BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT &

COMMERCIAL SCIENCES

INFORMATION SYSTEMS 512

Year 1 Semester 2

2

Previously

LEARNER GUIDE

BUSINESS INFORMATION SYSTEMS 512 (2nd SEMESTER)

1: COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS 2: THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB 3: OPERATING

SYSTEMS AND SYSTEMS SOFTWARE 4: DATA MANAGEMENT AND DATABASES 5: INFORMATION

SYSTEMS 6: INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT 7: PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT AND

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES 8: SECURITY PRIVACY AND ETHICS 9: MULTIMEDIA 10: ADDENDUM

FOR CASE STUDY

3

SECTION

SUBJECT MATTER

1: COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK

1.1 DEFINING COMMUNICATION

LESSON1

1.2 COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION

1.3 TELECOMMUNICATION

1.4 DATA COMMUNICATION

1.5 USES OF COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

1.6 THE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM MODEL

1.7 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA TYPES

1.8 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS

1.9 TRANSMISSION MODES

1.10 DIRECTION OF TRANSMISSION

1.11 COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE

1.12 COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT

LESSON2

1.13 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

1.14 NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS

1.15 COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

2: THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB

2.1 HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

LESSON3

2.2 EXPLORING THE INTERNET

2.3 HOW THE INTERNET WORKS

2.4 HOW A WEB PAGE WORKS

2.5 WEB BROWSER SOFTWARE

2.6 MULTIMEDIA ON THE WEB

2.7 SEARCH ENGINES

2.8 INTRANETS AND FIREWALLS

LESSON4

2.9 OTHER INTERNET SERVICES

2.10 NETWORK COMPUTERS FOR BUSINESS

2.11 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB

2.12 DOING BUSINESS ON THE WORLD WIDE WEB

3: OPERATING SYSTEMS AND SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

3.1 SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

LESSON5 3.2 OPERATING SYSTEMS

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3.3 POPULAR OPERATING SYSTEMS

3.4 UTILITIES SOFTWARE

4: DATA MANAGEMENT AND DATABASES

4.1 DATA MANAGEMENT LESSON6

4.2 THE HIERARCHY OF DATA

4.3 TYPES OF FILE ORGANISATION

4.4 DATA FILE MAINTENANCE

4.5 DATABASES

4.6 DATABASE MODELS

LESSON7

4.7 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

4.8 DATABASE ADMISSION

4.9 GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING DATABASE FILES

4.10 WORK: DATA WAREHOUSE AND DATA MINING

5: INFORMATION SYSTEMS

5.1 IMPORTANCE OF INFORMATION TO AN ORGANISATION

LESSON8

5.2 LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT

5.3 FUNCTIONAL AREAS IN AN ORGANISATION

5.4 QUALITIES OF VALUABLE INFORMATION

5.5 TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

5.6

THE ROLE OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS IN INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

5.7 THE CYBER CORPORATION

6: INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

6.1 EXPLORING THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

LETCURE 9

6.2 GUIDELINES FOR SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

6.3 PARTICIPANTS IN THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

6.4 PROJECT MANAGEMENT

6.5 FEASIBILITY ASSESSMENT

6.6 DATA AND INFORMATION GATHERING TECHNIQUES

6.7 INITIATING FACTORS OF THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

6.8 PLANNING PHASE

LESSON10 6.9 THE ANALYSIS PHASE

6.10 DESIGN PHASE

6.11 THE IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

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6.12 SUPPORT PHASE

7: PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

7.1 DEFINING A COMPUTER PROGRAM

LESSON11

7.2 THE PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

7.3 INITIATION FACTORS OF THE PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLES

7.4 DEFINING A PROGRAM LANGUAGE

7.5 OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

7.6 POPULAR PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

7.7 HOW TO SELECT A PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

7.8 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT TOOLS

7.9 APPLICATION GENERATORS (PROGRAM GENERATORS)

LESSON12

7.10 MACROS

7.11 RAD TOOLS: VISUAL BASIC, DELPHI, AND POWERBUILDER

7.12 HTML

7.13 SCRIPTS, APPLETS, AND SERVLETS

7.14 JAVA AND PERL

8: SECRUITY PRIVACY AND ETHICS

8.1 COMPUTER SECURITY: RISKS AND SAFEGUARDS

LESSON13

8.2 COMPUTER VIRUSES

8.3 VIRUS DETECTION AND REMOVAL

8.4 UNAUTHORISED ACCESS AND USE

8.5 WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY IDENTIFICATION AND AUTHENTICATION?

8.6 DEVELOPING A COMPUTER SECURITY PLAN

8.7 INFORMATION PRIVACY

LESSON14 8.8 ETHICS AND THE INFORMATION AGE

8.9 INTERNET SECURITY AND PRIVACY ISSUES

8.10 INTERNET ENCRYPTION

8.11 OBJECTIONABLE MATERIALS ON THE INTERNET

9: MULTIMEDIA

9.1 DEFINING MULTIMEDIA

LESSON15 9.2 MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS

9.3 ELECTRONIC MARKETING AND SALES

10: ADDENDUM 512 (A): CASE STUDYS LESSON16

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INTERACTIVE ICONS USED IN THIS LEARNER GUIDE

Learning

Outcomes

Study

Read

Writing

Activity

Think Point

Research

Glossary

Key Point

Review

Questions

Case Study

Bright Idea

Problem(s)

Multimedia

Resource

Web

Resource

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1. COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS

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Learning Outcomes

1. Discuss the components required for a successful communication 2. Define telecommunication and data communication 3. Describe uses of computer communication technologies 4. Identify various physical and wireless transmission media 5. Discuss different communication equipment 6. Discuss communication networks, configurations and

communication protocols

1.1 DEFINING COMMUNICATION

Communication refers to a process whereby a signal is transmitted from a sender

to a receiver through a Communication medium . The signal contains a message

composed of data and information. This signal will go through the communication

med ium from the sender to the receiver. A Communication medium Is anything that

carries the signal between the sender and the receiver for example, when people

are talking to each other air becomes the communication or transmission medium.

Illustration of communication model

Transmission medium

E.g. cable

1.2 COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION

The components of communications can easily be recognised if we consider human

communication. When we talk to one another face to face, we send messages to

each other. A person who speaks at a particular time becomes the sender of the

message and the one l istening is the receiver of the same message. The transmission

medium between these two entities is the air that carries the message from the

sender to the receiver. Hence in human communication we can identify three basic

communication components namely: The sender, the receiver and air.

Sender

Receiver

Signal

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NB:For communication to be effective, both the sender and the receiver must

understand the signal and must agree on the ways they are to be interpreted. For

example if the sender speaks in a language that the receiver does not understand,

effective communication will not take place. All of the above represents an ordinary

communication that can occur between two or more people, but we are more

interested in an aspect of communication called Telecommunication.

1.3 TELECOMMUNICATION

Telecommunication refers to the electronic transmission of signals from the sending

unit to the receiving unit through a telecommunication medium.

Telecommunication has the potential to create profound changes in business

because it lessens the barriers of time and distance. Telecommunication may change

not only the way business operates, but may alter the nature of commerce itself.

This is possible because as networks are connected with one another and

information is transmitted more freely, a competitive market-place will make

excellent quality and services imperative for success. However, there is a subset of

telecommunication that is of great importance to our study of this called Data

communication.

1.4 DATA COMMUNICATION

Data communication is a specialized subset of telecommunication that refers to the

electronic collection, processing and distribution of data between computer systems

hardware devices. It is very important to note at this stage that to a certain degree,

Data communication is accomplished through the use of telecommunication

technology.

1.4.1 The Telecommunication System Model

For a successful telecommunication system, the following components are very

essential to note:

i) A sending unit: A sending unit is a device that originates the message to be sent.

Such a device could be a computer or a terminal ii) A Telecommunication device: A

telecommunication device is a hardware component that allows electronic

communication to occur more efficiently. This device performs a number functions

which include converting the signal from one type to another. An example could be

a modem iii) A Telecommunication medium: A telecommunication medium is

anything that carries an electronic signal and interfaces between a sending device

and a receiving device. An example could be a network cable between a computer

and a network point IV) a receiving unit: A receiving unit is a device that receives the message/signal. An

example could another computer

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1.5 USES OF COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

1.5.1 Electronic Mail (E-mail)

This is the transmission of messages and files via a computer network. Today it is used

as one of the primary methods of communication for business and personal needs. By

using an e-mail program you can create, send, receive, forward, store and print

messages. Popular e-mail programs include Microsoft Outlook and Lotus Notes. In

order to use an e-mail program you must have an e-mail address, which is made up of

a username and a domain name.

E.g. john@webmail.com

Username Domain Name

When you receive e-mail your message is stored in a mailbox, which is the actual

storage space for your messages.

1.5.2 Voice Mail

Voice mail functions like an answering machine by allowing callers to leave a voice

message for the receiving party. Unlike an answering though a computer voice-mail

system converts the analogue voice to a digital form so that it can be stored in a voice

mailbox.

1.5.3 Facsimile (Fax)

A fax machine is a device that sends and receives documents through the use of

telephone lines. The fax document can contain handwritten or typed text,

illustrations, graphics and photographs. Today, many people are moving towards

using their computer as a fax machine simply by installing a fax modem. Faxes can

then be stored in an electronic format and printed to hardcopy when needed.

1.5.4 Telecommuting

This is a work arrangement in which employees work away from the office but

communicate with the workplace using some sort of communication technology. The

user at home can connect to the network at the office using his personal computer

which would be configured with specific hardware and software needed for

telecommuting. Once connected to the network the user will be able to use its

resources as if he were at the office. Advantages of telecommuting:

• Reduces the time taken to travel to the office

• Eliminates the need to travel to work in unsafe weather conditions

• Provides for as convenient and comfortable work environment for disabled employees or workers

recovering from illness or injury

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• Employees can combine personal responsibilities and work, like child care for an

example

1.5.5 Videoconferencing

This technology involves using video and computer technology to conduct a meeting

between 2 or more people in separate geographical locations. Video conferencing can

be used for technical support, job interviews, distance learning and telecommuting.

It requires the use of computers with microphones, speakers, video cameras and

communication devices. The voice and images can be transmitted across ordinary

telephone lines and therefore the Internet is used as the communication channel.

1.5.6 GroupWare

GroupWare is a software application that helps groups of people work together on

projects and share information over a network. GroupWare is a component of a broad

concept called workgroup computing, which include network hardware and software

that enables group members to communicate manage projects, schedule meetings

and make group decisions. To assist with these activities most groupware have

Personal Information Manager (PIM) functions, which include electronic appointment

calendar, appointment book, address book and a notepad.

1.5.7 Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

This is an inter-company application to application communication of data in standard

format permitting the recipient to perform a standard business transaction and the

transmission of business documents or data over communications media. Many

companies use EDI to transmit routine documents such as invoices, purchase orders

or shipping information.

1.5.8 Global Positioning System (GPS)

A GPS consists of one or more earth-based receivers that accept and analyze signals

sent by satellites in order to determine the receiver’s geographic location. It is often

used to locate a person or an object, ascertain the best route between two points,

monitor movement of the person or object and even create maps. GPS’s are used

confidently by scientists, farmers, pilots, and rescue workers and even for travel and

recreational activities. Major car manufacturers are including GPS systems in their

motorcars to be used as navigation systems.

1.5.9 Bulletin Board Systems (BBS)

An electronic BBS is a computer that maintains a centralised collection of electronic

messages. You access a BBS by using your computer to connect to the main BBS

computer. Once connected you can add or delete messages, read existing messages

or upload and download software.

1.5.10 Online Services

It is defined as an organisation that has a permanent connection to the Internet and provides temporary

connections to individuals and companies for a fee. Like an ISP, an online service provides Internet access,

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but such online services also have a members-only feature that offer a variety of special content and

services including

news, weather, legal information, financial data, hardware and software guides and travel guides. For this

reason online service fees are slightly higher than those of an ISP. Online services like The Microsoft

Network (MSN) have thousands of POPs all over the world and large customer and technical support.

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Materials to send communications signals

1.5.11 The Internet

The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks that links together millions of

businesses, government offices, educational institutions and private individuals

through the use of modems, telephone lines, satellites and other communications

devices and media. Most users connect to the Internet through an Internet Service

Provider (ISP) or an online service. The Internet runs on the TCP/IP protocol, which

was originally developed for Unix computers, but today all computers logging on to

the Internet use it efficiently.

1.6 THE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM MODEL

As we have already indicated in Lesson unit 1 that the communication system model

consists of the following:

• A sending device that originates the signal

• A communic ation device that converts the data into a form that can be carried

through the communication channel

• A communication channel or path over which data are sent

• A communication device that receives the data and converts into a form that is

understood by the receiving device

• A receiving device that accepts the data.

Let us now examine these components individually.

1.6.1 Transmission Media

Transmission media are the devices that are capable of carrying electronic signals and

interfaces between a sending device and a receiving device. These media are available

in 2 types:

• Physical transmission media – Use wire, cable or other tangible (tou chable)

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• Wireless transmission media – send communication signals through the air or space

using radio, microwave and infrared signals.

1.6.2 Types Of Transmission Media

Twisted pair cabling consists of pairs of twisted wires. A typical cable consists of two

or more twisted pairs of wire, usually copper. Proper twisting of the wire keeps the

signal from “bleeding” into the next pair and thereby creating electrical interference.

Because these twisted pair wires are insulated, they can be placed closed together

and packed into one group.

There are two types of twisted-pair wire cables: shielded and unshielded. Shielded

twisted-pair (STP) wire cables have a special conducting layer within the normal

insulation. This conducting layer makes the cable less prone to electric interference

or “noise”. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) wire cables do not have this special

insulation shield. These types of cables have historically been used for telephone

services and to connect computer systems and devices.

b) Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable, or coax, is an electrical cable with an inner conductor surrounded by

a flexible, tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. The

term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing the same

geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and mathematician

Oliver Heaviside, who first patented the design in 1880. Coaxial cable is used as a

transmission line for radio frequency signals, in applications such as connecting radio

transmitters and receivers with their antennas, computer network (Internet)

connections, and distributing cable television signals. One advantage of coax over

other types of transmission line is that in an ideal coaxial cable the electromagnetic

field carrying the signal exists only in the space between the inner and outer

conductors. This allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such

as gutters without the power losses that occur in other transmission lines, and

provides protection of the signal from external electromagnetic interference. Coaxial cable differs from

other shielded cable used for carrying lower frequency signals such as audio signals, in that the dimensions

of the cable are controlled to produce a repeatable and predictable conductor spacing needed to function

efficiently as a radio frequency transmission line.

a) Twisted Pair Cable

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Coaxial cable consists of a single copper wire surrounded by three layers:

a) An insulating material

b) A woven or braided metal

c) A plastic outer coating

Cable television wiring often uses coaxial cable because it can be cabled over longer

distances than twisted pair cable. Coaxial cable is more heavily insulated than twisted

pair, thus it is less susceptible to noise.

c) Fibre Optic Cable

The core of fibre optic cable consists of dozens or hundreds of thin strands of glass or

Plastic that use light to transmit signals. Fiber - Optic communication is a method of

Transmitting information from one place to another by sending pu lses of light through

An optical fiber. The light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to

Carry information. First developed in the 1970s, fiber - Optic communication systems

Have revolutionized the telecommunications industry and have pla yed a major role

In the advent of the Information Age. Because of its advantages over electrical

Transmission, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications in core

Networks in the developed world.

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The process of communicating using fibre-optics involves the following basic steps:

Creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, relaying the signal along

the fibre, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or weak, receiving

the optical signal, and converting it into an electrical signal.

Fibre optic cable has many advantages over coaxial or twisted pair cable, such as:

• Capable of carrying significantly more signals than wire cables

• Faster data transmission

• Less susceptible to noise (interference)

• Smaller in size as the cables are thin and light

However there are a few of disadvantages as well:

• Fibre optic costs are much higher than that of twisted pair or coaxial

• It is relatively difficult to install

1.7 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA TYPES

a) Microwaves Transmission

This involves the sending and receiving of microwave signals over a microwave link.

This microwave link is made up of a string of microwave radio antennas located at the

top of towers at various microwave sites. Microwave transmission is considered a

'Line of Site' technology. This is because the proper functioning of microwave

transmission requires that the airspace between two microwave towers in clear of

mountains, buildings, and other objects that could possibly block signals from being

intercepted by the towers. Microwave transmission is limited by this need for a clear

line of sight, in addition to being susceptible to attenuation by the atmosphere.

For these reasons, microwave transmission

is only widely used in areas inaccessible by

LAN or other transport methods. Microwave

Equipment can be used to transmit both analog and digital microwave signals.

Analog microwave transmission is often a more cost-effective solution for

microwave site operators because it doesn’t require the purchase of any new

equipment, or training staff on new transport systems. An additional benefit of

familiar analog microwave transmission is that your operators know its exact

transport capacity.

Users of digital microwave transmission find it easier to obtain support and

Equipment for their systems, because digital transmission is the newest, most

advanced form of microwave communication. Digital microwave transmission

methods can support more verbose protocols, enabling increased data exchange

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along the microwave network. The increased speeds will also provide faster

microwave system polls.

b) Broadcast Radio

Broadcast Radio is a wireless transmission medium that distributes radio signals

through the air over a long distance such as cities, regions and countries and short

distances such as within an office or home. For radio transmissions, one needs a

transmitter to send the broadcast radio signal and a receiver to accept it. To receive

this signal, the receiver has an antenna that is located in the range of the signal.

c) Cellular Transmission

This is when local area such as a city is divided into cells, such that if a car/vehicle with

a cellular device such as a phone moves from one cell to another the cellular system

passes the connection from one cell to another.

d) Infrared Transmission

This sends transmissions through the air via light waves; it requires a line-of-sight

transmission and a short distance. This can be used to allow handheld devices to

transmit data and information to larger computers in the same room. (e.g. connecting

printers, mouse, scanners, etc)

1.8 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS

A communication channel is the path that the signal will follow in a communication

system. The most important aspect of any communication channel is Bandwidth which

is a critical parameter of any communications system; bandwidth characterizes its

information-carrying capacity. Access to the Internet, for example, is much faster via

a broadband than a dial-up connection. This is mainly because a broadband connection

uses higher frequencies to convey digital data. In general, bandwidth is defined in

terms of the range of frequencies that can be carried by a communication channel.

Widening the bandwidth means increasing the frequency range, thereby enabling

more information to be delivered through that channel. The wider the bandwidth the

more data and information the channel can transmit.

1.8.1Types of Signal

There are 2 types of signals that can be used depending on the types of devices that

you are using. They are digital and analog.

a) Digital

Digital signals consist of patterns of bits of information. These patterns can be

generated in many ways, each producing a specific code. Modern digital computers

store and process all kinds of information as binary patterns. All the pictures, text. Sound and video stored

in this computer are held and manipulated as patterns of binary values. The main advantage of digital

signals over analogue signals is that the precise signal level of the digital signal is not vital.

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This means that digital signals are fairly immune to the imperfections of real

Electronic systems which tend to spoil analogue signals. As a result, digital CD's are

Much more robust than analogue LP's.

Codes are often used in the transmis sion of information. These codes can be used

Either as a means of keeping the information secret or as a means of breaking the

Information into pieces that are manageable by the technology used to transmit the

Code, e.g. The letters and numbers to be sent by a Morse code are coded into dots

And dashes. Computers process data as digital signals, which are individual electrical

Pulses that represent the bits grouped together into bytes.

b) Analog

An Analogy or analogue signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying

feature (variable) of the signal is a representation of some other time varying

quantity, i.e., analogous to another time varying signal. It differs from a digital signal

in terms of small fluctuations i n the signal which are meaningful. Analogy is usually

thought of in an electrical context; however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and

other systems may also convey analogue signals.

An analogue signal uses some property of the medium to convey the s ignal's

information. For example, an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the signal

to convey pressure information. Electrically, the property most commonly used is

voltage followed closely by frequency, current, and charge.

Any information may be conveyed by an analogue signal; often such a signal is a

measured response to changes in physical phenomena, such as sound, light,

temperature, position, or pressure, and is achieved using a transducer.

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For example, in sound recording, fluctuations in air pressure (that is to say, sound)

strike the diaphragm of a microphone which induces corresponding fluctuations in the

current produced by a coil in an electromagnetic microphone, or the voltage produced

by a condenser microphone. The voltage or the current is said to be an "analogue" of

the sound.

An analogue signal has a theoretically infinite resolution. In practice an analogue

signal is subject to noise and a finite slew rate. Therefore, both analogue and digital

systems are subject to limitations in resolution and bandwidth. As analogue systems

become more complex, effects such as non-linearity and noise ultimately degrade

analogue resolution to such an extent that the performance of digital systems may

surpass it. Similarly, as digital systems become more complex, errors can occur in the

digital data stream. A comparable performing digital system is more complex and

requires more bandwidth than its analogue counterpart. In analog systems, it is

difficult to detect when such degradation occurs. However, in digital systems,

degradation can not only be detected but corrected as well.

1.8.2 Advantages

The main advantage is the fine definition of the analog signal which has the potential

for an infinite amount of signal resolution. Compared to digital signals, analog signals

are of higher density.

Another advantage with analog signals is that their processing may be achieved more

simply than with the digital equivalent. An analog signal may be processed directly by

analog components, though some processes aren't available except in digital form.

1.8.3 Disadvantages

The primary disadvantage of analog signalling is that any system has noise – i.e.,

random unwanted variation. As the signal is copied and re-copied, or transmitted over

long distances, these apparently random variations become dominant. Electrically,

these losses can be diminished by shielding, good connections, and several cable types

such as coaxial or twisted pair.

The effects of noise create signal loss and distortion. This is impossible to recover,

since amplifying the signal to recover attenuated parts of the signal amplifies the noise

(distortion/interference) as well. Even if the resolution of an analog signal is higher

than a comparable digital signal, the difference can be overshadowed by the noise in

the signal. Most of the analog systems also suffer from generation loss.

1.8.4 Modulation

Another method of conveying an analog signal is to use modulation. In this, some base

signal (e.g., a sinusoidal carrier wave) has one of its properties modulated: amplitude modulation involves

altering the amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage waveform by the source information, frequency modulation

changes the frequency. Other techniques, such as changing the phase of the base signal also work.

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Analog circuits do not involve quantization of information into digital format. The

concept being measured over the circuit, whether sound, light, pressure,

temperature, or an exceeded limit, remains from end to end.

1.9TRANSMISSION MODES

When 2 devices exchange data, the data flows between the devices as a continuous

stream of bits. As the bits flow between the sending and receiving devices, these

devices extract bytes from the bit stream. Two basic transmission techniques are used

to separate the groups of bits:

a) Asynchronous Transmission

This is the communication in which the receiver gets the message in minutes, hours

or days after it is sent e.g. posting a letter or sending an e-mail over the internet.

Transmissions are not synchronized – that is, transmission does not occur at

predetermined or regular intervals such as when you enter data. A sending device

thus can transmit bytes at any time, and the receiving device must be ready to accept

them as they arrive. To help the receiving device identify each byte, a start and stop

bit marks the beginning and end of a byte. An additional parity bitis sometimes

included at the end of each byte to allow for error checking. It usually involves

communication where data can be transmitted intermittently and not a steady stream

thus transmission can be slow.

b) Synchronous Transmission

This is the communication in which the receiver gets the message instantaneously.

E.g. voice and phone communication. This involves sending large blocks of bytes at

regular intervals without any start and stop signals. It does require that the sending

and receiving devices be synchronized before any bytes are transmitted. Timing

signals synchronize the sending and receiving devices thus eliminating the need for

start and stop bits for byte. Synchronous transmission requires more sophisticated

and expensive communication devices than asynchronous transmission but it

provides much higher speeds and greater accuracy.

1.10 DIRECTION OF TRANSMISSION

The direction in which data flows along transmission media is classified in one of

three types:

a) Simplex Transmission

Data flows only in one direction – from the sending to the receiving device. It is only used when the sending

device does not require a response from the receiving device. Used for security systems and fire alarms.

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b) Half Duplex Transmission

Data can flow in either direction - from sender to receiver and back - but only in one

direction at a time. Commonly used in Citizens Band (CB) radio where communication

can only take place in one direction at a time.

c) Full Duplex Transmission

Data can flow in both directions at the same time. A regular phone line makes use of

this technology where both parties can speak at the same time. It is used for

applications with intensive computing requirements or those with heavy traffic.

d) Transmission Rate

The speed with which a transmission medium carries data is its transfer rate. Transfer

rate usually is expressed in bits per second (bps) – that is the number of bits that can

be transmitted in one second. The transfer rate of a transmission medium depends

on the medium’s bandwidth and its speed. Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that

a transmission medium can carry in a given period of time.

1.11 COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE

This is software that provides a number of important functions in a network, such as

error checking, data security, and message formatting. The software also indicates

what is wrong and provides suggestions on possible solutions.

The basic communication model includes communication software, which consists of

programs that manage the transmission of data, instructions and information

between computers. For 2 computers to communicate, they must have compatible

communications software.

Communication software helps you establish a connection to another computer and

manage the transmission of data between computers. It resides in the main memory

of the 2 computers while the connection is established. The software usually includes

the following features: dialing, file transfer, terminal emulation, and Internet access.

These are any kind of hardware devices capable of transmitting data, instructions and

information between a sending device and a receiving device.

1.12 COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT

These are any kind of hardware devices capable of transmitting data, instructions and

information between sending device and receiving device.

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1.12.1 Modem

The word modem is derived from a combination of the words, modulate (to change

an analog signal) and demodulate (to convert an analog signal to digital). Both the

sending and the receiving computers require a modem to communicate. Computers

use digital signals so modems are needed to convert those signals to analog so that

they can be transmitted over telephone lines. When the signals reach the receiving

computer that modem must convert the signal back to digital so the computer can

understand it.

A modem can be an external or internal device. External modems connect to the serial

port on the back of the computer whilst an expansion slot connects internal modems.

1.12.2 Multiplexes

A multiplexer (MUX) is a device that combines the signal of two more input signals

from various devices into a single stream of data and then transmits it over a single

medium. By combining the separate data streams into one, a multiplexer increases

the efficiency of communication and reduces the need for, and cost of, using separate

transmission medium. Both the sending and receiving devices need a multiplexer.

1.12.3 Network Interface Cards (NIC)

It is an expansion card that fits the expansion slot on your computer. NIC’s are

sometimes referred to as LAN Adapter. A NIC coordinates the transmission and

receipt of data, instruction to and from the devices containing the NIC. There is an

attachment point on a network card that allows you to connect to different

transmission medium such as twisted pair, coaxial or fibre optic or infrared. A network

interface card is designed to work with different protocols such as Ethernet or Token

Ring.

1.12.4 Hubs

A hub is a central point of connectivity for network cables in a star topology. They are

sometimes referred as a concentrator or multistation access unit (MAU). Hubs usually

contain ports for 8 to 24 computers and other devices.

1.12.5 Gateways

It is a combination of hardware and software that connects networks that use

different protocols. For example, connecting a network of Windows computers with

a network of Apple Macintosh computers. Gateways are also used between e-mail

systems so that users on different e-mail systems can exchange messages.

1.12.6 Bridges

A bridge is a device that connects two LANs using the same protocol, such as Ethernet.

Sometimes it is more efficient to use a bridge to connect 2 LANs rather than combine them into 1 big LAN.

To use a bridge the transmission media of the LANs does not have to be the same. One LAN can use coaxial

cable whilst one LAN can have UTP cable.

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1.12.7 Routers

A router is a device that connects multiple networks – including those using different protocol. It is an

intelligent communications device that sends (routes) communication traffic to the appropriate network

using the fastest available path. In case of network failure routers can calculate alternate routes to send

the data. Routers are widely used on the Internet to reliably send data, information and instruction to the

correct destination.

1.12.8 3G Data Cards

3G technology refers to the third generation in wireless digital network standards. It is an upgrade to

previous 2G networks, providing faster download speeds and greater reliability. It offers greater security

and a wider range of application as well, such as streaming TV and video conferencing. A 3G data card is

a wireless card that can be inserted into a lap top or desk top computer to allow it high-speed access to

the Internet from any location near a 3G tower.

The primary benefit of a 3G data card is its transportability. Location does not limit

Users—no wireless hot spots are required to connect to the Internet. It also frees the user of bulky

equipment, such as Ethernet cables, that must physically plug into modems. 3g data cards wirelessly

access the 3G broadband networks established by carriers through interconnecting cellular towers. These

towers transmit Internet data across electromagnetic wavelengths, known as spectrum, between devices.

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Users can download information, check e - mail, visit Web sites, and watch television

on their lap tops while riding in a car, sitting in an airport, or spending the day on a

boat. These cards may be especially useful for people who don't have traditional

cable or DS L nternet service at their homes, but can receive cellular service from I

nearby towers.

Most wireless carriers sell a 3G data card; the speed and reliability generally will vary

based on each carrier’s network. Most wireless carriers offer different types of 3G

cards, often referring to them as 3G PC cards, air cards, and e 3 G mobil c ards. These

cards may inte rface differently with the computer. For example, some may require a

PC card slot, while others may use a USB port. The wireless access the cards provide

also typically requires the purchase of a digital data plan as well. Most wireless

carriers offer plan s for their 3G data cards that provide tiered levels of data

downloading or, generally for a higher price, unlimited Internet access.

1.13 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

1.13.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

This is a network that connects computers in a limited geographical area, such as

business office or floor of a building. A LAN consists of a communications channel,

networked computers and a network interface card and an operating system to

support networ king features. LANs provide high - speed reliable connections, which

range from 10 Mbps to 2 Gbps.

1.13.2 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A Wide Area Network is a network that covers a large geographical area such as a

city, country or continent using a c communication’s channel that includes telephone

lines, microwaves and satellites. Today WANs are made up of multiple LANs

connected by routers that ensure reliable delivery of data and information. These

computers connect via a public network such as the tel ephone lines or by dedicated

lines or satellite. The Internet is the world’s largest wide area network.

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1.14 NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS

1.14.1 Star Topology

In the star network all the devices in the

network connect to a central device,

thus forming a star Also known as a star

network, a star topology is one of the

most common network setups where

each of the devices and computers on a

network connect to a cen tral hu b . A

major disadvantage of this type of

network topology is that if the central

hub fails, all computers connected to

tha t hub would be disconnected. Below

is a visual example of a simple computer

setup on a network using the star

topology?

The central device is called a hub. All data transfer must pass through the hub.

Because each device has its own connection to the hub, failure of one computer does

not affect any other computers. However if the hub fails the entire network is

inoperable until the hub is repaired.

1.14.2 Bus Topology

A bus network uses a multi - drop transmission medium, all node on the network share

a common bus and thus share communication. This allows only one device to

transmit at a time. A distributed access protoco l determines which station is to

transmit. Data frames contain source and destination addresses, where each station

monitors the bus and copies frames addressed to it.

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Self - Quiz

Find the true statement, and rewrite the false ( statement so that they are true)

1 . A wireless LAN is a LAN that uses physical wires. 2 . An intranet is an internal network that uses video conferencing technologies 3 . Five types of digital dial - up lines are ISDN lines, DSL, FTTP, T - carrier lines and ATM. 4 . A client/server network, servers on the network access resources on the client.

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A ring network is designed so a cable forms a closed ring, or loop with all the computers and devices

arranged in a ring. Data transmitted in the ring topology travels from device to device around the entire

A typical bus topology ( )

A bus topology connects each computer (nodes) to a single segment trunk (a

communication line, typically coax cable that is referred to as the 'bus'. The signal

travels from one end of the bus to the other. A terminator is required at each to

absorb the si gnal so as it does not reflect back across the bus. A media access method

called CSMA/MA is used to handle the collision that occurs when two signals placed

on the wire at the same time. The bus topology is passive. In other words, the

computers on the bus simply 'listen' for a signal; they are not responsible for moving

the signal along.

a) Advantage

Failure of one of the station does not affect others. Good compromise over the other

two topologies as it allows relatively high rate of data transition. Well suited for

temporary networks that must be set up in a hurry. Easy to implement and extend.

b) Disadvantage

Require a network to detect when two nodes are transmitting at the same time. It

does not cope well with heavy traffic rates and difficult to administer/troubleshoot.

It has also limited cable length and number of stations. A cable brake can disable the

entire network; no redundancy. Maintenance cost may be higher in the long run.

Performance degrades as additional computers are added. The bus network consists

of a single cabl e, to which all computers and other devices connect. The bus is the

physical cable that connects the devices. Data transmission occurs in both directions

but only one device can communicate at a time. Failure at a single point does affect

the entire networ k however failure of the bus itself will cause the entire network to

be inoperable.

1.14.3 Ring Topology

Also known as a ring network, the ring topology is a type of computer network

configuration where each network computer and device is connected to each other

forming a large circle (or similar shape). Each packet is sent around the ring until it

reaches its final destination. Today, the ring topology is seldom used. Below is a visual

example of a simple computer setup on a network using a ring topolo gy.

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ring in one direction only. If a device on a ring network fails all devices before the failed device are

unaffected, but those after the failed device cannot function.

CASE STUDY

Celanese Chemicals employs over 5000 employees located globally in seven different countries. It

produces chemicals used in making paints and coatings, textiles, plastics and adhesives, and its products

are used heavily in the housing and automotive industries. Previously, sales reps had to make

extraordinary efforts to respond to customer calls. They had no access to current information and had

to call a home-office customer service rep that did have network access. After retrieving the necessary

product information, the customer service rep would then call the sales rep back, who would then call

the customer with the information. The whole process took from four hours to over a day. Now, thanks

to a revamping of its telecommunications network, sales reps can now use their handheld computers

linked wirelessly to corporate networks, the Internet, and a web-based enterprise resource planning

system to get real-time information and provide it to customers on the spot. This system empowers

the sales reps and often results in faster, higher-quality customer service. Celanese expects customer

satisfaction to rise as a result of the fast response times and greatly improved one-on-one service.

In addition to external communications, telecommunications technology also helps business coordinate

activities and integrates various departments to increase operational efficiency and support effective

decision making. The far-reaching developments of telecommunications are having and will continue

to have a profound effect on business information systems and on society in general. Source: Ralph M.

Stair and George W. Reynolds. Principles of Information Systems

Questions

1. Describe how telecommunications network helped Celanese Chemicals improve their customer

service

2. Explain how the sales reps would link to their customers wirelessly

3. What are the possible advantages that Celanese Chemicals enjoyed through using

telecommunications networks?

4. Briefly discuss how the company would coordinate activities and integrate various departments

to increase efficiency

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1.15 COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

A protocol is a set of rules and procedures for exchanging information among

computers. Protocols define how the communications channel is established, how

information is transmitted and how errors are transmitted and corrected.

1.15.1 Ethernet

Ethernet is a LAN protocol that allows personal computers to contend for access to

the network. Ethernet can be used in both a bus and star topology. If 2 computers

attempt to send data at the same time a collision between the packets occurs and the

data has to be resent. To avoid collisions an Ethernet network we can use an access

method called:

a) Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection

(CSMA/CD)

This access control technique attempts to detect possible collisions. If a computer

with data to transmit senses that data is already on the network, it waits a random

amount of time before attempting to retransmit the data thus helping to avoid

collisions. Ethernet can works with the transmission rate of 10Mbps. Fast Ethernet

works at 100Mbps whilst Gigabit Ethernet provides an even higher transmission rate.

1.15.2 Token Ring

A token ring protocol controls access to the network by requiring that a special signal

called a Token is shared or passed among network device. Only the device with the

Token can transmit data. Therefore only one computer can transmit data at a time.

Token ring is based on the ring topology but it can be used on a star topology. Token

ring using UTP can operate at 4Mbps and at 16Mbps while when using STP. Token ring

networks are more complicated than Ethernet networks but access to the network is

more equitable because each device has an equal chance to transmit.

1.15.3 TCP/IP Protocol

The Internet Protocol Suite is the set of communications protocols used for the

Internet and other similar networks. It is commonly also known as TCP/IP, named

from two of the most important protocols in it: the Transmission Control Protocol

(TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking protocols

defined in this standard. Modern IP networking represents a synthesis of several

developments that began to evolve in the 1960s and 1970s, namely the Internet and

local area networks, which emerged during the 1980s, together with the advent of

the World Wide Web in the early 1990s.

The Internet Protocol Suite, like many protocol suites, is constructed as a set of layers. Each layer solves a

set of problems involving the transmission of data. In particular, the layers define the operational scope

of the protocols within.

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Often a component of a layer provides a well-defined service to the upper layer protocols and may be

using services from the lower layers. Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more

abstract data, relying on lower layer protocols to translate data into forms that can eventually be

physically transmitted.

The TCP/IP model consists of four layers (RFC 1122). From lowest to highest, these

are the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer, and the Application Layer.

ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. What is communication channel? Identify three types

2. Illustrate and explain the telecommunication system model

3. Identify and explain the communications equipment

4. Discuss the direction of transmission types

5. Briefly describe the two transmission models that you have learned

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_________________________________________________________________

2. THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB

_________________________________________________________________

Learning Outcomes

1. Discuss the history of the internet

2. Explain how to access and connect to the

internet

3. Analyze an IP address

4. Identify the components of a web browser

5. Explain the purpose of a web browser

6. Describe the types of web sites

7. Discuss the benefit of internet to businesses

2.1 HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

The Internet has its roots in a networking project started by the Pentagon’s Advanced Research Projects

Agency (ARPA). Their goal was:

• Allow scientists at different locations to share information and collaborate on military and

scientific projects

• Could function even if part of the network were disabled or destroyed by a disaster

ARPNET became functional in September 1969 effectively linking together scientific and academic

researchers in the United States. It originally consisted of four main computers each located at the

University of California LA, Stanford Research of Institute (SRI), University of California Santa Barbara and

the University of Utah. By 1984 ARPNET had over 1000 computers linked to the four hosts at each of these

locations.

Then in 1986 the National Science Foundation connected its huge network of five super computer centers,

called NFSnet, to ARPNET. This configuration of complex networks and hosts became known as the

Internet.

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2.2 EXPLORING THE INTERNET

The Internet can be defined as a collection of interconnected networks, all freely exchanging information.

It is regarded as the world’s largest collection of networks which links together millions of businesses,

government offices, educational institutions and individuals. The many networks that comprise the

Internet, also called the Net, are local, regional, national and international. Although each network that

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constitutes the Internet is owned by a public or private organisation, no single organisation owns or

The Internet relies on an addressing system much like the postal service to send

data to a computer at a specific destination. Each computer location on the Internet

has a numeric address called than IP Address, which consists of 4 groups of numbers

controls the Internet. Each organisation is responsible for maintaining its own

network. The Internet has more than 225 million users around the wo rld and they

connect for a variety of reasons including:

• To a information including news, weather, research and educational

material

• Conduct business or complete banking and investing transactions

• To access sources of entertainment and leisure

• To shop for goods and services

• To meet and converse with people from around the world in discussion

groups or chat rooms

• To access other computers and exchange files

• To send and receive e - mail messages

2.3 HOW THE INTERNET WORKS

Data sent over the Internet travels via networks and communication lines owned

and operated by many companies. There are various ways to connect to the

Internet:

• Internet Service Provider (ISP) – this is an organisation that has a

permanent Internet connection and provides temporary connections to individuals

and companies for free or for a fee.

• Online Services – provide Internet access as well as a variety of features

such as news, weather, legal information, financial data, hardware and software

guides and travel information. Therefore the fee using online services is slightly

higher than that of an ISP.

2.3.1 Internet Addresses

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separated by a period with each group of numbers being between 0 and 255. For example the IP Address

192.168.22.21 is difficult to remember when connecting to a computer therefore a text version of the IP

Address can be used like, www.google.comand this is called a domain name. A single domain name can

refer to various IP Addresses. Every domain name includes a top-level domain, which is an abbreviation

that identifies the type of organisation that operates the site. The following is a list of top-level domains

and their abbreviations:

Top-Level Domain Abbreviations Type of

Organisation

Com Commercial organisations, companies

Edu Educational institutions

Gov Government institutions

Mil Military organisations

Net Network provider

Org Non-profit organisations

Au Australia

Za South Africa

Uk United Kingdom

Nz New Zealand

Jp Japan

2.3.2 The World Wide Web (www)

Although people use the terms World Wide Web and Internet interchangeably, the WWW is just one of

the many services available on the Internet. The WWW or Web consists of a worldwide collection of

electronic documents that have built-in hyperlinks to other related documents. These hyperlinks or links

allow users to navigate quickly from one document to another, regardless of whether the documents are

located on the same computer or different computers in different countries.

2.4 HOW A WEB PAGE WORKS

An electronic document on the Web is called a Web Page; it can contain text, sound, graphics

and video as well as links to other pages. A collection of related Web pages that you can

access electronically is called a Web Site. Web sites have a starting point called a home page,

which is like the contents page of a book.

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Each web site has a unique address called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), which consists of a

protocol, domain name and sometimes the specific path to that web page. Most URLs use the http://

protocol, which stands for hypertext transfer protocol.

Example: http://www.hotmail.com

Protocol service domain name top level Domain

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2.5 WEB BROWSER SOFTWARE

Web browser software is used to access and view Web pages. The more widely used

web browsers are:

• Microsoft Internet Explorer

• Novell’s Netscape Navigator

Web pages that comprise of a web site are stored on a computer called a Web

Server. A Web server is a computer that delivers requested web pages. When you

enter an URL into your browser, the browser sends a request to the server that

stores the web site of that URL. The server then fetches the requested page and

sends it to your browser.

2.6 MULTIMEDIA ON THE WEB

Most Web pages include more than just text and links. In fact some of the more

exciting Web developments involve multimedia. Combining text, audio, video,

animation and sound brings the Web page to life. Most browsers have the capability

of displaying basic multimedia elements on a Web page. Graphics were the first

media used to enhance the text based web page. Many web pages use colorful

designs and images to convey the messages. Animation is the appearance of motion

that is created by displaying a series of still images in rapid succession. Audio consists

of individual sound files that must be downloaded completely before they can be

loaded. Like audio, video files must be downloaded completely before they can be

viewed. Because movies files are often large they may take a long while to download.

2.7 SEARCH ENGINES

No single organisation controls additions, deletions and changes to Web sites, which

means that there is no central menu or catalogue of Web site content that exists. To

overcome this problem several companies provide a software program called a

search engine, which helps you to locate Web sites, Web pages and Internet files.

2.8 INTRANETS AND FIREWALLS

2.8.1 Intranets

Many companies have applied Web technologies to their own private internal

networks. Internal networks that use Internet and Web technologies are called

intranets. Intranets are sometimes called enterprise networks, which is essentially a

small version of the Internet used within the organisation. Users can post and update

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information on the intranet by creating and posting a Web page. Other users can access these pages using

a Web browser. These Web pages provide information like telephone directories, event calendars,

procedure manuals and other employee information.

2.8.2 Firewalls

As a public network, anyone with the proper connection can access the Internet.

A private corporate intranet or extranet, by contrast is restricted to specific authorised users, usually

employees, suppliers and customers. To prevent unauthorised access to data and information, an intranet

or extranet often is protected by a firewall. A firewall is a general term that refers to both hardware and

software used to restrict access to data and information on a network. Organisations use firewalls to deny

network access to outsiders and to restrict employees’ access to sensitive data such as payroll or personnel

records.

2.9 OTHER INTERNET SERVICES

2.9.1 E-mail

E-mail or electronic mail is the exchange of text messages and computer files transmitted via a

communications network such as a local area network or Internet. Communication devices, such as

modems, transfer the e-mail messages to and from computers on the same network or to separate

networks.

To send and receive e-mail messages you use e-mail software installed on your computer. When you

receive e-mail messages it is stored in your mailbox. Your e-mail software can be used to send, receive,

delete and reply to messages in your mailbox.

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2.9.2 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

This is an Internet standard that allows you to exchange files with other computers on

the Internet. An FTP server is a computer that allows users to upload and download

files using FTP. An FTP site is a collection of files that include text, graphics, audio,

video and program files that reside on an FTP server. Some FTP sites require that users

have usernames and passwords before they can download however many sites allow

anonymous FTP, where anyone can download whatever they require.

2.9.3 Telnet

Telnet is a program or command that enables you to connect to a remote computer

on the Internet. To make a Telnet connection to the remote computer, you enter a

user name and password. Once connected your computer acts like a terminal directly

linked to the remote computer. Telnet access to many remote computers is free, while

others are accessed for a fee. Telnet usage has declined due to the popularity and

ease of use of web browsers. Telnet is also widely used for remote administration.

2.9.4 Usenet

A newsgroup is an online area in which users conduct written discussions about a

particular subject. To participate in a discussion, a user sends a message to the

newsgroup and other users in the group read and reply to the message. The entire

collection of Internet newsgroups is called Usenet, which contains thousands of

newsgroups. Some of the s discussed include recreation, science, business and

computers. A computer that stores and distributes newsgroups is called a news

server. To participate in a news group you need to use a program called a newsreader,

which is included with most browsers.

2.9.5 Chat Rooms

A chat is a real time typed conversation that takes place on the computer. Real-time

means that you and the person you are chatting to must be online at the same time.

When you enter a line of text, your words display on one or more of the participants

screens. Chat rooms are communication mediums that permit users to communicate

with each other. Some chat rooms support voice and video feeds to chat where you

can hear and see other users. You connect to a chat server using a chat client that is

usually included in your browser. Some chat clients are text based like IRC or Internet

Relay Chat, whilst some support graphical and text based chats like Microsoft Chat.

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2.9.6 Video Conferencing

A videoconference or video conference (also known as a video teleconference) is a set of interactive

telecommunication technologies which allow two or more locations to interact via two-way video and

audio transmissions simultaneously. It has also been called 'visual collaboration' and is a type of

groupware.

Videoconferencing differs from videophone calls in that it's designed to serve a conference rather than

individuals. It is an intermediate form of video telephony, first deployed commercially by AT&T during the

early 1970s using their Picture phone technology

2.9.7 Face book

Face book is a social networking website launched in February 2004 that is operated and privately owned

by Face book, Inc. with more than 500 millionactive users in July 2010. Users can add people as friends

and send them messages, and update their personal profiles to notify friends about themselves.

Additionally, users can join

networks organized by workplace, school, or college. The website's name stems from the colloquial name

of books given to students at the start of the academic year by university administrations in the US with

the intention of helping students to get to know each other better. Face book allows anyone who declares

them to be aged 13 or older to become a member of the website

2.9.8 Network Computer

For some applications, including many of the Internet services, a personal computer has more capability

than the application requires. Jobs that primarily involve entering transactions or looking up information

in a database or even viewing Web pages do not require floppy disks, CD-ROMs or large hard disks. These

extra components contribute to both the cost and complexity of the personal computer therefore many

users are turning to using network computers.

A network computer, sometimes called a thin client is a less

expensive version of the personal computer designed

specifically to connect to the network especially to the Internet.

Most thin clients cannot operate unless they are connected to

the network. Network computers usually rely on the network

server for storage so there is no need for a hard disk or a CD-

ROM drive.

Think Point Do internet databases mean the end of privacy? Why or why not? How can people change their lifestyles & behaviour so that less personal data is available in internet databases?

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2.9.9 Home Networks

If you have multiple computers in your home you can connect all of them together with

a home network. There are many advantages of a home network:

• All computers in the house can be connected to the Internet at the same time using

only a single telephone line

• Each computer can access files on every other computer

• All computers can share peripherals such as printers, scanners and even CD-ROMS

2.10 NETWORK COMPUTERS FOR BUSINESS

This is a specific type of network computer used in business applications called the

Network Personal Computer or NetPC. A NetPC primarily relies on the server for

software and storage but does have a hard disk for storing some data and programs.

2.11 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB

Most users connect to the Internet through a business or school network. In this case

these computers are usually a part of a LAN that is connected to an ISP through a high-

speed connection line leased from the local telephone company. When connecting

From home or while travelling, individuals often use dial-up connections to connect to

the Internet. With dial-up access you might use your computer and modem to dial your

ISP over regular telephone lines. Connecting over regular telephone has only one

disadvantage of the transmission rate being slow. This problem of speed can be

overcome by new technologies like ISDN – Integrated Services Digital Network, which

provide transmission that are more than twice as fast as regular telephone lines.

It is also possible to connect to the Internet wirelessly. Protocols such as WAP –

Wireless Application Protocol make it possible to connect to the Internet by using your

cellular telephone as a modem.

2.12 DOING BUSINESS ON THE WORLD WIDE WEB

When you conduct business activities online, you are participating in electronic

commerce, also known as e-commerce. These commercial activities include shopping,

investing and any other venture that represents a business transaction or uses electronic data

interchange. When a customer visits an online business through its electronic storefront, it contains a

shopping cartthat allows the customer to collect purchases. When ready complete the sale, the customer

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often enters personal and credit data through a secure web connection. If you are

uncomfortable sending your credit card information online then you use some form

of electronic currency like e-Bucks.

ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Why do people or organizations use internet?

2. What are firewalls? Explain their advantages to the organizations

3. Analyse the following Website and indicate the Protocol, Domain name,

Service and Top level domain : http://www.pctraining.com

4. What do these acronyms stands for and explain the role of each in

business company : a)ISP

b) WWW

c) ARPA

d) SRI URL

e) GTTP

5. Outline and explain the internet services that you have learnt

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3. OPERATING SYSTEMS AND SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

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Learning Outcomes

1. Identify the types of system software

2. Describe functions of an operating system and utility programs

3.1 SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

Systems software consists of the programs that control the operations of the computer and its devices.

Functions that systems software performs include

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• Starting up the computer

• Opening, executing and running applications

• Storing, retrieving and copying files

• Formatting disks

• Reducing file sizes

• Backing up the contents of the hard drive

Systems software serves as the interface between the user, application software and

the computer hardware. There are 2 types of systems software:

• Operating systems

• Utility programs

3.2 OPERATING SYSTEMS

An operating system (OS) is a set of programs containing instructions that coordinate

all of the activities among computer hardware resources.

• It handles input from devices such as a keyboard, mouse or microphone

• Coordinates the display of output on the monitor

• Instructs the printer how and when to print information Manages data and

instructions Manages information stored on disk.

A computer cannot function without an operating system. They also contain

instructions on how to run application software. Application software is written to run

with particular operating systems. Thus operating systems directly determines the

application you run on your computer. An operating system is usually stored on a

computer’s hard disk. The core of the operating system, called the kernel is

responsible for:

• Managing memory, files and devices

• Maintaining the computer’s clock, this contains current date and time settings

Starting applications

• Assigning computer resources

3.2.1 Functions of an Operating System

Memory Management

The purpose of memory management is to optimise use of random access memory

(RAM). RAM is often called memory and is responsible for temporarily holding items

such as data and instructions while the CPU is processing them. The OS has the

responsibility to

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Allocate or assign these items to an area of memory while they are being

processed

Monitor the contents of the items in memory

Clear these items from memory when they are no longer required by memory

• Spooling Print Jobs

When you instruct an application to print a document such as e-mail, the document

you are printing is called a print job. Because CPUs can send documents to a printer

much faster than a printer can print them a technique called spooling is used.

With spooling, print jobs are placed in memory instead of being immediately sent to

the printer. In the case of print spooling the memory holds data waiting to be printed

whilst the printer, prints from the memory at its own rate. Thus multiple print jobs

can be sent to the printer even if the printer is busy.

• Configuring Devices

To communicate with each device in the computer, the OS relies on device drivers. A

device driver is a small program that accepts commands from a program and converts

them to be understood by different devices. Every device on a computer, such as

mouse keyboard, monitor and printer has their own device drivers that allow the OS

to utilise them. A standard known as Plug-n-Play has simplified the configuration of

devices by automatically detecting, configuring and installing drivers for devices.

• Monitoring System Performance

Operating systems usually contain a performance monitor, which is a program that

assesses and reports information about various system resources and devices. You

can monitor the CPU, disks, memory, network usage and the number of times a file

read or written. The information reported could help identify problems with resources

(bottlenecks), which can then be resolved.

• Administering Security

Most multi-user operating systems allow each user to log on, which is the process of

entering a username and password into the computer. Users select a combination of

their first and last names as a username. The password is a set of characters associated

with your username that allows you access to resources on the network. It also keeps

unauthorised users from getting access to network resources, as they will not have a

password. Some operating systems also allow you to set passwords to specific files so

that only authorised users can access them.

• Managing Storage Media and Files

Operating systems also contain a type program called a file manager, which performs functions related to

storage and file management. Some of its functions include:

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Copying disks

Displaying a list of files on a storage medium

Checking the amount of used or free space on a storage medium

Copying, renaming, deleting, moving and sorting files

3.3 POPULAR OPERATING SYSTEMS

DOS (Disk Operating System)

This refers to several single user operating systems. DOS used a command-line

interface. Later versions included both command-line and menu-driven user

interfaces, as well as improved memory and disk management. DOS is no longer

widely used because it does not offer graphical user interface and it cannot take full

advantage of modern 32-bit microprocessor.

Windows 3.x

This refers to three earlier versions of Microsoft Windows. Windows 3.x is and

operating environment (is a graphical user interface that works in combination with

an operating system to simplify its use.

Windows 95, 98 and 2000

Windows 95 is a true multitasking operating system – not an operating environment

– with an improved graphical interface.

Windows 98 operating system is easier to use than Windows 95 and is more

integrated with the Internet.

Windows 2000 is an upgrade to Windows 98 and Windows NT. Two basic versions of

Windows 2000 exist: Windows Server family and Windows Professional.

Learners must know the difference of Windows Server Family and Windows

Professional.

Windows CE

Is an operating system designed for use on wireless communications devices and

Smaller computers such as handheld computers, in-vehicle devices, and network

computers? Because it is designed for use on smaller computing devices, Windows CE

requires less memory. It also has Multitasking, e-mail, and Internet

capabilities. Windows NT Was an operating system designed for client-

server networks.

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Macintosh

This was the first commercially graphical user interface. It has set the standard for

operating system ease of use and has been the model for the most of the new

graphical user interfaces developed for non-Macintosh systems.

OS/2

Is IBM’s multitasking graphical user interface operating system designed to work with

32-bit microprocessors? In addition to its capability of running programs written

specifically for OS/2, the operating system also can run programs written for DOS and

most Windows 3.x programs.

UNIX

Is a multi-user, multitasking operating

system developed in Bell Laboratories.

UNIX is a powerful operating system,

capable of handling high volume of

transactions in a multi-user environment

and working with CPUs using

multiprocessing. UNIX is thus used to most

often on workstations and servers.

NetWare

Is a widely used network operating system

designed for client-server

networks. NetWare has a server portion

that resides on the network server and a

client portion that resides on each client

computer connected to the network. The

server

portion of NetWare allows you to share

hardware devices attached to the server, as well as any files or application software

stored on the server. The client portion of the NetWare communicates with the

server.

3.4 UTILITIES SOFTWARE

Utility software is a kind of system software designed to help analyze, configure,

optimize and maintain the computer. A single piece of utility software is usually called

a utility or tool.

Utility software should be contrasted with application software, which allows users to

do things like creating text documents, playing games, listening to music or surfing

the web. Rather than providing these kinds of user-oriented or output-oriented

functionality, utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including the computer

Self-Quiz

(Find the true statement, and rewrite

the false statement so that they are true)

1. Blackberry device use Palm as

their operating system.

2. Example of embedded

operating systems include Windows server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Solaris &

Netware.

3. Mac OS X is a multitasking

operating system only available for computers manufactured by Apple.

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hardware, operating system, and application software and data storage) operates.

Due to this focus, utilities are often rather technical and targeted at people with an

advanced level of computer knowledge.

Most utilities are highly specialized and designed to perform only a single task or a

small range of tasks. However, there are also some utility suitesthat combine several

features in one software. Most major operating systems come with several

preinstalled utilities.

3.4.1 Utility Software Categories Disk storage utilities

• Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across

several locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase

efficiency

• Disk checkers can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are

corrupted in some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more

efficiently operating hard drive

• Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up

considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete

when their hard disk is full

• Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for

each folder (including sub folders) & files in folder or drive. Showing the distribution

of the used space

• Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with

its own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an

individual drive

• Backup utilities can make a copy of all information stored on a disk, and restore

either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event

of accidental deletion)

• Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of

a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk

• File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data

management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving,

copying, merging, generating and modifying data sets

• Archiveutilities output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a

set of files. Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression

or encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive

utility for the reverse operation

• System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and

hardware attached to the computer

• Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses

• Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an

actual program

• Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream or file

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• Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files

• Launcher applications provide a convenient access point for application software •

Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old registry

keys that are no longer in use

• Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network

settings, check data transfer or log events

• Command line interface (CLI) and Graphical user interface (GUI) Allows the user

• A file compression utility reduces the size of a file

• A diagnostic utilitycompiles technical information about a computer’s hardware and

certain system software programs and then prepares a report outlining any identified

problems

• A disk scanner detects and corrects problems on disk and searches for and removes

unwanted files

• A disk fragmenter reorganizes files and unused space on a computer’s hard disk so

data can be accessed more quickly and programs can run faster

• An uninstallerremoves an application, as well as any associated entries in the system

files

• A backup utility copies or backups selected files or entire hard drive onto another

disk or tape

• An antivirus programprevents, detects, and removes viruses

• A screen saver causes the monitor’s screen to display a moving image on a blank

screen of no keyboard or mouse activity occurs for a specific time period

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ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the functions of systems software?

2. Outline the functions of the operating systems

3. State the responsibilities of the Kernel

4. Highlight the popularly used operating systems and explain

5. What is utilities software? Give examples.

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4. DATA MANAGEMENT AND DATABASES

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Learning Outcomes

1. Define data accuracy, maintenance and security

2. Know the hierarchy of data

3. Explain types of file organization

4. Discuss data file maintenance

5. Discuss databases, usage, types, organization, models,

querying, warehousing and mining

4.1 DATA MANAGEMENT

• Define data accuracy, maintenance and security

• Know the hierarchy of data

• Explain types of file organization

• Discuss data file maintenance

• Discuss databases, usage, types, organization, models, querying, warehousing and mining

4.1.1 Data Accuracy

Data without errors, accurate data or information can lead to take correct decisions.

4.1.2 Data Security

Protection of data so it is not misused or lost.

4.1.3 Data Maintenance

Procedures used keep file data current. Data maintenance procedures include adding records to, changing

records in, or deleting records from a file. (Refer to 10.4 of the prescribed textbook).

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4.2 THE HIERARCHY OF DATA

Data is organized in a hierarchy in which each higher level consists of one or more elements from the

lower level. A database contains files, a file contains records, a record contains fields, and a field is made

up of characters. The fitness centre database contains four files:

Member, Membership plans, Personal Trainer, and Training Session

• The Member file contains records about current members.

• The Membership Plans filecontains records identifying a type of membership and its monthly fee.

• The personal Trainerfile contains records about trainers at the fitness centre, and

• The Training session file contains records that identify the time and date a member has a session

with a trainer. Memberships Plans file are Membership Code, Membership Name, and Monthly

Fee. The Membership Code field contains one character. Valid entries include L(Late Shift),

M(Matinee), P(Prime Time), R(Round the Clock), and W(Weekender). Membership Code field has

a field size of 1.

• Characters: In the ASCII and EBCDIC, coding schemes, each byte represents a single character,

which can be a number (4), letter ®, Punctuation mark (?), or other symbol (&).

• Fields: A Field is a combination of one or more related characters or bytes and is the smallest unit

of data a user accesses. • Records: A record is a group of related records.

4.3 TYPES OF FILE ORGANISATION

File:The set of all occurrences of a given record structure

(OR)

Is a table containing master and transaction file records that have been deleted

from online storage?

Some types of conventional files are:

• Master File:Is a table containing records that are relatively permanent.

Example: Master Files include CUSTOMERS, PRODUCTS, and SUPPLIERS. Transaction File: Is a

table containing records that describe business events. Example: Transaction files include ORDERS,

INVOICES, REQUISITIONS, and REGISTIRATIONS.

• Document File: Is a table containing historical date.

• Table look-up File: is a table containing relatively static data that can be shared.Example: It

includes SALES TAX TABLES, ZIP CODE TABLES, and INCOME TAX TABLES.

• Audit File:Is a table containing records of updating to other files.

4.4 DATA FILE MAINTENANCE

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Adding Records: records are added to a file when you need to add additional

information. Follow the example in section 10.5 of the prescribed textbook.

Changing Records: you may change you records for the following two reasons:

• To correct inaccurate data

• To update older data

Deleting records: when you no longer require a

record in a file you remove it by deleting.

4.5 DATABASES

Databases a better way to manage and organize data

in a computer structure that houses a collection of

related data. A database contains two types of data:

1) End User data-raw facts

2) Metadata-it consists of data about data,

that is, the data characteristics and relationships.

4.5.1 An Insight to Database

Many applications require a database interface with an IVR (INTERACTIVE VOICE

RESPONSE) system. Insight provides emulation and links to many databases such as

Microsoft Access, dBase, FoxPro, SQL Sequel Server, ODBC, Informix, Oracle, and many

others. Data runs between the IVR system and the database application through

specific variables. Applications can run embedded, be created on the fly, or through

import/export facilities

4.5.2 Database Usage

Database Usage must consider the following

• No database space is wasted on storing data that is no longer used as is currently the

case

• Performance does not suffer from having to parse and carry data, which will never

be used

• The database will be easier to understand

• It may actually make it easier to develop modules

• Storing data is it makes it easy for the programmer to add new data fields because

no Database change is required

4.5.3 Types of Database Organisation

Think Point Should a database of people on parole or being released for crimes be made public? Why or why not?

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Organising data in a database

Because of the vast number of elements in modern businesses, it is essential that data is organized so that

it can be effectively utilized. Databases should be designed to store all relevant data and provide data

integrity, quick access and easy modification.

The following must be taken into consideration when designing a database:

Content: what data is to be collected and at what cost

Physical structure: where is the data to be physically located

Logical structure: how is the data to be arranged semantically in order to make sense

Access: what data is to be provided and to whom

4.6 DATABASE MODELS

4.6.1 The Hierarchical or Tree Database Model

This is basically a database in which data is organized in a tree like structure. Data is

organized in an inverted tree-like structure. This database has branches of parent and

child records; each child record can only have one parent record.

4.6.2 The Network Database Model

This model is similar or an extension of the Hierarchical model, except that each child

record can have more than one parent. Both the Network & the Hierarchical models

are flawed in that they are difficult to modify or create new relationships.

4.6.3 The Relational Database Model

These are quite popular models, which use tables that consist of rows and columns

to store data. All data is placed in 2 dimensional tables, called relations. The tables in

the relational database organize data in rows and columns, which helps simplify data

access and manipulation. In a relational database, each row has a primary key and

each column has a unique name. Each row in a table is referred to as a tuple and each

column is called an attribute. Tuples represent records (a collection of related facts),

and attributes represent fields. A relational database stores associations among data,

or relationships. Once data has been placed into the database, data inquiries and

manipulations can be made.

4.6.4 Object-Oriented Database Model

This model is based on an object-oriented data model. Data is stored as objects, which

contain both the data and the processing instructions needed to complete the

database transaction. The objects can be retrieved and related by an object-oriented

database management system. These databases have the ability to reuse and modify

existing objects to develop new database applications. This helps reduce errors and

increase efficiency.

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4.7 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

The diagram documents the entities and relationships involved in the employee

information and payroll system. It depicts the fundamental relations like recording

personnel information, paying salary and getting a loan. The E-R Diagram for an

Employee Payroll system can be simple as well as complex. Database Management

System (DBMS) is a group of programs used as an interface between a user and a

database, or a database and application programs. The DBMS’s main function is to

control access to the database and manage the resources efficiently. The DBMS helps

reduce data redundancy, improve data integrity, allows data to be shared and reports

to be compiled more easily. DBMS’s are designed for all kinds of computers, whether

they are personal computers, or mainframe.

4.7.1 Storage and Retrieval of data from a DBMS

As mentioned above, one of the primary functions of a DBMS is to be an interface between the database

and the application program. When an application program needs data, it goes to the DBMS. It follows a

logical access path in order to do so. The DBMS then accesses the storage device, (for example a hard-

disk or tape) where the data is stored. The DBMS follows a physical access path in order to retrieve the

data from the storage device.

4.7.2 Query Languages: Access to the Database

Is basically simple, English-like statement that enables a user to specify the data he/she wants to store,

print or output?

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4.7.3 Structure Query Language

Structured Query Language (SQL) manipulates and retrieves data and is used by

relational databases. A powerful and flexible relational database software language

composed of commands that enable users to create database and table structures,

perform various types of data manipulation and data administration, and query the

database to extract useful information.

4.8 DATABASE ADMISSION

The role of the Database Administrator: is to

coordinate the use of the database so that we

can keep track and store data. This person is

responsible for the planning, organization,

control and monitoring of the centralized and

shared corporate database. The DBA is the

general manager of the database

administration department. The role of the

User in a Database System: The user needs to

first familiarize him/her with the data in the

existing database. The user should also take

active participation in designing and specifying

additions to the database.

Self-Quiz

(Find the true statement, and rewrite the

false statement so that they are true) 1. A

database is a combination of one or

more related characters or bytes

and is the smallest unit of data a

user accesses.

2. A record is a collection of

data organised in a manner that

allows access, retrieval, and use of that data.

3. Data is processed

information.

4. A coding scheme is a number

or character that is appended to or

inserted in a primary key value.

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CASE STUDY

J. Crew is a global retailer and a catalog merchant of prestige fashions with

headquarters in New York City. It offers a wide range of men’s, women’s, and

children’s apparel, shoes, accessories and personal care products through its

fast expanding retail network of 133 U.S. stores and 76 licensed stores in

Japan.

When J. Crew set up its jcrew.com site in June 1997, it was one of the first

apparel sites on the web. Today the website is J. Crew’s fastest-growing

distribution channel. Part of the reason for its huge success is that J. Crew uses

a data warehouse and software tools to identify for on-line shoppers what J.

Crew clothes, shoes and accessories customers frequently purchase together.

That information is fed to applications running the website so that when online

shoppers click on an item, the website recommends the complimentary

products that the customer might be interested in buying. Delivering dynamic,

relevant product recommendations to shoppers has increased the average

order size and raised customer satisfaction and loyalty.

J. Crew uses DigiMine’s Enterprise Analytics data mining software to analyze

sales data from its website, retail stores, and catalog sales operation. All of its

data is collected and stored in a 500-GB data warehouse running on a

Microsoft SQL Server database, which took J Crew and DigiMine six months to

develop. J. Crew combines the data generated by visitors clicking on its web

pages with product sales data from corporate systems that process order data

from catalog and retail operations.

Questions

1. How did J. Crew manage to be the fastest-growing distribution channel?

2. Give an account of how jcrew.com site operate

3. Identify some potential data privacy issues that might arise with the capture, storage, and analysis of customers’ on-line shopping data from J. Crew’s web site

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4.9 GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING DATABASE FILES

1. Determine the purpose of the database.

2. Design the tables

3. Design the fields for each table

4. Determine the relationship among the tables

4.10 WORK: DATA WAREHOUSE AND DATA MINING

These are extremely large database that stores and managers the data required to

analyze historical and current business circumstances.

4.10.1 Data Warehouse

A database that focuses primarily on the storage of data used to generate information

required to make tactical or strategic decisions.

4.10.2 Data Mining

A method of employing automated tools to analyze the wealth of data now available

through data warehouses and other sources and to identify possible relationships and

anomalies. Data mining is a proactive methodology that is being used to uncover

business problems and opportunities.

ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are Data Maintenance Techniques?

2. How is File Processing Different from Databases?

3. What are the Advantages of Using a Database Management system (DBMS)?

4. What are the Characteristics of Relational and Object-Orientated Database?

5. How is Query Language Used?

6. What are the Responsibilities of Data and Database Administrators?

7. What are Different Types of Information Systems?

8. Why are Data and Information Important to an Organisation?

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5. INFORMATION SYSTEMS

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B. Management Levels in an Organisation

The term “ Levels of Management ’ refers to a line of demarcation between various

managerial positions in an organization. The number of levels in management

increases when the size of the business and work force increases and vice versa. The

level of management determines a chain of com mand, the amount of authority &

status enjoyed by any managerial position. The levels of management can be

classified in three broad categories:

• Top level / Administrative level

• Middle level / Executors

• Low level / Supervisory / Operative / First - line managers

Managers at all these levels perform different functions. The role of managers at all

the three levels is discussed below:

5.2 LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT

5.2.1 Top Level of Management

It consists of board of directors, chief executive or managing director. The top

Management is the ultimate source of authority and it manages goals and policies for

An enterprise. It devotes more time on planning and coordinating functions. The role

of th e top management can be summarized as follows:

a. Top management lays down the objectives and broad policies of the enterprise

b. It issues necessary instructions for preparation of department budgets,

procedures, schedules etc.

c. It prepares strategic plans & policies for the enterprise

d. It appoints the executive for middle level i.e. departmental managers

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e. It controls & coordinates the activities of all the departments

f. It is also responsible for maintaining a contact with the outside world

g. It provides guidance and direction

h. The top management is also responsible towards the shareholders for the

performance of the enterprise

5.2.2 Middle Level of Management

The branch managers and departmental managers constitute middle level. They are

responsible to the top management for the functioning of their department. They

devote more time to organizational and directional functions. In small organization,

there is only one layer of middle level of management but in big enterprises, there

may be senior and junior middle level management. Their role can be emphasized as:

a. They execute the plans of the organization in accordance with the policies

and directives of the top management

b. They make plans for the sub-units of the organization

c. They participate in employment & training of lower level management

d. They interpret and explain policies from top level management to lower level

e. They are responsible for coordinating the activities within the division or

department

f. It also sends important reports and other important data to top level

management

g. They evaluate performance of junior managers

h. They are also responsible for inspiring lower level managers towards better

performance

5.2.3 Lower Level of Management

Lower level is also known as supervisory / operative level of management. It consists

of supervisors, foreman, section officers, superintendent etc. According to R.C. Davis,

“Supervisory management refers to those executives whose work has to be largely

with personal oversight and direction of operative employees”. In other words, they

are concerned with direction and controlling function of management. Their activities

include:

1. Assigning of jobs and tasks to various workers

2. They guide and instruct workers for day to day activities

3. They are responsible for the quality as well as quantity of production

4. They are also entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining good relation

in the organization

5. They communicate workers problems, suggestions, and recommendatory

appeals etc to the higher level and higher level goals and objectives to the workers

6. They help to solve the grievances of the workers

7. They supervise & guide the sub-ordinates

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8. They are responsible for providing training to the workers

9. They arrange necessary materials, machines, tools etc for getting the things

done

10. They prepare periodical reports about the performance of the workers

11. They ensure discipline in the enterprise

12. They motivate workers

13. They are the image builders of the enterprise because they are in direct

contact with the workers

5.3 FUNCTIONAL AREAS IN AN ORGANISATION

• Marketing Management Function:

Generates income from sales and is responsible for managing the marketing process.

• Financial Management Function:

This is responsible for the acquisition, utilization and control of the funds necessary

for running the business. The main activities here are the acquisition and application

of funds for the profitability, liquidity, solvency and continuity of the organization.

• Purchasing Management Function:

This function ensures that the materials necessary for production are bought at the

right places, at the right times, in the right quantities and at the right prices.

• Production Management Function:

This focuses on the internal capabilities of the organisation rather than on the desires

and needs of the marketplace.

• Human Resource Management Function:

Pertains to the acquisition, training, utilization and retaining of a sufficient number of

competent personnel.

• Public Relations Management Function:

Maintains and cultivates a favor able and objective image of the organization among

those whose opinion is important to the achievement of the business objectives.

• General Management Function:

This function includes the activities of persons in managerial positions. These persons

in top, middle and lower management have to plan for, organize, lead and control the

organisation as a whole, as well as its individual functions. The general manager is at the head of the

management team.

• Information function:

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Makes available income from sales and is responsible for managing the marketing process.

• Operations function:

An operation involves the physical utilization of raw materials and their conversion into manufactured

materials and finished products, and is usually performed in a factory.

5.4 QUALITIES OF VALUABLE INFORMATION

Accurate information: The user needs to use information that is accurate as inaccurate information

could lead to wrong decisions been taken.

Verifiable: Means that you can confirm information

Timely information: Most information loses it value with as time passes therefore it is necessary

to have the information on time

Organised information: Information must be arranged to suit the needs and requirements of the

user.

Meaningful information: Information must be relevant to the user, since it can be meaningful only to

the person who requires it.

Cost-effective

information:

Costs less to produce than the value of the resulting information.

5.5 TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

An information system is a collection of hardware, software, data, people and procedures that are

designed to generate information that supports the activities of an organisation.

5.5.1 Office Information Systems (OIS)

Uses hardware, software and networks to enhance workflow and facilitate communications among

employees. An OIS supports many administrative activities. With an OIS, users create and distribute

graphics and documents, send messages, schedule appointments, browse the web, and publish web

pages. All levels of users utilize and benefit from the features of an OIS.

An OIS uses many common software products to support its activities. Typical software in an OIS includes

word processing, spreadsheet, database, presentation graphics, e-mail, web browser, web page

authoring, personal information management, and groupware. To send text, graphics, audio, video to

others, an OIS uses communication technology such as voice mail, fax, video conferencing, and EDI. In an

OIS, computers have modems, video cameras, speakers, and microphones.

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Employees in an OIS often use other types of hard ware such as scanners, fax

machines, digital cameras, and web-enabled cellular telephones and PDAs.

5.5.2 Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)

Is an information system that captures and processes data from day-to-day business

activities. Examples of transactions are deposits, payments, orders, and reservations.

Many people initially referred to the functions of a TPS as data processing.

The first TPSs mostly used batch processing. With batch processing, the computer

collects data over time and processes all transactions later, as a group. As computers

became more powerful, system developers created online transaction processing

information systems. With online transaction processing (OLTP), the computer

processes each transaction as it is entered. Today most transaction processing

systems use OLTP. For some routine processing tasks, they also use batch processing.

Many enterprise sized organizations use batch processing to calculate pay checks and

print in voices.

5.5.3 Management Information Systems (MIS)

Is an information system that generates accurate, timely and organized information?

An MIS generates three basic types of information: detailed, summary and exception.

MIS evolved from TPSs. Managers realized the computer and its software had more

potential than just supporting a TPS. Its capability of quickly computing and comparing

data could produce meaningful information managers.

5.5.4 Decision Support System (DSS)

Is an information system designed to help users reach a decision when a decision-

making situation arises. A decision support system uses data from internal and

external sources.

• Internal sources

Data might include sales orders, MRP and MRP II results, inventory records, or

financial data from accounting and financial analyses.

• External sources

Data might include interest rates, population trends, costs of new housing

construction, or raw material pricing.

5.5.5Expert Systems

An expert system is an information system that captures and stores the knowledge of

human experts and then imitates human reasoning and decision making. They are

composed of two main components: knowledge base and inference rule. Knowledge

base is the combined subject knowledge and experiences of the human experts.

Inference rule are a set of logical judgments applied to the knowledge base each time

a user describes a situation to the expert system. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the

application of human intelligence to computers. AI technology senses a person’s

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actions and, based on logical assumptions and prior experience, takes the appropriate action to complete

the task. AI has a variety of capabilities, including speech recognition, logical reasoning, and creative

responses.

5.5.6 Integrated Information Systems

It often is difficult to classify an information system as belonging to

only one of the five general types of information systems. Much of

today’s application software, such as ERP and MRP II software,

supports transaction processing and creates MIS reports. Other

applications provide transaction processing, management

information, and decision support.

5.5.7 Executive Information Systems special type of DSS, called an

executive information system (EIS), supports the strategic information

needs of executive management. An EIS presents information

As charts and tables that show trends, ratios, and statistics. An EIS typically

uses external data sources such as the Dow Jones interactive or the

internet. These external data sources provide current information about

interest rates, commodity prices, and other leading economic indicators.

5.6 THE ROLE OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Role of personal computer is that can perform all of its input, processing,

output, and storage activities by itself and contains at least one input

device, one output device, one storage device, memory, and a processor.

5.7THE CYBER CORPORATION

This is a Corporation that provides computers with Internet access to its customers.

Self-Quiz

(Find the true statement, and rewrite

the false statement so that they are true)

1. Users can send pictures and

sound files as well as short text

messages, with text messaging.

A cybercafé is a wireless network

that provides Internet connections

to mobile computers and other

devices. 3. Web folder is a

navigation system that consists of

one or more earth based receivers

that accept and analyse signals sent

by satellite in order to determine

the receiver’s location. 4.

Receiving devices initiate an

instruction to transmit data,

instructions, or information.

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ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) What are Different Types of Information Systems?

2) Explain different types of functional areas in an organization?

3) List and briefly explain the 4 management activities?

4) Give the description of different qualities of valuable

information?

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______________________________________________________________

6. INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

______________________________________________________________

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Learning Outcomes

1. List the phases in the systems development cycle

2. Identify the guidelines and factors for system development

6.1 EXPLORING THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is an organized set of activities that guides

those involved through the development of an information system.

6.1.1 Phases in the Systems Development Life Cycle : This system comprises of five

phases:

1. Planning

2. Analysis

3. Design

4. Implementation

5. Support

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6.2 GUIDELINES FOR SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

Three general guidelines:

1) Use a phased approach: this involves defining the phases of the SDLC and

determining what activities and tasks will occur in each phase.

2) Involve the users: if the system is to be successful, the user must contribute

in all stages of development.

3) Develop standards: standards are set of rules and procedures that an

organisation expects employees to accept and follow. Having standards helps

multiple people working on the same development project produce consistent

results.

6.3 PARTICIPANTS IN THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

Anyone that is affected by the information system should participate in its

development.

• A system analyst: is responsible for designing and developing an information

system. Serve as liaison between user and the programmers.

• A programmer: uses a programming language to write the

instructions necessary to direct the computer to process data into

information

• The steering committee: is a decision- making body of an organisation.

6.4 PROJECT MANAGEMENT Project management is the process of planning,

scheduling, and then controlling the activities during the system development life

cycle

Components of the Project:

• The scope; that is, the goal, objectives, and expectations of the project

• Activities to be completed

• Time estimates for each activity

• Cost estimates for each activity

• The order in which activities must occur

• Activities that may be performed concurrently

6.5 FEASIBILITY ASSESSMENT

Feasibility is a measure of how suitable the development of a system will be to the

organisation. The following four criteria are used to test feasibility of a project:

• Schedule feasibility: measures whether the established deadlines for the

project are reasonable.

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• Technical feasibility: measures whether the organisation has or can obtain the

hardware, software, networks, and people needed to deliver and then support the

proposed information system.

• Economic feasibility: also called cost/benefit feasibility, measures whether the

lifetime of the proposed information system will exceed its lifetime costs.

• Documentation: is the compilation and summarization of data and information;

including reports, diagrams, and programs. Proper documentation makes it easier for

everyone involved to understand all aspects of the life cycle.

6.6 DATA AND INFORMATION GATHERING TECHNIQUES

The following techniques are used to gather information:

• Reviewing current system documentation: review data and information on the

organisation chart, memos, minutes

• Observing: can help you understand how a system functions or a task is performed

• Interviewing: it allows for face-to-face discussion

• Sending Questionnaires: questionnaires are used to obtain information from large

number of people

• Conducting JAD sessions: is a lengthy, structured group work session

• Researching: use other sources to find information or data e.g. computer magazines,

trade journals, reference books, and the WWW

6.7 INITIATING FACTORS OF THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

1. To correct a problem

2. To improve the information system

3. An Information system to require modification

6.8 PLANNING PHASE

This phase commences when the steering committee requests for a project. Four

major activities are performed:

• Review the project requests

• Prioritize the project

• Allocate the resources such as money, people, equipment

• Identify a project development team for each approved project

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6.9 THE ANALYSIS PHASE

The feasibility study: also known as the preliminary investigation. The purpose is to

determine whether or not the problem or enhancement identified in a project request

is worth pursuing.

Detailed analysis: entails three major activities

• Study the existing system in depth so you thoroughly understand the current

operations, uncover all possible problems and enhancements, and determine the

causes and effects of these problems or enhancements.

• Determine the users’ requirements for the proposed system, which includes their

wants and needs

• Present alternative solutions to the problem or enhancement and then recommend

a proposed solution.

Structured analysis and design tools: one of the difficulties of analyzing any system is

documenting the findings in a way that can be understood by everyone. Structured

analysis and design addresses this problem by using graphics to present the findings.

Example of tools used (entity-relationship diagrams, data flow diagrams and project

dictionary).

Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD): is a tool that graphically shows the connections

among entities in a system. An entity is an object in the system that has data. Example:

a cybercafé might have customer, order, menu item, computer, and vendor entities.

Data Flow Diagram (DFD): is a tool that graphically shows the flow of data in a system.

The key elements of a DFD are the data flows, the processes, the data stores, and the

sources.

Example Diagram

• A line with an arrow indicates a data flow.

• A data flow shows the input or output of data or information into or out from a

process.

• A process, which is drawn as a circle, transforms an input data flow into an output data flow.

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• A rectangle with no sides is a data store.

• A data store is a holding place4 for data and information.

Project Dictionary: contains all the documentation and deliverables of a project. The project dictionary

helps everyone keep track of the huge amount of details in a system.

The build-or-by decision: the organisation decides whether to buy software or build its own.

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Packaged software: is mass-produced, copyrighted, prewritten

software available for different types of computers.

Custom software: Application software developed by the user or at the user’s

request is called custom software.

Horizontal market software: meets the needs of many different types of companies.

Vertical market software: is designed for a particular business or industry. Examples

of companies that use vertical market software include banks, schools, hospitals,

real estate offices, libraries, and insurance companies.

Difference between Horizontal and Vertical Software

Horizontal market software packages tend to be widely available because a large

number of companies use them. Thus, they typically are less expensive than vertical

market software.

Trade publication: is a magazine written for a specific business or industry.

Companies and individuals that have written software for these industries often

advertise in trade publications.

6.10 DESIGN PHASE

Acquiring essential hardware and software: once the committee decides to build its

own software, you need to buy the appropriate hardware and software. The

following tasks need to be followed in order to select the correct hardware and

software.

• Identify technical specifications

• Solicit vendor proposals

• Test and evaluate vendor proposals, and

• Make a decision

Identifying technical specifications: to identify all the hardware, software, and

networking requirements with respect to functionality, features, and performance.

Once the technical requirements have been defined, the system analyst summarizes

the requirements in either a request for quotation or proposal.

RFQ: identifies the product(s) you want. With an RFQ, the vendor quotes a price for

the listed product(s).

RFP: In this the vendor selects the product(s) that meets specified requirements and

then quotes the price. Some companies prefer to use a request for information.

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RFI: is a less formal method that uses a standard form to request information about

a product or service.

Soliciting Vendor proposals: you will find up-to-date products, prices, technical

specifications, and ordering information on the Internet. A warranty is a guarantee

that a product will function properly for a specified time period. Another means of

identifying software suppliers is to hire a computer consultant or use a value-added

reseller.

Testing and evaluating vendor proposals: a popular technique is to establish a scoring

system that you can use to rate each proposal objectively.

Making a Decision: is when you purchase hardware, you usually own it; however,

when you purchase software, you do not. With software, you purchase an end-user

license agreement, which is the right to use the software under certain terms and

conditions.

Detailed decision: The activities to be performed include developing designs for the

databases, inputs, outputs, and programs.

Prototyping: a prototype is a working model of the proposed system. The advantage

is that users can work with the system before it is completed – to make sure it meets

their needs. The process of developing applications with prototypes is a component

of rapid application development (RAD). A disadvantage is that it is documented

inadequately. Prototyping can be an effective tool if all activities within the life cycle

are followed and it should not replace or eliminate activities instead it should improve

the quality.

CASE Tools: Computer-aided software engineering products are computer-based

tools designed to support one or more activities of the life cycle is also increases the

efficiency and productivity of the project development team.

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Quality review techniques: structured walkthrough is a popular step-by-step review

of any deliverable (e.g. reports, diagrams, mock-ups, layout charts, and dictionary

entries). Walkthrough identifies errors in the delivery been reviewed which must be

corrected by the information system personnel.

6.11 THE IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

Four major activities are performed in this phase:

6.11.1 If necessary, develop programs

6.11.2 Install and test the new system

6.11.3 Train and educate users

6.11.4 Covert to new system.

6.11.1 Develop programs: The program

development life cycle follows these six steps:

Analyze the problem

Design the programs

Code the programs

Test the programs

Formalize the solution

Maintain the programs

6.11.2 Install and test the new system: all

hardware and software should be tested

thoroughly. Three types of tests are performed to test the new system:

Systems test: verifies that all programs in an application work together

properly

Integration test: verifies that an application works with other applications

Acceptance test: performed by end-users, checks that the new system works

with actual data.

6.11.3 Train and educate Users: training involves showing users exactly how they will

use the new system. Education is the process of learning new principles or theories

that help the users understand the system.

Self-Quiz

(Find the true statement, and rewrite the

false statement so that they are true) 1.

Feasibility is the process of

planning, scheduling, and then

controlling the activities during

system development. 2.

Maintaining up-to-date documents

should be an ongoing part of system development.

3. Users should not be involved in systems development.

4. The planning phase for a

project begins when the steering

committee receives a Gantt Chart.

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Conversion

strategy

Description Advantage Disadvantage

Direct

Conversion

The user stops using the

old system and begins

using the new system on

a particular date

It requires to

transition costs

and is quick to

implement.

Extremely

risky and can

disrupt

operations

Parallel

Conversion

Consists of running the

old system alongside the

new system for a

specified time period.

Results from both systems

are compared

Any problems with

the new system

can be solved

before the old

system

terminated.

It is costly to

maintain two

systems

simultaneously.

Phased

Conversion

Split into individual sites.

Each site is converted

separately at different

times using either direct

or parallel conversion

Pilot Conversion

Only one location in the

organisation uses the new

system, so it can be

tested.

6.11.4 Convert to the new system: the following conversion strategies: direct, parallel, phased, or pilot.

6.12 SUPPORT PHASE

The support phase consists of four major activities and provides ongoing assistance for an information

system and its users after implementation.

• Post-implementation review: a meeting is held with the users to find out whether the program is

performing according to their performance

• Identify errors: i.e. it does not produce correct results. These errors are caused from problems with

design (logic) or programming (syntax)

• System enhancement: involves modifying or expanding an existing application system

• Performance monitoring: the purpose is to determine if the system is inefficient at any point and if

the inefficiency is causing a problem

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ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is project management?

2. To plan and schedule a project effectively, what

components of the project must the project leader

identify?

3. How is an unstructured interview different form a

structured interview?

4. What is a JAD session?

5. How is the horizontal application software different from

vertical application software?

6. What are trade publications?

7. How are a request for quotation (RFQ), request for

proposal (RFP), and request for information (RFI)

different?

8. What is a benchmark test?

9. What are the Phases in the System Development Life

Cycle?

10. What are Guidelines for System Development?

11. Why are Project Management, Feasibility Assessment,

Data and Information Gathering Techniques, and

Documentation Important?

12. How are Structured Tools such as Entity-Relationship

Diagrams and Data Flow Diagrams Used in Analysis and

Design?

13. Differentiate between packaged software and custom

software.

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____________________________________________

7. PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRAMMING

LANGUAGES

______________________________________________

7.1 DEFINING A COMPUTER PROGRAM

A computer program is a set of instructions that directs a computer o performs the

tasks necessary to process data into information.

7.2 THE PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

The program development life cycle is a set of steps that programmers use to build

computer programs. This cycle consists of six steps.

• Analyze Problem

• Design Programs

• Code Programs

• Test Programs

• Formalize Solution

• Maintain Programs

Learning Outcomes

1. Discuss the program development cycle

2. Differentiate between machine and assembly languages

3. Discuss the object-oriented programming languages and program

development tools

4. Identify the uses of programming languages and program development

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7.3 INITIATION FACTORS OF THE PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLES

Companies’ requests for a new or modified program usually are made at the end of the analysis phase of

the system development life cycle. If the company decides to develop it, The design phase of the SDLC

focuses on creating a detailed set of system and program requirements for the programmer(s). These

detailed design specifications, called the program specification package. The steps of the PDLC begin and

are completed within the implementation phase of the system development life cycle.

7.3.1 Step 1 – Analyse Problem

This analysis step consists of three major tasks:

Self-Quiz

(Find the true statement, and rewrite the false statement

so that they are true)

1. An interpreter is a program that converts an entire source program into machine language

before executing it.

2. C and COBOL are examples of assembly

languages/ 3. C# is an object-oriented

programming language developed by Sun

Microsystems.

4. Delphi is an object-oriented programming language based on PowerBuilder.

5. Two types of low-level languages are

machine language and source language.

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• Reviewing the program specifications package –

contains relationships among programs in the

system, as well as the input, output, processing, and

data requirements for each program. Within the

program specifications package, these requirements

are represented as a variety of deliverables such as

charts, diagrams, reports and files. Thoroughly

reviewing these deliverables helps the programmer

understand the nature and requirements of each

program.

• Meeting with the systems analyst and users – to

understand the purpose of the program from the

user’s perspective. A programmer should never make

any change without the both the systems analyst’s

and users’ approval.

• Identifying each program’s input, output, and

processing components – to help collect and better

define these

requirements,

many

programmers use

an IOP chart

(Input Process

Output) which

identifies the

inputs, the

outputs the

program will

generate, and the

processing steps

required to

transform the

inputs into

outputs.

7.3.2 Step 2 – Design Programs

Designing programs involves the following:

• Grouping each programs activities into modules

• Devising a solution algorithm for each module

• Testing the solution algorithms

• Top-down Design

The first set (called main routine) of program specifications are broken into smaller

manageable sections (called subroutines). A module is a section that performs a single

function.

Programmers use a hierarchy chart (also called structure chart or top-down chart) to

represent these modules graphically. The approach is simple, usually reliable and easy

to read and maintain.

• Structured Design

This is an approach in which all program logic is constructed from a combination of

three control structures. These structures control the logical order in which program

instructions are executed so that actions (such as inputs, processes, and outputs, records, calculating

averages and totals, and printing) take place.

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• Sequence control structure - shows a single action or one action followed by another.

Sequence Control Structure

• Selection Control Structure

Tells the program which action to take, based on certain condition. When evaluated, its result is either

true or false. When the condition in an if-then-else control structure it results in two possibilities: true

or false. If the result is true one action is performed,

if false a different (or possibly) no action is performed.

Action 1

Actio n 2

Action 3

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Design Tools

Three commonly used design tools are flowcharts, Nassi-Schneiderman charts, and pseudopodia.

Flowchart

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In addition to the Basic Flowchart template, Visio provides a variety of templates for more specific kinds of

diagrams, such as data flow diagrams, timelines, and software modelling.

Flowcharts are diagrams that show the steps in a process. Basic flowcharts are easy

to create and, because the shapes are simple and visual, they are easy to understand.

The Basic Flo wchart template in Microsoft Office Visio 2007 comes with shapes that

you can use to show many kinds of processes, and it is especially useful for showing

basic business processes like the proposal development process shown in the figure

below

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What the flowchart shapes represent

When you open the Basic Flowchart template, the Basic Flowchart Shapes stencil opens

too. Each shape on the stencil represents a different step in a process.

Of all of the shapes on the Basic Flowchart Shapes stencil, only a few are commonly

used. Those commonly used shapes are described here. For more information about

he less commonly used shapes open the expandable link (Less frequently used

flowchart shapes)at the end of this section.

Terminator: Use this shape for the first and last step of your process.

Process: This shape represents a step in your process.

Predefined process: Use this shape for a set of steps that combine to create a sub

process that is defined elsewhere, often on another page of the same drawing.

Decision: This shape indicates a point where the outcome of a decision dictates the

next step. There can be multiple outcomes, but often there are just two —yes and no.

Document: This shape represents a step that results in a document.

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Data: This shape indicates that information is coming into the process from

outside, or leaving the process. This shape can also be used to represent materials

and is sometimes called an Input/output shape.

FLOWCHART SHAPES

You can right-click this multi-shape to set to any of the following shapes: Process,

Decision, Document, or Data. Any text you type onto the shape, or information

you add to its Shape Data, remains with the shape.

Stored data: Use this shape for a step that results in information being stored.

On-page reference: this small circle indicates that the next (or previous) step is

somewhere else on the drawing. This is particularly useful for large flowcharts

where you would otherwise have to use a long connector, which can be hard to

follow.

Off-page reference: When you drop this shape onto your drawing page, a dialog

box opens where you can create a set of hyperlinks between two pages of a

flowchart or between a sub-process shape and a separate flowchart page that

shows the steps in that sub-process.

Less frequently used flowchart shapes

Dynamic connector: This connector draws a path around shapes it encounters.

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Line-curve connector: this connector has adjustable curvature.

Auto-height box: this is a bordered text box that adjusts to accommodate the

amount of text you type. You can set the width by dragging the sides of the shape.

Although this shape doesn't represent a step in a process, it is a handy way to add

a text box to your flowchart.

Annotation: This bracketed text box adjusts to accommodate the amount of text

you type. You can set the width by dragging the sides of the shape. Like the Auto

height box shape, this shape doesn't represent a step in a process. Use this to add

comments about your flowchart shapes.

Manual input: This is a step where a person provides information to the process.

Manual operation: This is a step that must be performed by a person.

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Internal storage: This shape represents information stored on a computer.

Direct data: This shape represents information stored so that any single record can be

accessed directly. This represents how a computer hard-drive stores data.

Sequential data: This shape represents information stored in sequence, such as

data on a magnetic tape. When data is stored in sequence, it must be retrieved in

sequence. For example, in order to access record 7 you would have to first go

through records 1 through 6.

Card and Paper tape: This shape represents a physical card or paper tape. Early

computer systems used a system of punch cards and paper tape to store and

retrieve data and to store and run programs.

Display: This shape represents information that is displayed to a person, usually on a

computer screen.

Preparation: This shape indicates where variables are initialized in preparation for a procedure.

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Parallel mode: This shape shows where two different processes can operate

Simultaneously.

Loop limit: This shape marks the maximum number of times a loop can run before it

must go on to the next step.

Control transfer: This shape indicates a step that goes to a step other than the typical

next step when certain conditions are met.

Nassi-Schneider Chart – Unlike flowcharts, an N-S chart does not use lines to show

direction, instead, NS chart use a series of rectangular boxes, one below the next, with

the flow always moving top to bottom.

Pseudo code – uses an abbreviated form of English to outline program logic. You

identify the three basic control structures by their indention: the beginning and end

of the module start at the left margin, and the action within the module are indented.

Quality Review Techniques

A review is done to check for correctness and to uncover any logic errors (is a flaw in

the design that generates inaccurate results). Two techniques used to check for

solution algorithm:

Desk checking: is the process of stepping through the logic of the algorithm with the

test. Five steps are involved:

a) Develop various sets of test data (inputs)

b) Determine the expected result (output) for each set of data, without using the solution algorithm

c) Step through the solution algorithm using one set of test data and write down the actual result

obtained using the solution algorithm

d) Compare the expected result from step 2 to the actual result from step

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e) Report steps 3 and 4 for each set of test data

If the expected result and the actual result do not match for each set of data, the

program has a logic error.

Testing data: is sample data that stimulates data the program might process when it is

implemented.

7.3.3 Step 3 – Code Programs Coding involves two steps:

• Translating the solution algorithm into a programming language

• Entering the programming language code into the computer

Many different programming languages exist. Each of these has a particular syntax, or

set of grammar and rules, that specifies how to write the instructions in an algorithm.

7.3.4 Step 4 – Test Programs

The goal of program testing is to ensure that the program runs correctly and is error

free. Errors uncovered during this step usually are one of two types:

• Syntax errors - occurs when the code violates the syntax, or grammar, of the

programming language. Misspelling a command, leaving out required punctuation, or

typing command words out of order all will cause syntax error

• Logic errors - Debugging is used to locate and correct syntax and logic errors in a

program.

7.3.5 Step 5 – Formalize Solution

• Reviewing the program code – review the program for any dead code and remove it

• Reviewing all the documentation – documentation becomes especially important if

the program requires changes at a later date

7.3.6 Step 6 – Maintain Programs

• Correcting errors – while using the program one type of maintenance occurs when

users find syntax or logic errors

• Adding enhancements – involves modifying or expanding the existing programs

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7.4 DEFINING A PROGRAM LANGUAGE

A programming language is a set of word, symbols, and codes that enables a

programmer to communicate a solution algorithm to the computer. A program

development tool consists of user-friendly software products designed to assist in the

creation of information system solutions.

• High Level Language: can run on many different types of computers and operating

systems. It is a machine Independent language. Low Level Language: is a programming

language that is machine dependent. A machine dependent language runs on only one

particular type of computer.

• Machine Languages: machine language instructions use a series of binary digits (1s

and 0s) that correspond to the on and off electrical states of computer. Machine

program languages run only on the computer for which they were developed

(machine dependent).

• Assembly languages: instructions are written using abbreviations and codes

(known as symbolic instruction codes, or mnemonics). A program called assembler

coverts the assembly language to machine language.

• Third-Generation Languages (3GL): instruction is written as a series of English-like

words. Third generation languages require that the program instructions tell the

computer what to accomplish and how to do it. The translation is performed using

either a compiler or an interpreter.

• Fourth-Generation Languages (4GL): uses English-like statements. The

programmer only specifies what the program should accomplish without explaining

how. Many 4GLs work in combination with a database and its project dictionary. SQL

is a query language enabling users and programmers to retrieve data from database

tables.

• Natural Languages: is a type of query language that allows the user to enter

requests that resemble human speech. Natural languages often are associated with

expert systems and artificial intelligence.

List the advantages and disadvantages of the above languages?

7.5 OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

The structured program design does not provide a way to keep the data and the

program (or procedure) together. Each program has to design how it will use the data

for that particular program. This results in redundant programming code that must

change every time the structure of the data is changed, such as when a new field is

added to a table in a database. With the object-oriented approach, the programmer

can package the data and the program (or procedure) into a single unit called an

object. The procedures in the object are called methods, or operations, which contain

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activities that read or manipulate the data. The data elements are called attributes, or

variables. Encapsulation is packaging methods and attributes into a single object. A

major benefit of the object-orientated approach is the inability to reuse and modify

existing objects.

7.6 POPULAR PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

• BASIC (Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code): is a simple, interactive

problem-solving language often used in the introductory programming course.

• Visual Basic: is a programming language used to develop Windows-based

applications.

• COBOL (Common Business-oriented Language): is a widely procedural programming

language used for business applications.

• C: programming language is used to develop a variety of software, including

operating systems and operating programs.

• C++: is an object-oriented extension of the C programming language.

• FORTRAN: was one of the first high-level programming languages used for scientific

applications.

• Pascal: is a programming language created to teach structured programming

concepts.

• Ada: was originally designed for embedded computer systems.

• RPG: is a nonprocedural language used for application development on IBM

midrange computers.

Other Programming Languages

ALGOL ALGOrithmic Language, the first structured procedural

language

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APL A scientific programming language designed to

manipulate tables of numbers.

FORTH A programming language that is similar to C and is used for

small-computerized devices.

HYPERTALK

An object-oriented programming language developed by

Apple to manipulate cards that can contain text, graphics,

and sound.

LISP LIST Processing, a language used for artificial intelligence

applications.

LOGO An educational tool used to teach programming and

problem-solving to children.

MODULA-2 A successor to PASCAL used for developing systems

software.

PILOT Programmed inquiry learning or teaching, used to write

computer aided instruction programs.

PL/1

Programming languages One, a business and scientific

language that combines many features of FORTRAN and

COBOL

PROLOG PROgramming LOGIc, used for development of artificial

intelligence applications

SMALLTALK OBJECT-oriented programming language

7.7 HOW TO SELECT A PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

Consider the following factors:

• Standards of the organisation

• Interface with other programs

• Suitability of the language to the application

• Portability to other systems

7.8 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT TOOLS

Are user-friendly software products designed to help both program developers and non-technical users

create solutions to information system requirements?

7.9 APPLICATION GENERATORS (PROGRAM GENERATORS)

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Is a program that allows you to build an application without writing the extensive

code required by third generation programming languages? A menu generator allows

the developer to create a menu, or list of choices, for the application options.

7.10 MACROS

Is a series of statements that instructs an application how to complete a task. Macros

are used to automate routine, repetitive, or difficult tasks in an application. One of

the following two methods can be used to create a macro:

• Record the macro

• Write the macro

7.11 RAD TOOLS: VISUAL BASIC, DELPHI, AND POWERBUILDER

Rapid application development is the process of developing software throughout the

system development process, instead of waiting until the implementation phase. A

common approach used in RAD is prototyping.

Three popular RAD tools are Visual Basic, Delphi and PowerBuilder

VISUAL BASIC: the ease of use of Visual Basic’s event-driven programming makes it a

popular RAD tool.

DELPHI: this tool offers a drag and drop visual programming environment. Whereas

Visual Basic uses only an event-driven language, Delphi provides full object-oriented

capabilities.

POWERBUILDERS: uses a proprietary language to help with rapid application

development. It creates powerful applications.

7.12 HTML

Hypertext mark-up language is a special formatting language used to create Web

pages. HTML is a language that has specific syntax rules defining the placement and

format of text, graphics, video, and sound on a web page. You can write HTML using

any text editor or a standard word processing software package. You must save the

code, as an ASCII file with an .htm or .html extension.

7.13 SCRIPTS, APPLETS, AND SERVLETS

A script is an interpreted program that runs on the client; that is, it runs on your computer, as opposed to

running on a Web server.

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• Applets: is the same as script except it runs faster.

• Servlets: is an applet that runs on the server

A major reason for using or using scripts, applets, and servlets is to add multimedia

capabilities to your Web pages. Examples are animated graphics, scrolling messages,

calendars and advertisements.

7.14 JAVA AND PERL

Java is similar to C++. The code segments used to create a Java application is called

JavaBeans. A JavaBean is a platform independent; that is, it can run on any computer

or operating system. Because of its simplicity, robustness, and portability, many

programmers believe that Java will be the programming language of the future.

JavaScript: is an interpreting scripting language that allows you to add functionality

to your Web pages by inserting JavaScript code within an HTML document. It allows

you to add dynamic content and interactive elements such as scrolling messages and

data input forms.

PERL (Practical Extraction and Reporting Language): is an interpreted scripting

language, especially designed for processing text. Because of its strong text

processing capabilities, has become a popular language for writing scripts

ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the Six Steps in the Program Development Life Cycle?

2. What is Top-Down Program Design?

3. What are Structured Program Design and Control Structures?

4. How are the Categories of Programming Languages Different?

5. What is the Object-Orientated Approach to Program Development?

6. What Programming Languages are Commonly Used Today?

7. Why are Application Generators, Macros, and RAD Tools Used?

8. What are the HTML, DHTML, and XML Web Page Development Tools

9. What are Scripts, Applets, and Servlets?

10. How is the if-then-else control structure different from the case

control structure?

11. How is the do-while control structure different from the do-until

control structure?

12. What is proper program design? What are dead code, infinite loops,

entry points, and exit points?

13. How is a logic error different from a syntax error?

14. What is desk checking?

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15. How is a compiler different from an interpreter? What is an

advantage of an interpreter?

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8. SECRUITY, PRIVACY AND ETHICS

Learning Outcomes

1. Describe the types of computer security risks

2. Identify ways to safeguard against computer viruses, worms, Trojan

horses, botnets, denial of service attacks, back doors and spoofing

3. Discuss information privacy issues

8.1 COMPUTER SECURITY: RISKS AND SAFEGUARDS

Any event or action that could cause a loss of or damage to computer hardware,

software, data, information, or processing capability is considered a computer

security risk.

8.2 COMPUTER VIRUSES

Is a potentially damaging computer program designed to affect, or infect, your

computer negatively altering the way it works without your knowledge or

permission?

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Viruses are a serious problem. Four main types of viruses exist:

• Boot Sector virus:replaces the boot program used to start a computer with a modified, infected

version.

• File virus: attaches itself to or replaces program files.

• Trojan horse virus: is a virus that hides within or is designed to look like a legitimate program.

• Macro virus: uses the macro language of an application.

Differentiate between a logic bomb and a time bomb?

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8.3 VIRUS DETECTION AND REMOVAL

An antivirus program protects a computer

against viruses by identifying and removing

any computer viruses found

in memory/files, on storage media and in

coming memory/files. Polymorphic is an

example of a virus that cannot be detected

easily because program code changes each

time.

Learner must understand how an antivirus

program works?

Once an antivirus program identifies an

infected file, it can remove the virus or

quarantine the infected file (i.e. the

antivirus program place the infected file in a separate area of your computer until you can remove the

virus, thus insuring that other files will not become infected.

8.4 UNAUTHORISED ACCESS AND USE

Unauthorised access is the use of a computer or network without permission whereas, unauthorized is

the use of a computer or its data for unapproved or possibly illegal activities. By using access control one

can prevent unauthorized access/use.

8.5 WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY IDENTIFICATION ANDAUTHENTICATION?

Some guidelines /precautions that can be taken when choosing a password:

• Password should be at least eight characters long (depends on software)

• Join two words together

• Mix words and numbers

• Choose words form other languages

• Choose names of promote places or family far back in your family tree

• Do not keep passwords close to your computer

• You a password that is easy for you to remember

Self-Quiz

(Find the true statement, and rewrite the false statement so that

they are true)

1. An end-user license agreement (EULA) permits

users to give copies to friends and colleagues, while

continuing to use the software.

2. Encryption is a process of converting cipher-text into plaintext to prevent unauthorised access.

3. Mobile users are not susceptible to hardware

theft. 4. Overvoltage’s can cause immediate and

permanent damage to hardware.

Two back-up security standard are Wi-Fi Protected

Access and 802.11i.

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• Do not share your passwords would others

8.5.1 Possessed Objects

Is any item that you must carry to gain access to a computer or computer facility (e.g.

badges, cards and keys). A PIN (personal identification number) is a numeric

password.

8.5.2 Biometric Devices

Authenticates a person requesting access by verifying personal characteristics such as

fingerprints, hand size, signature and typing patterns, and retinal (eye) and voice

patterns.

8.5.3 Call-back System

With a call-back you can connect to a computer only after the computer calls you back

at a previously established telephone number. To start the call back system, you call

the computer and enter a user ID and password. If the password is valid, the computer

instructs you to hang up and then calls you back at the previously established number.

8.5.4 Hardware TheftTo

help minimize theft:

• Keep doors and windows locked

• Install alarm systems

• Use cables to lock computers

• Never leave laptops unattended to in public places

Computer vandalism is in the form of deleting files, cutting cables, smashing computer

during break-ins.

8.5.5 Software Theft

• Software privacy – unauthorized or illegal duplication of copyrighted software.

Software license is an agreement that provides specific conditions for use of the

software, which users must accept before using the software. Unless otherwise

specified by a software license, you do not have the right to copy, loan, rent, or in any

way distribute software

Differentiate between site license and network site license

• Stealing of CD-ROM or floppy disks to intentional piracy of software also constitutes

software theft.

8.5.6 Information Theft

An example is unauthorized access to a computer and stealing credit card numbers

stored in an accounting department.

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Encryption is one method of protection. It is the process of converting readable data

into unreadable data. Once the data is encrypted the recipient needs to decrypt, it

into a readable form. The two basic types of encryption are private key (the originator

and recipient use the same encryption key to encrypt and decrypt) and public key

(uses to encryption keys: a public key known to everyone and a private key).

8.5.7 System Failure

This is the prolonged malfunction of computer Aging hardware, natural disasters and

storms can cause a system to fail. One of the more common causes of system failures

is an electrical power variation.

A brownout is a prolonged under voltage. Under voltage can cause data loss but

generally do not cause equipment damage. An overvoltage, or power surge, occurs

when incoming electricity increases significantly above the normal 120 volts. A

blackout is a complete power failure.

8.5.8 Backup Procedures

Backup is a duplicate of a file, program or disk that can be used if the original is lost

or damaged. You restore the files by copying the backed up files. You can perform

three kinds of backups:

• A full backup – this will backup all the files on your computer.

• A differential backup – duplicates only the files that have changed since the last full

backup

• An incremental backup duplicates on the files that have changed since the last full

or incremental backup.

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8.5.9 Disaster Recovery Plan

Is a written plan showing the steps an organisation would take to restore computer operations in the event

of a disaster?

The emergency plan is taken directly after disaster and contains the following:

• Emergency numbers (e.g. management, fire and police department)

• Steps to be followed in respect of computer equipment (equipment shutdown, power shutoff, file

removal)

• Staff evacuation steps

• Return steps; that are who can re-enter the area and what actions they can perform.

The backup plan specifies how an organisation will use backup files and equipment to resume information

processing.

• The location of backup files, supplies and equipment

• The staff responsible for getting the backup resources

• A schedule indicating the order and approximate time each application should be up and running

The recovery plan specifies the actions to be taken to restore full information processing operations

The test plan records an organisations ability to recover.

8.6 DEVELOPING A COMPUTER SECURITY PLAN

A computer security plan contains all information on the company’s safeguard procedures of information

assets. A computer security plan should do the following;

• Identify all information assets including hardware, software, documentation, procedures, people,

data, facilities, and supplies

• List al security risks that may cause an information asset loss

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• For each risk, identify the safeguards that exist to detect, prevent, and recover from

a loss

8.7 INFORMATION PRIVACY

8.7.1 Unauthorized Collection and Use of Information Common

points to note with regards to laws:

• Information collected and stored about individuals should be limited to what is

necessary

• Provisions should be made to restrict access to the data

• Personal information should be released outside the organisation with consent from

that person

• The individual should know that the data is being collected and have the opportunity

to determine the accuracy of the data.

8.7.2 Employee Monitoring

Involves the use of computers to observe, record, and review an individual’s use of a

computer, including communications such as e-mail, keyboard activity (used to

measure productivity), and Internet sites visited.

8.8 ETHICS AND THE INFORMATION AGE

Computer ethics are the moral guidelines that govern the use of computers and

information systems. Five areas of concern:

• Unauthorized use of computer systems

• Software theft (piracy)

• Information privacy

• Information accuracy

• Codes of ethical conduct

The first three has been discussed previously.

Information Accuracy: Inaccurate input can result in erroneous information and

incorrect decisions based on that information.

Codes of Conduct: Is a written guideline that helps determine whether a specific

computer action is ethical or unethical.

8.9 INTERNET SECURITY AND PRIVACY ISSUES

In addition to identification and authentication techniques intranets can use firewalls

to prevent unauthorized access to data and information.

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8.10 INTERNET ENCRYPTION

To provide secure transmission, many Web browsers use encryption. Two popular users of encryption

on the Internet include Secure Sockets Layer and digital signatures.

Secure Sockets Layer: provides a two-way encryption along the entire route data, travels to and from your

computer. Web pages that use SSL typically begin with the

https protocol instead of http protocol

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Digital Signatures : is an encrypted code that a person, Web site, or company attaches

to an e - mail message. Digital signatures ensure that an impostor is not participating

in an Internet transaction. A digital certificate is a notice that guarantees a user or a

Web site is legitimate. A certificate authority is an authorized company or person that

issues and verifies digital certificates.

8.11 OBJECTIONABLE MATERIALS ON THE INTERNET

The Internet contains information that can upset many people. A rating system

similar t o those used for videos can be used. Concerned parents can set the rating

limitations can prevent them from being changed using a password.

Another method is to use censor ware, which is software that can restrict access to

specified Web sites.

ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. In terms of computer viruses, how is a logic bomb different from

a time bomb? What is a worm?

2. What is a virus signature? Why is a polymorphic virus difficult to

detect?

3. What conditions typically are included in a single - user license

agreement? What is the Business Software Alliance (BSA)?

4. How is private key encryption different from public key

encryption? What is the government’s key escrow plan?

5. What are some com mon points shared by federal and state laws

regarding the storage and disclosure of personal data?

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ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Match column A with column B and Answer the Questions Below:

Column A Column B

1

2

3

4 5

User ID and password

Possessed object

Personal Identification

number (PIN)

Biometric Device

Callback System

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

Authenticates by verifying a physical characteristic such as fingerprints or retinal pattern.

Word or series of characters that must match an authentication file stored on a computer.

Encrypted code that a person, Web site, or company attaches to an electronic message.

Connects to a computer only after the computer calls back at a previously established number.

Numeric password, either assigned by an organisation or selected by the user.

Item that must be carried to gain access to a computer or computer facility.

Uses special electrical components to smooth out minor

noise and provide a stable flow.

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9. MULTIMEDIA

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Learning Outcomes

1. Identify widely used graphics and multimedia programs

2. Identify types of application software used in communication

9.1 DEFINING MULTIMEDIA

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Multimedia refers to any computer-based presentation or application that integrates one or more of the

following: text, graphics, animation, audio, and video. Interactive multimedia describes a multimedia

that accepts input from the user by means of a keyboard, voice, or pointing device.

9.1.1 Text

These are characters that are used to create words, sentences, and paragraphs. A

different font size, colour, or style, for example, often is used to emphasize certain

words or phrases.

9.1.2 Links

With many multimedia applications, you navigate through the content by clicking links

with a pointing device. Recall from the previous chapter that web pages use

hyperlinks, or links to allow users to navigate quickly from one document to another.

In a multimedia application, a link serves a similar function, allowing users to access

information quickly and navigate from one to another in a nonlinear fashion

9.1.3 Graphics

Is a digital representation of non-text information, such as drawing, chart, or

photograph? Graphic serve several functions:

• Graphics can illustrate certain concepts more vividly than text

• Graphics play a vital role in the learning process: many people understand much

faster and retain more information if they see the information presented graphically

• Graphics serve as a navigation element (i.e. applications use graphics as buttons that

link to more information).

9.1.4 Animation

Displaying a series of still graphics creates an animation, which is a graphic that has

the illusion of motion. Animations range in scope from the basic graphic with simple

motion (e.g. blinking icon) to a detailed image with complex movements.

9.1.5 Audio

Audio is music, speech, or any other sound. To store these sounds, a computer converts

the analog sound to a digital format.

9.1.6 Video

This consists of photographic images that are played back at speeds of 15 to 30 frames

per second and provide the appearance of a full motion. Videos reinforce text articles,

brings dull subjects to life. To use video in a multimedia application, you first must

capture, digitize, and edit the video segments using special video production

hardware and software.

9.2 MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS

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A multimedia application involves the use of multimedia technology for business,

education, and entertainment.

9.2.1 Computer-Based Training

This is when a learner learns by using and competing exercises with instructional

software. CBT training serves as an advantage for the following reasons:

• Self-paced study. Learners can learn at their own pace

• Unique content. The multimedia content appeals to many types of learners and can

help make difficult concepts simple. Various media elements used to present the same

information provide reinforcement

• Unique instructional experience. Simulations allow learners to learn skills in

hazardous, emergency, or other real-world situations

• Reduced training time. Self-paced instruction encourages learners to take the most

efficient path to content mastery

• One-on-one interaction. Trainers can spend more time with trainees, because

computers handle test delivery and grading

• Reduced training costs. Decreasing training time and eliminating travel reduces costs

9.2.2 Classroom and Special Education

Multimedia is an effective tool for delivering educational material to potential

learners, making learning more exciting and interesting. When using multimedia

applications learners become actively involved in the learning process instead of

passive recipients of information.

9.2.3 Electronic Books and References

One type of electronic book is a digital text that uses links to give the user access to

information. These books have the same features of a standard book.

An electronic reference text, sometimes called an e-text, is a digital version of a

reference book, which uses text, graphics, sound, animation, and video to explain a

or provide additional information.

9.2.4 Newspaper and Magazines

A multimedia newspaper is a digital version of a newspaper distributed on CD-ROM,

DVD-ROM, or via the World Wide Web. A multimedia magazine is a digital version of

a magazine, also distributed on CDROM, DVD-ROM, or via the World Wide Web. An

electronic magazine or e-zine is a multimedia magazine created specifically for

distribution via the Web. Multimedia newspapers and magazines usually include the

sections and articles found in their print-based versions, including departments,

editorials.

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9.2.5 Entertainment and Edutainment

Multimedia combines elements of television and interactivity, thus making it ideal for

entertainment. An example computer games, use a combination of graphics, audio

and video to create a realistic and entertaining game situation. Often the game

stimulates a real or fictitious world, in which you play the role of a character and have

direct control of what happens in the game.

9.2.6 Virtual Reality

Virtual Reality (VR) is the use of a computer to create an artificial environment that

appears and feels like a real environment and allows you to explore a space and

manipulate the environment. Telecommunication firms and others even are using

personal computer-based VR applications for employee training. As computing power

and the use of the Web increase, practical applications of VR will continue to emerge

in education, business, and entertainment.

9.2.7 Information Kiosks

A kiosk is a computerized information reference centre that allows you to select

various options to browse through or find specific information. A typical kiosk is a self-

service structure equipped with computer hardware and software. Kiosks often use

touch screen monitors or keyboards for input devices and contain all the data and

information needed for the application stored directly on the computer. Locations

such as shopping centres, airports, museums, and libraries use kiosk to provide

information on available services, product and exhibit locations, maps, and other

information. Kiosks also are used for marketing.

9.3 ELECTRONIC MARKETING AND SALES

9.3.1 The World Wide Web

Multimedia applications also play an important role on the World Wide Web, which

is the part of the Internet that supports multimedia. Using multimedia brings Web

Page to life; increases the types of information available on the web; expands the

Web’s potential uses; and makes the Internet a more entertaining place to explore.

Web-based training is an approach to computer-based training that employs the

technologies of the Internet and the World Wide Web. Web training consists of self-

directed, self-paced instruction on a . The advantage is that the content is always up-

to-date.

9.3.2 Multimedia Equipment

Multimedia hardware: selection is an important process in both the development and

delivery of multimedia products.

9.3.3 Multimedia Personal Computer

A MPC is a computer that uses specific hardware and software components to input,

process, and output the various types of media. Most multimedia personal computers

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are equipped with devices such as a microphone, a CD-ROM and/or DVDROM drive,

speakers, PC camera, and high-resolution monitor.

Sound card: is an expansion card that provides both audio input and output. The

typical sound card has three primary components: an audio digitizer, a Wavetable

synthesizer, and a mixer.

Learners must understand how the three components work.

CD-ROM and DVD-ROM Drivers: a compact disc is an optical storage medium that can

hold a tremendous amount of data. These large storage devices makes it easier for

storing and distributing multimedia applications that contain many large graphics,

audio, and video files.

PC camera: allows a home user to see people at the same time they communicate on

the Internet as well as edit videos from a video camera or VCR, create a movie from

still photographs and videos, and take digital photographs automatically at present

time intervals or when the camera detects motion.

Speakers: provide an easy and inexpensive way to play audio on a multimedia personal

computer.

Display Device: you must evaluate the monitor and video card when you choose a

display for your computer. The video card generates the output required to display

text and graphics on a monitor.

9.3.4 Television and Data Projectors

In order for an audience to see and hear a presentation clearly you require a data

projector or projection system. A large SVGA can be used for smaller groups whereas

a HDTV can be used for a larger group. Connecting a the multimedia computer to a

standard television set requires a NTSC (National Television System Committee)

converter, which converts the digital signal to an analog signal that can be displayed

on the television set. For even larger groups a data projector can be used, which is

directly connected to a computer with a cable and uses its own light source to display

a multimedia application or presentation onto a screen.

9.3.5 Video Capture Card

Is an expansion card that enables you to connect a video camera or VCR to a computer

and manipulate the video input.

9.3.6 Scanners, Digital cameras, and PhotoCDs

Multimedia developers can add colour images and photographs to multimedia

applications using colour scanners, digital cameras, and photo CDs.

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9.3.7 Laser Disks and Laser Disk Players

Laser disks and laser disk players are part of a read-only videodisk system based

on the same optical disk technology used for compact discs. Laser disks and laser

disk players provide high-quality display of audio and video.

9.3.8 Developing Multimedia Applications

Developing multimedia applications follows a standard process with several

phases.

Analysis

Involve all of the individuals in determining the objectives and requirements for

the application and specifying the essential elements needed for the actual

production.

Design

• Throughout the design, an important tool for the project team is a

flowchart, or map, which includes all of the various media elements in the

application and serves as a blueprint to which the project team can refer.

• Another important tool is the project script, which provides more detailed

information to supplement the flowchart and provides a written record of how

the various elements will be used in the production.

• Screen design this influences the overall effect of the finished product.

Production

• Actual process of creating the media elements

• Original graphics and animation are created by artists

• Digital video and audio clips are recorded using recording devices and a video

capture or sound card.

Multimedia Authoring Software

• Allows you to combine text, graphics, animation, audio, and video into an

application.

• Allows you to design the screen

• The following are important factors to consider when selecting a multimedia

authoring software package:

Quality of application developed

Ease of use and documentation

Responsiveness of vendor’s service and technical support

Compatibility with other applications

Ease of programming

Functionality

System requirements for both user and developer. There are four popular

multimedia authoring packages: Toolbox, Author ware, Director, and Flash.

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10. ADDENDUM 512 (A): CASE STUDIES

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CASE STUDY FOR DISCUSSION

You are employed as a communications advisor at

Telemark, a telemarketing firm with over 1,500

telemarketers. The

president of the company recently attended the annual Internet

Telephony Conference & Expo and came away with the idea that the

company can save hundreds of thousands of dollars annually on local,

long distance, and international calls by using Internet Telephony,

rather than the conventional public switched telephone network

(PSTN). She has asked you to look into the feasibility of making the

switch. Use the Web and/or print media to research the advantage and

disadvantage of internet telephony. How does Internet telephony

work? What type of hardware and software must the company

purchase to make calls over the Internet? Submit your report or use

PowerPoint to create a presentation and share your findings with your

class. Source: Shelly, Cashman and Vermaat (2008)

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CASE STUDY FOR DISCUSSION

WIKILEAKS: CASE STUDY FOR CYBERWAR?

One of the problems of trying to understand cyberwar is that we don't really know what it looks

like or how it behaves. Mostly, this is due to the fact that the participants/victims don't report

it.

If anything is reported, it is heavily skewed or filtered for political purposes. Ironically, the

situation surrounding the massive WikiLeaks releases may be the very thing people need to

consider what cyberwar looks like. Consider the following:

1. WikiLeaks uses electronic means to get its information. In many cases, it is patently illegal to

procure, possess or publish the documents they have, all higher morality arguments aside.

People would call for prosecution of State Department officials if Russia announced they had all

this information. Why would it be any different for a non-government organization?

At very least, WikiLeaks is a high value target for cyberwar operations, if not an actual weapons

platform in a cyber-campaign.

2. WikiLeaks' assets are all over the globe and can migrate with lightning speed to anywhere. It

took days to apprehend WikiLeaks' leader. The web site's contents changed hosts multiple times

and is almost impossible to take down.

Any attempts to suppress it also affected innocent web sites. This kind of warfare is much closer

to insurgency to conventional warfare.

3. There are lots of mercenaries on both sides. Some sympathize with one side or the other. It's

quite possible that there are some paid or otherwise "attached" elements in the fray as well.

What began with web sites to raise money for legal defense led to DDOS attacks on not only those sites but organizations that processed payments related to the cause.

These hacks and attacks go on, despite the fact that they are technically illegal in many countries.

History is replete with lessons in combatting--and retaining--mercenaries.

4. There is a lot of bad intelligence. EveryDNS was the host/DNS provider at one time for WikiLeaks,

yet EasyDNS was targeted because it was mistakenly attributed in press accounts. Professional

militaries are used to the "fog of war," but most Western societies (and many of their leaders) are not.

In addition, they generally have a low tolerance for mistakes. Unfortunately, many of the

participants are not as highly skilled at dealing with the fog of war as professional military

organizations.

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5. Compared to conventional arms, WikiLeaks (and their attackers) require very few people, assets

or resources to operate. In addition to the flexibility and survivability mentioned above, it's very

cheap to support significant operations. The technology and expertise has spread to many

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nations so lots of groups can be members of the "cyber club." Unfortunately, many don't have the legal or ethical restraints to which the current world order is accustomed.

6.The heart of the conflict doesn't directly involve nations, but rather groups that aren't national in

character. WikiLeaks itself is a company and many of the partisans are individuals, small groups

or transnational organizations. The most obvious national player is the US government, but it is

largely taking a deliberate strategy, using lawyers and law enforcement agencies rather than

direct action, cyber activities. Unlike many previous cyberwar activities--Georgia and Estonia

come to mind--the activities surrounding WikiLeaks don't have conventional or direct national

political components. This makes it a unique conflict, which might allow us to study a more pure

cyber conflict.

https://www.infosecisland.com/.../10254-WikiLeaks-Case-Study-for-Cyberwar.html (ACCESSED: 13

JANUARY 2011)

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CASE STUDY FOR FURTHER READING:

THE STORY BEHIND THE GRAND SUCCESS OF WIKILEAKS

By Vishal Sanjay On January 10, 2011 Under Web News

The most controversial website of the year, or maybe the decade Wikileaks is undoubtedly worth a

case study, the story of how its highly controversial founder started it and how and from where he

gets his offensive content and how his site gained worldwide popularity, like most other case studies

on this blog we don’t have any proof or evidence to prove this, as this is just an assumption on how

famous internet businesses could have started.

Wikileaks started off in 2006 with a group of unknown internet activists out of which only its

spokesperson Julian Assange is known till now. Starting such a site is not that easy, its almost 10 times

as tough as running it.

Firstly the content is not something you find all across the net, every piece of information on Wikileaks

is unique and took a lot of research, this may be easy for us bloggers who create one such article each

week, but they released 10s of thousands of articles each month.

The Initial Content

So the first issue they had was the content, they would at least need about 1000 articles to get the

very first visitor, and as I mentioned above this content takes a lot of research, they have to contact

people, find images and videos, hack into different systems and finally come up with a story that

matters.

Moreover this had to be done a thousand times keeping security, society and the law in their minds,

and however good you’re at it you cannot escape each and every time, and maybe that’s the reason

why the other founders of Wikileaks haven’t yet revealed themselves.

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But I’m damn sure that all of them had a clear idea of what they were doing and knew the net,

technology and their niche extremely well.

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This would have seemed very tough for you and me, but not for Julian Assange and his friends,

Assange himself was a constant traveler, he had traveled across half a dozen countries before he was

even 14, many of which had a controversial background, he was arrested for hacking when he was

. 14

So he knew a hell lot about the codes he was writing and a lot about his niche as he had witnessed

the differe nt social injustices in many countries, more than what he saw it was the connections he

left behind which helped him come up with the first few articles, and again Wikileaks has 9 Julian

Assange’s and I bet almost all of them had a similar background.

Oh well!! When you know so much about something it’s easy to come up with a few articles on the ,

but these guys used their technical and social resources to get most of their information.

The First Few Visitors

Wikileaks was a unique site with very appeali ng and viral content, the only thing that would take to

make it popular was a single press release, I single trigger would make it go extremely viral, but that

didn’t happen for some reason.

Wikileaks had been active from 2006, but it gained mainstream f ame only by the end of 2009. A few

people had mistaken that the site was born only in 2009, which even I wasn’t sure about.

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The site did have traffic all this while, but that was very much lesser than its actual potential, sites like

these can go viral from the very next day, seems to me that the Wikileak’s guys were technically very

advanced, but lacked the marketing skills, m oreover even I felt that Wikileaks isn’t promoting itself

actively, either they are new to it or they are purposely avoiding it.

Funding: Their first source of Funding

Even when Wikileaks got started they had a hell lot of expenses, but they were funded by a few rich

Chinese businessmen and powerful journalists most of who have not yet been identified.

Surely those funds won’t last for 4 years no matter how you control your expenses, I’m sure they

encountered plenty of financial issues from day one, but they were all curbed due to their high profile

friends and donors.

So for three years they ran without revenues which I hate about internet firms these days, and in the

beginning of 2010 t hey started asking for donations from users, which worked out really well as they

were running their business like an NGO. Less than 1% of their readers actually donated, but most of

them who did gave huge donations.

I always had a feeling that Wikileaks was a website which could run on a low budget, and I bet many

of you thought the same, but unfortunately their expenses could near any small mainstream news

network.

They have claimed to have a 9 member advisory board and up to 20 others to support them i n

technical and data management jobs, surely this wouldn’t consume a lot of money, but I’m damn sure

that 29 is not all they have, it’s just impossible to run such a site and publish so much content without

a bit of external hands.

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They do have 900 contributors, but this contributor section is filled with mediocre people like you and

me, who can just write, edit and copy and not research and find information, so these guys are in

their chartroom where they find and talk people who have come with the news, but that is not what

scientific journalism is about.

I believe Wikileaks has got its main sources doing field work in controversial places such as Iraq and

Afghanistan, field work meaning insider information, spying and even hacking, most of them are locals

in their respective countries, surely this wouldn’t come cheap, that’s the main reason why they keep

getting into so much of financial issues even when there are millions flowing in as donations each

month.

Online and private donations is the only source of revenue and there is no other source which could

be useful, they cannot monetizethemselves with advertisements as their content is illegal and against

the rules of many countries, neither can they sell premium news like any other news agency as the

main idea behind this is freedom of speech.

Explanation of the scientific journalism

Honestly speaking I had no idea on what this was until recently when it got popular, and I bet most of

you guys too have no idea on this as even Wikipedia didn’t give me the accurate answer.

The term was introduced by Assange himself, and it spread like wildfire after that, he did not tell more

than a sentence in a media coverage, but that got extremely popular and all media entities started to

right about it. So most of the meanings for the term was created by the various media channels.

But I’m sure that Wikileaks has given birth to a new journalism, no matter what the description others

say, I’d say that scientific journalism is fetching information and news while going against terms, rules

and violations, yes it is illegal journalism.

Today most journalists cover news which they are allowed to see, which are shown by the government

and they make and they can’t make any effort to go beyond that.

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This is what Wikileaks is different as they find news through hack attacks, spying, stealing and even

bribing at times, they have a huge chartroom or I can say forum where people who want to report

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news come up to and then the scientific journalism takes place to learn the truth, the false and the

whole story.

The main driving force behind Wikileaks is the commun ity and that’s actually their main source for

information, but they use the community to report news, whereas the story is created by them,

maybe that’s why they burn so much cash, they are in need of man - power and technical resources.

Rise to mainstream fame – Takeoff stage

Wikileaks got really popular, though it took time they were running really well, but even though

everybody knew about them, nobody spoke about them; this is a marketing defect which is seen in

many companies worldwi de.

Slowly they got viral on social medi a w hich was surely going to make it to big online publications such

as Mashable and Techcrunch and maybe that is when they finally decided to market themselves and

a press release would have been the first plan, press releases for such sites go extremely viral and

would have surely caught the attention of publications suc h as The New York Times, and one

endorsement there would surely trigger a chain.

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After this their fame didn’t stop, they kept making controversial releases and they made sure

they are well promoted, more than that they made sure that all their reports had enough

elements to make them entertaining and controversial and that’s what matters for a business

entering into this stage.

When they reached this they were all over the news world - wide and what drove them further

were the various politicians and ce lebrities making both positive and negative comments on

them, no matter what the Federal Government said Wikileaks kept growing its loyal

followership.

This huge followership surely helped them build a community of donors and the long awaited revenue,

but they must have been cautious of not doing anything against the law as during this time most of the

world’s governments were against them.

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WIKILEAKS: A CASE STUDY IN WEB SURVIVABILITY

FOR FURTHER READING

By Tony Bradley,PCWorld

In recent weeks WikiLeaks has been targetedby denial-of-service (DoS) attacks,had its hosting

service shut down, been bounced off of Amazon hosting, had its funding through PayPal,

MasterCard and other sources shut down, and its leader arrested on sexual assault-related

charges. The fact that WikiLeaks remains stubbornly and defiantly online holds some lessons for

other sites when it comes to resilience and survivability.

Contrast WikiLeaks with Tumblr or Comcast--both of which experienced severe, prolonged

outages in the past week. Or, compare WikiLeaks virtual invulnerability with the frequent and

frustrating overloads and outages experienced by Twitter. Although the underlying motivation

might be different, all Web sites and Web-based services can learn a thing or two from

WikiLeaks.

In a word (or four), it's called "single point of failure". You don't want any. In fact, if you're

WikiLeaks, you want to build redundancy on your redundancy and be able to survive not just a

single point of failure, but a virtual meltdown of cascading failures.

WikiLeaks has implemented an interwoven network of domains, hosts, servers, and DNS

services to ensure that losing any one provider, or having a server or domain shut down by a

DoS attack will not ultimately impact the availability of the site.

WikiLeaks expanded from using a single DNS provider, to using 14 different DNS providers.

WikiLeaks is directing traffic to at least five different IP addresses, and with the help of the

WikiLeaks community-atlarge it has more than 350 mirror siteshosting its content as well.

Bottom line: It would take a catastrophe of global proportions to completely knock WikiLeaks

offline. Meanwhile, Twitter grinds to a halt if Lindsay Lohan is seen drinking a White Russian

with lunch.

Of course, not every site can afford to build a redundant and interconnected network of Web

hosting, domains, and Web servers capable of withstanding all manner of attack. Tumblr is a

startup with a small team, a smaller budget, and a 24/7 business that has to keep up with rapidly

growing demand. As noted on the Tumblr blog,"Frankly, keeping up with growth has presented

more work than our small team was prepared for."

Even if your organization can't build a network with limitless redundancy and virtually

invulnerable survivability, the lesson for IT and Web admins is to identify and eliminate as many

single points of failure as possible. No one service outage or server crash should take your site

down. Consider the entire network path of your Web traffic and--to the extent that it is possible

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and affordable--implement redundant secondary systems to eliminate and single points of

failure.

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133

CASE STUDY FOR INFORMATION

HP Awarded Contract to Implement Texas Electronic Health

Information SystemPriya Lopes

Network to enhance healthcare delivery

PALO ALTO, Calif. – HP today announced a 52-month services agreement with the Texas Health

and

Human Services Commission to create a statewide Medicaid health information exchange. The

contract, valued at $30 million, includes an electronic health history system for all Medicaid

clients. It also will replace the current paper-based Medicaid identification cards with plastic

magnetic stripe cards for automated eligibility verification.

Under the agreement, HP will provide web-based tools to streamline provider interaction and

increase access to health information. Additionally, the updated system as well as process

enhancements will aid the Commission in its efforts to improve prescription services which will provide Medicaid recipients with improved access to their health information.

Enhancements include:

* Permanent ID cards: HP will replace monthly distributed individual paper Medicaid ID cards

with

permanent plastic cards for more than 3 million Medicaid recipients. The state expects to recover

its technology investment in less than three years through this action.

* Provider web portal: HP will create a solution for more than 70,000 Medicaid providers to give

them access to Medicaid recipients’ health histories via a secure electronic health information

exchange network. With access to this information, providers can make better-informed care

decisions for Medicaid recipients, especially when seeing a patient for the first time.

* E-prescribing: Providers will have access to a web-based e-prescribing tool, allowing doctors

to send electronic prescriptions directly to patients’ pharmacies. This is designed to assist in

minimizing medical errors, reduce prescription abuse, increase patient convenience and trim

administrative costs. The new system has the ability to identify and flag certain prescriptions

with dosages that may exceed safety recommendations or drugs that could react adversely

with other medications prescribed to a patient. * Recipient care web portal: HP will develop a

website for recipients to securely access their personal health information and check program

eligibility. Recipients will be more informed and can play a more active role in managing their

own health, as well as the health of their families. The system will include automated

messaging capability that will provide reminders to clients about the availability of periodic

services. The HP infrastructure is designed to support the Commission’s efforts to meet

expected increases in Medicaid recipients in a secure, reliable and cost-effective manner.

The HP solution will emphasize a secure environment in which providers can access health

histories. This strategy avoids the costly common practice of duplicating large sets of data and

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enables access to the most current data available. The system includes a robust roles-based

security model that will enable the state to control access and privileges within the system. As

protection of personal health information is mandated by state and federal regulations, the HP

solution places security as one of its highest priorities.

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“States need to improve health outcomes and enable better access to healthcare records,” said

Susan Arthur, vice president, U.S. Healthcare, HP Enterprise Services. “With more than four

decades of industry-leading experience, HP will provide the cost-effective healthcare solutions

Texans need.”

The solution will be powered by InterComponentWare’s eHealth Framework, an extensible and

interoperable platform technology that will enable the creation of a common patient health

history across the state.

HP is helping the Texas Health and Human Services Commission in the pursuit of its Instant-On

Government. In a world of continuous connectivity, the Instant-On Government embeds

technology in everything it does to serve the mission of the organization and its citizens. HP is

the nation’s largest provider of Medicaid and Medicare process management services,

administering $95 billion in benefits a year, and serving as fiscal agent or principal IT provider

for Medicaid in 21 states. HP’s global healthcare experience spans payer, provider, government

and life science communities.

About HP

HP creates new possibilities for technology to have a meaningful impact on people, businesses,

governments and society. The world’s largest technology company, HP brings together a

portfolio that spans printing, personal computing, software, services and IT infrastructure to

solve customer problems.

More information about HP (NYSE: HPQ) is available at http://www.hp.com/.

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