POSTTRAUMATIC STRESSDISORDER(PTSD):AN OVERVIEW

By:

Kryn Palmquist

Introduction:

DSM IV- criterion /testing Symptoms Feelings: Anger Suicide: Mexico, Canada, and The

United States Correlation with trauma and health Positives-moving forward

DSM-IV-Criterion A. The person has been exposed to a

traumatic event in which both of the following were present:1. The person experienced, witnessed, or was

confronted with an event or events that involved actual or threatened death or serious injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of self or others.

2. The person’s response involved intense fear, helplessness, or horror. Note: in children, this may be expressed instead by disorganized or agitated behavior.

DSM-IV-Criterion B. The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced in

one (or more) of the following ways:1. Recurrent and intrusive distressing recollections of the event,

including images, thoughts, or perceptions. Note: In young children, repetitive play may occur in which themes or aspects of the trauma are expressed.

2. Recurrent distressing dreams of the event. Note: In children, there may be frightening dreams without recognizable content.

3. Acting or feeling as if the traumatic event were recurring (includes a sense of reliving the experience, illusions, hallucinations, and dissociative flashbacks episodes, including those that occur upon awakening or when intoxicated). Note: In young children, trauma-specific reenactment may occur.

B. Continued:

4. Intense psychological distress at exposure to internal or external cause that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event.

5. Psychosocial reactivity on exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event.

DSM-IV-Criterion C. Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated

with the trauma and numbing of general responsiveness (not present before the trauma), as indicated by three (or more) of the following:1. Efforts to avoid thoughts, feelings, or conversations

associated with the trauma.

2. Efforts to avoid activities, places, or people that arouse recollections of the trauma.

3. Inability to recall an important aspect of the trauma.

4. Markedly diminished interest or participation in significant activities

C. Continued:

5. Feeling of detachment or estrangement from others

6. Restricted range of affect (e.g., unable to have loving feelings)

7. Sense of a foreshortened future (e.g., does not expect to have a career, marriage, children, or a normal life span)

DSM-IV-Criterion

D. Persistent symptoms of increased arousal (not present before the trauma), as indicated by two (or more) of the following:1. Difficulty falling or staying asleep

2. Irritability or outbursts of anger

3. Difficulty concentrating

4. Hyper-vigilance

5. Exaggerated startle response

DSM-IV-Criterion E. Duration of the disturbance (symptoms in

Criteria B,C, and D) is more than 1 month. F. The disturbance causes clinically

significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.Acute: if duration of symptoms is less than 3

monthsChronic: if duration of symptoms is 3 months or

more.With Delayed Onset: if onset of symptoms is at

least 6 months after the stressor.

Why does this happen?

Flight vs. Fight

Mowrer’s Two Factor Theory

Classical Conditioning

Testing

UCLA PTSD IndexChild versionParent versionAdolescence version

Adult Version-similar

Symptoms3 PTSD Symptom Clusters

Re-experiencing: re-living the traumatic event

Numbing: restricted range of affect, feeling of detachment or estrangement from othersAvoidance: efforts to avoid thoughts about

trauma Arousal Symptoms: feelings of anger

and anxiety

Symptoms

Anxiety Depression Intrusive thoughts & images from the

assault/ traumatic event Sleep disturbances: Nightmares &

Insomnia

Anger/Other symptoms of PTSD

Fear, helplessness, horror, and strong feelings of anger-possible feelings following a traumatic event

Arousal symptoms: irritability and outbursts of anger

Increasing number of studies have shown increased anger following a traumatic event is strongly correlated with the severity of PTSD

Anger/Other symptoms of PTSD

Correlation of anger with a traumatic event is significantly higher with increasing time since the event-ex. Military war experience

In some studies, anger predicted PTSD severity at subsequent assessments, however it did the opposite in other studies.

Theories of Anger & PTSD

Riggs et al.: people with PTSD are motivated to avoid feelings of fear and that anger serves as a welcome distracter from fear-eliciting traumatic memories.

Cognitive models: PTSD severity is correlated with rumination about the traumatic event and its consequences.

Example Increases depressive affect & angry affect

Mexico City AdolescencesSuicide Traumatic events: common Profound distress-> psychiatric disorders, PTSD,

and depression Traumatic events in childhood have been linked to

suicide, attempts, and ideation Large increase in the past 2 decades of youth

committing suicide in Mexico One of the greatest among 28 countries Why?-large city= economic hardships, increased

drug trafficking, population density, fewer regulations/less enforcement of safety and traffic issues

Mexico City AdolescencesSuicide

How is this all related?Traumatic events have been shown to increase

the probability of psychiatric disordersPsychiatric disorders increase the probability of

suicide Studies have shown that Mexican

adolescents who have suffered a traumatic event during their childhood are at an increased risk for suicidal ideation, making a suicide plan, and for suicide attempts

Canadian/U.S. Military Personnel Suicide

Mental health issues have been increasing in the past few years

Suicide is the second most common cause of death for US Military

Veterans are more than twice as likely to die by suicide compared to the general population

Canadian/U.S. Military Personnel Suicide

Risk Factors:Traumatic events- 38% suicidal ideationMilitary personnel are exposed to high rates

of trauma during combat and peacekeeping missions

Predisposing Factors:○ Childhood traumas○ Pre-military traumas

Health + Trauma = ?

Researchers have found strong associations between childhood trauma and poor physical and mental health

PTSD seems to be the cause of the health problems

PTSD is more common in women than in men (sexual abuse, emotional abuse etc.)

PTSD and Growth:Moving Forward

Trauma doesn’t always = PTSD

Can develop positive changes in lifeGreater appreciation for lifePosttraumatic growthSense of survival

PTSD and GrowthMoving Forward What can we do as counselors?

Begin with a thorough evaluationSessions: weekly treatment sessions 90 minutes long

Suggested Guidelines:Adopt a nonjudgmental attitudeDisplay a comfortable attitude when the client

describes their traumatic experienceDemonstrate knowledge of PTSDExpress confidence in the treatment programHighlight the client’s personal resources and praise

them for having the courage to work on their problems

Normalize the client’s response to the traumatic event

For more information:

Treating the Trauma of Rape, Cognitive-Behavior Therapy for PTSD by: Edna B. Foa

Questions?

COMPLEX TRAUMA IN CHILDREN AND

ADOLESCENTS

White Paper from the

National Child Traumatic Stress Network

Complex Trauma Task Force

What is Complex Trauma? Complex trauma- the dual problem of

children’s exposure to traumatic events and the impact of this exposure on immediate and long-term outcomes.

Refers to children’s experiences of multiple traumatic events that occur within the caregiving system- the social environment that is supposed to be the source of safety and stability in a child’s life.

What is Complex Trauma? Exposure to traumatic stress in early life

is associated with enduring sequelae that not only incorporate, but also extend beyond, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

These sequelae span multiple domains of impairment and include:

Self-regulatory, attachment, anxiety, and affective disorders in infancy and childhood

Addictions, aggression, social helplessness and eating disorders

Dissociative somataform, cardiovascular, metabolic, and immunological disorders

Sexual disorders in adolescence and adulthood

Re-victimization

Diagnostic Issues for Complex Trauma: Common Diagnosis ADHD ODD Conduct Disorder Generalized Anxiety

Disorder Separation Anxiety

Disorder Reactive

Attachment disorder

Each of these diagnoses captures an aspect of the traumatized child’s experience, but frequently does not represent the whole picture. As a result, treatment often focuses on the particular behavior identified, rather than on the core deficits that underlie the presentation of complexly traumatized children.

7 Domains of Impairment in Children Exposed to Complex Trauma

1. Attachment Uncertainty about the

reliability and predictability of the world

Problems with boundaries Distrust and

suspiciousness Social isolation Interpersonal difficulties Difficulty attuning to other

people’s emotional states Difficulty with perspective

taking Difficulty enlisting other

people as allies

2. Biology Sensor motor development

problems Hypersensitivity to physical

contact Analgesia Problems with coordination,

balance, body tone Difficulties localizing skin contact Somatization Increased medical problems

across a wide span, e.g. pelvic pain, asthma, skin problems, autoimmune disorders, pseudo seizures

7 Domains Continued

3. Affect Regulation Difficulty with emotional

self-regulation Difficulty describing

feelings and internal experience

Problems knowing and describing internal states

Difficulty communicating wishes and desires

4. Dissociation Distinct alterations in

states of consciousness

Amnesia Depersonalization and

de-realization Two or more distinct

states of consciousness, with impaired memory for state-based events

7 Domains Continued5. Behavioral Control Poor modulation of impulses Self-destructive behavior Aggression against others Pathological self-soothing

behaviors Sleep disturbances Eating disorders Substance abuse Excessive compliance Oppositional behavior Difficulty understanding and

complying with rules Communication of traumatic

past by reenactment in day-today behavior or play (sexual, aggressive, etc.)

6. Self-Concept Lack of a

continuous, predictable sense of self

Poor sense of separateness

Disturbances of body image

Low self-esteem Shame and guilt

7 Domains Continued7. Cognition Difficulties in attention regulation and executive functioning Lack of sustained curiosity Problems with processing novel information Problems focusing on and completing tasks Problems with object constancy Difficulty planning and anticipating Problems understanding own contribution to what happens to

them Learning difficulties Problems with language development Problems with orientation in time and space Acoustic and visual perceptual problems Impaired comprehension of complex visual-spatial patterns

A Closer Look- Attachment The early caregiving relationship

provides a relational context in which children develop their earliest models of self, other, and self in relation to others.

This attachment relationship also provides the scaffolding for the growth of many developmental competencies.

Attachment A secure attachment pattern, present in

approximately 55-65% of the normative population, is thought to be the result of receptive, sensitive caregiving.

Insecure attachment patterns have been consistently documented in over 80% of maltreated children. These failures to create a secure dyadic relationship may leave an environment of vulnerability which may allow for the occurrence of complex trauma exposure.

Attachment with insecure patterns: Avoidant- associated with predictably

rejecting caregiving Ambivalent-when children experience patents

alternating between validation and invalidation in a predictable manner

Disorganized-when co-regulation is not provided or results in aversive consequences early in life, this child is at risk for a complex and severe type of disruption of all the core biopsychosocial competencies

Attachment

Children living with unpredictable violence and repeated abandonment often fail to develop appropriate language and verbal processing abilities.

They then cope with threatening events and feelings of helplessness by restricting their processing of what is happening around them.

Attachment

Disorganized attachment has been hypothesized to interfere with the development of neural connections in critical brain areas (e.g. the left and right hemispheres of the orbital prefrontal cortex and their connective pathways)

Biology

Neurobiological development follows genetically “hard-wired” programs that are modified by external stimuli.

During the first few months after birth, only the brainstem and midbrain are sufficiently developed to sustain and alter basic bodily functions and alertness.

Biology

In toddlerhood and early childhood, the brain actively develops areas responsible for:1. Filtering sensory input to identify useful

information

2. Learning to detect (amygdala) and respond defensively (insula) to potential threats

3. Recognizing information or environmental stimuli that comprise meaningful contexts

4. Coordinating rapid goal-directed responses

Biology

Trauma interferes with the integration of left and right hemisphere brain functioning, which explains traumatized children’s “irrational” ways of behaving under stress.

In early childhood, biologically compromised children are at risk for disorders in reality orientation (autism), learning (dyslexia), or cognitive and behavioral self-management (ADHD)

Biology In middle childhood and adolescence, the most

rapidly developing brain areas are those responsible for three core features of “executive functioning” necessary for autonomous functioning and engagement in relationships.Conscious self awarenessAbility to assess the valence and meaning of complex

emotional experiencesAbility to determine a course of action based on

learning from past experiences and creation of an inner frame of reference informed by accurate understanding of other persons’ different perspectives

Affect Regulation

Deficits in the capacity to regulate emotional experience may be broadly classified in three categories:Deficits in the capacity to identify internal

emotional experienceDifficulties with the safe expression of

emotionsImpaired capacity to modulate emotional

experience

Affect Regulation Following the identification of emotional

state, a child must be able to express emotions safely, and then modulate or regulate internal experience. Complexly traumatized children show impairment in both of these skills. Distortions of emotional expression in traumatized children have been observed to range across a full spectrum, from overly constricted or rigid to excessively labile and explosive.

Affect Regulation

Over time, traumatized children are vulnerable to the development and maintenance of disorders associated with chronic dysregulation of affective experience, including disorders of mood. The prevalence of Major Depression among individuals who have experienced early childhood trauma is an example of the lifelong impact complex trauma may exert over regulator capacities.

Affect Regulation

Childhood trauma appears not only to increase risk for Major Depression, but also to alter the course of illness in ways that contribute to a poorer prognosis. A history of childhood trauma seems to predispose toward earlier onset of affective problems, which in turn is associated with more depressive episodes and poorer outcome.

Dissociation

Key feature “Failure to integrate or associate

information and experience in a normally expectable fashion.” (Putnam, 1997, p.7)

Runs along a continuum from normal kinds of experiences such as getting lost in thought while driving, to peritraumatic dissociation during traumatic exposures, to dissociative disorders

Dissociation

Linked to several biological markers through the correlation of the Dissociative Experiences Scale to decreased left hippocampal volume in women.

Behavioral Regulation Chronic childhood trauma is associated with both under

and over controlled behavior patterns Over control-strategy that may counteract the feelings of

helplessness and lack of power that are often a daily struggle for chronically traumatized children.Abused children demonstrate rigidly controlled behavior

patterns, such as compulsive compliance with adult requests, as early as the second year of life.

Many traumatized children are very resistant to changes in routine and display rigid behavioral patterns, including inflexible bathroom rituals and eating problems.

Behavior Regulation

Under-controlled: the cognitive capacities responsible for planning, organizing, delaying response, and exerting control over behavior. Executive function deficits have been well documented in traumatized children.

Cognition

During infancy and early childhood, children form an early working model of the world and develop the basic cognitive building blocks of later life.

During this time period, children develop and early sense of self, a model of self-in-relation-to-other, and understanding of basic cause-and-effect, and sense of agency.

Cognition Prospective studies have shown that children

of abusive and neglectful parents have impaired cognitive functioning by late infancy, compared with control children.

The sensory and emotional deprivation associated with neglect appears to be particularly detrimental to development, with neglected infants and toddlers demonstrating delays in expressive and receptive language development, as well as deficits in overall IQ.

Cognition

During school age, academic functioning represents a significant domain of developmental competence. Academic performance is significantly influenced by children’s ability to regulate internal experience and to interact competently with peers.

By early elementary school, maltreated children are more frequently referred for special education services.

Self-Concept

The early care-giving relationship has a profound effect on the development of a coherent sense of self. Over time, a child consolidates and internalizes a secure, stable, and integrated sense of identity.

Responsive, sensitive care-taking and positive early life experiences allow children to develop a model of self as generally worthy and competent.

Self-Concept In contrast, repetitive experiences of harm

and/or rejection by significant others, and the associated failure to develop age-appropriate competencies, are likely to lead to a sense of self as ineffective, helpless, deficient and unloveable.

Alterations in children’s self-representations may impact their capacity to cope with traumatic expereince.

Self-Concept Children who perceive themselves as powerless

or incompetent and who expect others to reject and despise them are more likely to blame themselves for negative experiences and have problems eliciting and responding to social support.

Dissociative coping further complicates the development of a coherent sense of self. Habitual use of dissociation leads to “significant disturbances in the continuity of an individual’s memory and integration of self.”

Adaptation to Complex Trauma in Familial Context The family plays a crucial role in determining

how the child adapts to experiencing trauma. Factors the influence the child’s response:

Extent to which the family environment itself was responsible for the victimization

Parental response to the traumatic event or disclosure

Extent to which the parents themselves are influenced by their own childhood histories of loss and/or trauma, as well as other parental psychopathology.

Adaptation to Complex Trauma in Familial Context

Parental support is keyBelieving and validating their child’s

experienceTolerating the child’s affectManaging their own emotional response

Adaptation to Complex Trauma in Familial Context

Traumatized children often rekindle painful feelings in biological parents or in substitute parents trying to provide a child with a new home.

Parents who have had impaired relationships with attachment figures in their own lives are especially vulnerable to problems in raising their own children.

Adaptation to Complex Trauma in Familial Context

Parents with their own unresolved traumatic experiences may avoid experiencing their own emotions, which may make it difficult for them to “read” and respond appropriately to the child’s emotional state.

Adaptation to Complex Trauma in Familial Context

Ongoing psychopathology and substance use by parents also complicate their capacity to assist in their children’s recovery from trauma.

Chronic mental illness or ongoing substance abuse prevents parents from being consistently available or responsive to their children, thus leaving the child at risk for future victimization.

Coping and Protective Factors Competence and resilience have been

linked with several protective factors consisting of individual, family and environmental variables.

Resilience develops from very ordinary adaptation processes and is not limited to remarkable individuals.

Coping and Protective Factors Positive attachment Development of cognitive and self-

regulation abilities Positive beliefs about oneself Motivation to act effectively in one’s

enviornment

Coping and Protective Factors The greatest threats to resilience appear

to follow the breakdown of protective systems: damage to brain development and associated cognitive and self-regulatory capacities

Approaches to Treatment of Complex Trauma in Children

Treatments for traumatized youths thus far have been conceptualized as having four central goals:Safety in one’s environment: home, school, and

communitySkills development in emotion regulation and

interpersonal functioningMeaning-making about past traumatic events

they have experiencedEnhancing resiliency and integration into social

network