurence 44Boyce Schultz Downey Scientist 45Boyce Thompson

Research Advisory Committee 5, 26, 44Research Oversight Committee 44

Boyce Thompson Institute 3, 4, 6, 10, 13, 22, 23, 26, 51, 52Annual Meeting of Members 20, 26, 32Board of Directors 5, 8, 9, 26, 39, 41, 44, 48Dedication Symposium 17

DESIRE Program 47Distinguished Lecture Series 44Environmental Biology6, 15, 16, 24, 38, 45, 50, 51, 52,

59, 60, 62Executive Committee8, 9, 12, 21, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32,

39, 40, 44, 49Finance Committee 31Forest Biology Program 35, 53Insect Pathology Research Unit 35Management Advisory Committee 42Pension Plan 42, 43Physiology of Parasitism Program 35Plant Molecular Biology Program 45, 50, 62Plant Production Program 46, 61Plant Protection Research Unit 35, 45, 46, 50Plant Stress Program 35, 38, 45, 46, 61Public Affairs 43, 55Research Advisory Committee 5, 26, 44Science Advisory Board 46Southwestern Arboretum 39Staff Organizing Drive 42

Boyce Thompson, Col. William 3, 5, 18, 29Brazil 36, 46Brazilian Federal Agriculture Research Organization 36Buckley, Theodore 46

Ccabbage 37, 58cabbage butterfly 58cabbage looper 37cardenolides 58Cellular Therapy 18Chlamydomonas 63chlorogenic acid 58chloroplast 45, 63chloroplast function 45Churchill, Winston 18Colavito, Luke 55Comstock, Jonathan 45, 52Consultative Group on Agricultural Research 33Continental Oil 31Cook, Constance 9Cooke, W.D. 32corn 61Cornell Univeristy

Affiliation Agreement 10, 15, 16, 32College of Agriculture and Life Sciences17, 32, 33, 39,

40Department of Entomology 17, 35, 47Department of Plant Pathology 17, 47School of Veterinary Medicine 17, 56Science and Technology Program 34

Cornell University 3, 5, 10, 14, 17, 28, 32, 33, 34, 38Corson, Dale 32cowpea 36, 37cowpea weevil 37

Index

Crocker, William C. 18, 25, 38, 46cross-talk 49Cutting, David 14cytokinin 61, 62cytoplasm 61

DDaconil 59Dacthal 59Daoust, Richard 36Davis, Thomas 55DeLuca, Nancy 55, 56Denny, F.E. 38Dentes, John 43, 56Dewayne Torgeson 9, 15, 25, 26, 40Diamond-Shamrock Corporation 59Distinguished Achievement Award 45Dobroscky, Irene 3DuPont 41, 50Dutchess County, New York 19

EEaglesham, Alan 35, 36, 37Eckerson, Sophia 4edible vaccines 52Entomology 4, 12, 38entomopathogenic fungal research 35, 36environmental biology 4, 51, 53Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 45, 47, 49, 58, 59enzyme 47, 63estuarine biology 60eucaryote 39, 60

FFarnum, C. Wadsworth 30, 31flavanoids 62fluoride 59Ford Foundation 17Forest Biology 35, 53Forest Service 22, 49, 59Fulton, Robert 29, 30fungi 36, 38, 49, 58, 61Fusarium 58

Ggene expression 45, 63genetically-engineered virus 58Gestetner Corporation 24glassy state 61glucobrassicin 58Goetze-Clarens, Wolfgang 18Gollands, Brian 55Göttingen, Germany 22Granados, Robert33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 55,

56

granules potentiate 61Grass Valley, California 20, 22, 23, 24gravitropism 46, 61green algae 36Gruissem, Wilhelm 49gypsy moth 49, 57, 58

HHague, James D. 23Hajek, Ann 46, 48, 49Hardy, Ralph25, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50,

55, 56Harrar, George 33Hartzell, A. 38herbicide 59Hess, Charles 39Hitchcock, A.E. 24, 38Hoch, Harvey C. 49Hohenlohe, Christian 29, 30, 41holistic plant studies 38Holmes, F.O. 38Howell, Stephen 43, 45, 48, 49, 50Hudson River Country Club 20, 24Hudson River, New York 4, 20, 22, 24, 46, 60Hughes, Patrick 22, 23, 37, 49

Iimmunization 61inoculation 36insect pathology 35Insect Pathology Resource Center 35insecticide 25, 59Institute of Biosciences and Technology 50insulin 61International Agriculture 27International Center for Research on Corn and Wheat

(ICRCW) 34International Center for Tropical Agriculture (ICTA) 33International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology

(ICIPE) 37International Crops Research Institute for the Semiarid

Tropics (ICRIST) 33International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) 33, 36International Potato Center (IPC) 34International research 35, 57International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) 33, 34, 35, 36isotope analysis 52Ithaca, New York 3, 9, 12, 15, 16, 31, 32, 33, 40, 60

JJacobson, Jay 52

KKelly, James F. 32Kennedy, W. Keith 32

Index

Klessig, Daniel 43, 54Kohut, Bobbie 55Kohut, Robert 43Kunkel, L.O. 3, 38, 50

LLangridge, William 39, 46Lankow, Richard 14LaRue, Thomas 46, 52Last, Robert 45, 48, 49Laurence, John A. 44, 46, 48, 50, 56Lauver, Terry 55legumes 36, 37, 38Lehman, Jeffrey 16Lenoir Estate 20, 21Leopold, Carl 46, 49, 55Lord, Jeffrey 36

MM. anisopliae 47Macko, Vlado 52MacLean, David 52maize 63Mandl, Richard 14, 15, 52, 55Martin, Robert Corp. 21, 28, 29, 34, 35mass spectrometer 52McCallan, S.E.A. 3, 5, 6, 9, 14, 17, 22, 23, 26, 38, 39, 41McCune, Delbert 34, 52McNew, George L.4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 18, 21, 25, 26, 31, 39, 40,

45Melhop, Donald 14Messina, Frank 37Metarhizium anisopliae 36, 47Mexico 34Mexico City, Mexico 34microorganisms 36, 63Miller, L.P. 38mitogen 62Mogil, Michelle 55molecular biology 26, 35, 37, 39, 42, 46, 50, 52, 53, 57, 60molecular genetics 4, 38, 39mycoplasma 38

NNasturtium 58National Academy of Sciences 50National Agricultural Biotechnology Council (NABC) 42National Park Service (NPS) 49National Science Foundation (NSF) 34, 47, 52, 53Nepera Park Farm 24New Brunswick, NJ 54New York State3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 28,

29, 31, 32, 34, 37, 41Agency Bonds 14, 28, 29, 31Department of Commerce 11Dormitory Board 14

Legislature 9State Univeristy (SUNY) 8, 10, 17, 28, 29Thruway Authority 19

Newmont Mining Corp 17, 23, 31Niehans, Paul 18, 19nitrogen 17, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 46, 56, 59, 60, 61Nitrogen Fixation 17, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 46, 56, 60, 61Nixon, Richard 34North Star Gold Mine 23nuclear polyhedrosis virus 58

OOak Ridge National Laboratory 46oats 62oral vaccines 61Oregon State 8, 9, 10, 11, 24, 28, 30

Legislature 8Oregon State University (OSU)8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 24,

28, 30Memorandum of Agreement 8

Oswald, John 44oviposition stimulant 58ozone 49, 59

PPalm, Charles 10, 39, 50Park Foundation 51Park, Bernet 15Passer, Jerry 41pathogen 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 46, 56, 57, 58, 61, 62, 63Patterson, Belknap, Webb & Tyler 41Pennoyer, Robert 41pesticide 24, 25, 59Pfeiffer, Norma 4Phelps Dodge 31phenylalanine 63pheromones 22, 35Philippines 33, 35, 36phosphate 63Photorhizobium thompsonum 60photosynthesis 59Pieris rapae 58Pius XII, Pope 18Plant Growth and Development 46plant physiological ecology 45plant physiology 38plant stress 35, 38, 45, 46, 61polyhedrin gene 58ponderosa pine 23procaryote 39, 60proteinase 59Purdy Beale, Helen 4, 38

Rradiation 62Reich, Steven 34

Index

Renwick, J. Alan 22, 23, 37Research Advisory Committee 5, 26, 44Research Oversight Committee 44rhizobial bacteria 36, 60rice 34, 35, 36, 38Roberts, Donald 27, 34, 36, 37, 46, 47, 52Robinson Enterprises 24Rockefeller Foundation 30, 33, 34, 47Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research 3, 5, 50Rockefeller, Nelson 8, 10, 30Rockefeller, Rodman 30Rombach, Michael 36Romney, Miles 9Russell, Larry 43rust uredospore physiology 38

SSantini Brothers Contracting Co. 15Schroeder Naess & Thomas 31Schultz Downey, Peggy 45Searls, Fred 17, 18, 19, 23seed physiology 38, 61Setterstrom, C. 38signal transduction 54sinapic esters 62Smith, William T. 8, 28, 29, 31, 32, 41Soper, Richard 35Sour Lake, Texas 22Southern Forest Research Institute 22SOZ1 mutant 62Stanfordville, New York 20Staples, Richard 1, 17, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 45, 47, 48, 49Stern, David 45Stever, Guyford 34stomate 62streak virus 63stress physiology 38sturgeon 60sulfur 59, 63sulfur dioxide 59Superior, Arizona 39Swanson, Gloria 18symbiont 60Szalay, A.A. 37, 39, 46

TTexas A & M University 50tobacco 60Tolypocladium 58Tompkins County

Area Development Committee 14Tompkins County, New York 14Topa, Mary 45, 56Torgeson, Dewayne 9, 15, 25, 26, 40toxin 62TREGRO 49, 59tryptophan 63Tulecke, Walter 18, 19

tyrosine 63

UUNDP 34, 36, 37UNEP 34, 36Union Carbide 5, 25, 26, 27, 59Unionization 5, 24, 25, 26, 27, 59United Auto Workers 42United States

Agency for International Development (AID) 47Department of Agriculture (USDA) 35, 47, 50Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 45, 47, 58Forest Service 22, 49, 59National Institute of Health (NIH) 47

University of California at San Diego 45Unsworth, Michael 49

Vvan Houtte, Raymond 14Van Leuken, Paul 55VanDemark, Noland L. 33Vité, Jean Pierre 22, 23

WWaksman Institute 54Washington State University 5Way, Jerry 19Weinstein, David 49Weinstein, Leonard1, 9, 15, 16, 18, 19, 25, 26, 29, 34, 39,

45, 52, 55Wellman, Richard H.5, 10, 11, 12, 17, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31,

32, 33, 34, 39, 40Westchester County, NY 19, 22Whetzel, H.H. 5Whiteman, Osterman & Hannah, LLP 25Wightman, Orrin 21Wilcoxon, F. 38Williams, Ben 47, 55Wilmorite Corporation 24Wilson, Malcolm 8Wilson, Ramsay 31Wilson, Woodrow 3, 8, 31Wood, Alan 14, 37, 48Wortman, Sterling 30Wraight, Steven 36

YYonkers, New York 3, 8, 10, 14, 15, 16, 19, 21, 28, 56, 60Young, Roy 8, 30, 39, 41, 54

ZZimmerman, Percy W. 24, 38