bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
-
Upload
adnan-rais-khan -
Category
Documents
-
view
214 -
download
0
Transcript of bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 1/152
BUS 332
Scientific Research Techniques
Lectured by
Prof. Dr. Lütfihak Alpkan
Gebze Institute of Technology
Main TextbookWilliam G Zikmund
Business Research Methods
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 2/152
WEEK DATE TEACHING PLAN
1 20. 02 I ntroduction
2 27. 02 Ch. 9: Survey Research: An Overview
3 05.03 Ch. 10: Survey Research: Communication with Respondents
4 12.03 Ch. 11: Observation Methods 1
5 19.03 Ch. 11: Observation Methods 2
6 26.03 General overview
7 02.04 MIDTERM EXAM 1
8 09.04 Ch. 12: Experimental Research 1
9 16.04
Ch. 12: Experimental Research 211 30.04 Ch. 12: Experimental Research 3
12 07.05 Ch. 13: Measurement and Scaling 1
13 14. 05 Ch. 13: Measurement and Scaling 2
14 21.05 General overview
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 3/152
Business
Research Methods
William G. Zikmund
Chapter 9:
Survey Research
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 4/152
Chapter 9:
Survey Research
1. Basic Definitions for surveys2. Errors in Surveys
3. Classification of Survey Methods
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 5/152
1. Basic Definitions for surveys
Survey: a research technique in which information
(primary data) is gathered from a sample of
people to make generalizations.
Primary data: data gathered and assembled
specifically for the project at hand.
Sample of the survey: respondents who are asked to provide information, assuming that they can
represent (possess same features with) a target
population.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 6/152
POPULATION
SAMPLE Sample:
Subset of a larger population
Selecting a Sample
Sampling:
• Who is to be sampled?
• How large a sample?
• How will sample units be selected?
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 7/152
Basic Definitions for sampling
(http://www.stats.gla.ac.uk/steps/glossary/sampling.html)
Target population: the group about which the
researcher wishes to draw conclusions and make
generalizations
Random sampling: selecting a sample from a
larger target population where each respondent is
chosen entirely by chance and each member of
the population has a known, but possibly non-
equal, chance of being included in the sample.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 8/152
Basic Definitions for data collection
Surveys ask respondents (who are the subjects of theresearch) questions by use of a questionnaire.
Respondent: The person who provides information
(primary data) by answering a questionnaire or aninterviewer’s questions.
Questionnaire: a list of structured questions
designed by the researchers for the purpose ofcodifying and analyzing the respondents’ answers
scientifically.
Advantages of Surveys: Quick, Inexpensive, Efficient,
Accurate, Flexible way of gathering information.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 9/152
2. Errors in Surveys
2.1. Random Sampling Error2.2. Systematic Error (sample bias)
2.2.1. Respondent error
* Nonresponse bias* Response bias
2.2.2. Administrative error
* Data processing error* Sample selection error
* Interviewer error
* Interviewer cheating
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 10/152
2.1. Random Sampling Error
• Even if randomly selected, samples may possess
different characteristics than the target population
(the likelihood of bias is reduced but still exists)
• This is a statistical fluctuation due to chance
variation.
• Then, an important difference occurs between the
findings obtained from this sample and the
findings obtained from a possible census of the
whole target population.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 11/152
• Consider the hypothetic case in which a study
sample could be increased until it was infinitely
large; chance variation of the mean, or random
error, would be reduced toward zero. These arerandom errors.
• Systematic errors would not be diminished by
increasing sample size.(Bias in Research Studies,
http://radiology.rsna.org/content/238/3/780.full)
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 12/152
2.2. Systematic Error
• Systematic error results from some mistake(s)done in the design and/or execution of the
research.
• All types of error -except random sampling error,
are included in this definition,
• Sample bias: a persistent tendency for the results
of a sample to deviate in one direction from the
true value of the population parameter.• Sample bias can arise when the intended sample
does not adequately reflect the spectrum of
characteristics in the target population.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 13/152
2.2.1. Respondent Bias
• A classification of sample bias resulting
from some respondent action or inaction
• Nonresponse bias
• Response bias
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 14/152
Nonresponse Error
• Nonrespondents: in almost every survey informationfrom a small or large portion of the sample cannot be
collected. These are those people who refuse to
respond, or who can not be contacted (not-at-homes)
• Self-selection bias: only those people who are
interested strongly with topic of the survey may
respond while those who are still within the same
sample but indeferent or afraid avoid participating.
• This leads to the over-representation of some extreme
positions, but under-representation of others.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 15/152
Response Bias
• A bias that occurs when respondents tend to
answer questions with a certain inclination
or viewpoint that consciously (deliberatefalsification) or unconsciously
(unconscious misinterpretation)
misrepresents the truth.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 16/152
Reasons of response bias
• Knowingly or unknowingly people who
answer questions of the interviewer may
feel unconfortable about the truth that theyshare with others, and change it in their
responses.
• They may desire to show themselves asmore intelligent, wealthy, sensitive, etc.
than they really are.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 17/152
Acquiescence bias (positive answers)
Extremity bias (exaggerated answers)
Interviewer bias (answers acceptable by the interviewer)
Auspices bias (answers acceptable by the organization)
Social desirability bias (answers creating a favorable impression)
Types of Response Bias
Deliberate falsification (consciously false answers)
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 18/152
2.2.2. Administrative Error
• Unadvertently or carelessly improper
administration and execution of the research
task
• Blunders are:
• Confusion
• Neglect
• Omission
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 19/152
Types of Administrative Errors
Data processing error: incorrect data entry, computer
programming, or other procedural errors during the
analysis stage.
Sample selection error: improper sample design (e.g.
based on incomplete databases) or sampling procedure execution (e.g. executed in daytime while
most of the target population are working)
Interviewer error: mistakes done by the interviewer(e.g. taking wrong or incomplete notes about the
answers of the respondents.
Interviewer cheating: filling in fake or false answers
indeed not iven b the res ondents.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 20/152
3. Classification of Survey Methods
3.1. Structure of the questionnaire:* whether standardized questions with a limited
number of allowable answer -multiple choices
* or unstandardized open ended questions with the possibility of being answered in numerious ways.
3.2. Level of Directness of the questions:* whether direct/undisguised questions
* or indirect/disguised questions to hide the real
purpose of the survey
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 21/152
Classification of Survey Methods
3.3. Time basis of the Survey:
Cross-Sectional Study: data on various segments of a
target population are collected at a single moment in
time to make comparisons among segments.
Longitudinal Study: data are collected at different times
from the similar respondents to compare trends and
identify changes.
Panel Study: A longitudinal survey of exactly the same
respondents to record (in a diary) their attitudes,
behaviors, or purchasing habits over time.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 22/152
Business
Research Methods
William G. Zikmund
Chapter 10:
Survey Research: Basic
Communication Methods
Ch t 10
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 23/152
Chapter 10:
Survey Research: Basic
Communication Methods* Comparison of Basic Communication Methods in
Surveys:
* Questionnaires administered by an interviewer1. Door-to door interviews
2. Mall intercepts
3. Telephone interviews
* Self-administered questionnaires
4. Questionnaires sent by mail, fax, or e-mail
5. Internet questionnaires
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 24/152
1. Door-to-Door Personal
Interview
• Speed of data collection
– Moderate to fast
• Geographical flexibility – Limited to moderate
• Respondent cooperation
– Excellent
• Versatility of
questioning
– Quite versatile
• Questionnaire length
– Long
• Item non-response – Low
• Possibility of
respondentmisunderstanding
– Lowest
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 25/152
Door-to-Door Personal Interview
• Degree of interviewer influence of answer: High
• Supervision of interviewers: Moderate
• Anonymity of respondent: Low
• Ease of call back or follow-up: Difficult
• Cost: Highest
• Special features: Visual materials may be shown
or demonstrated; extended probing possible
1 Mall Intercept Personal
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 26/152
1. Mall Intercept Personal
Interview
• Speed of data collection: Fast
• Geographical flexibility: Confined, urban bias
• Respondent cooperation: Moderate to low• Versatility of questioning: Extremely versatile
• Questionnaire length: Moderate to long
• Item non-response: Medium
• Possibility of respondent misunderstanding: Lowest
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 27/152
Mall Intercept Personal Interview
• Degree of interviewer influence of answers: Highest
• Supervision of interviewers: Moderate to high
• Anonymity of respondent: Low
• Ease of call back or follow-up: Difficult
• Cost: Moderate to high
• Special features: Taste test, viewing of TV
commercials possible
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 28/152
3. Telephone Surveys
• Speed of Data Collection: Very fast• Geographical Flexibility: High
• Respondent Cooperation: Good
• Versatility of Questioning: Moderate
• Questionnaire Length: Moderate
• Item Non-response: Medium
• Possibility of Respondent Misunderstanding: Average
• Degree of Interviewer Influence of Answer: Moderate
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 29/152
Telephone Surveys
• Supervision of interviewers: High, especially with central
location WATS (Wide Area Telecommunications Service)interviewing
• Anonymity of respondent: Moderate
• Ease of call back or follow-up: Easy
• Cost: Low to moderate
• Special features: Fieldwork and supervision of data
collection are simplified; quite adaptable to computer
technology (e.g. Central location interviewing, Computer-
assisted telephone interviewing, Computerized voice-
activated interviews)
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 30/152
MAIL IN-PERSON
DROP-OFF
INSERTS FAX
PAPER
QUESTIONNAIRES
E-MAIL INTERNET
WEB SITE
KIOSK
ELECTRONIC
QUESTIONNAIRES
SELF-ADMINISTERED
QUESTIONNAIRES
Self-Administered
Questionnaires
il S
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 31/152
4. Mail Surveys
• Speed of data collection: Researcher has no control over
return of questionnaire; slow
• Geographical flexibility: High
• Respondent cooperation: Moderate – but, poorly
designed questionnaire will have low response rate
• Versatility of questioning: Highly standardized format
• Questionnaire length: Varies depending on incentive
• Item non-response: High
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 32/152
Mail Surveys
• Possibility of respondent misunderstanding:Highest--no interviewer present for clarification
• Degree of interviewer influence of answer:
None - interviewer absent• Supervision of interviewers: Not applicable
• Anonymity of respondent: High
• Ease of call back or follow-up: Easy, but takes
time
• Cost: Lowest
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 33/152
5. E-Mail Questionnaire Surveys
• Speed of data collection: Instantaneous
• Geographic flexibility: worldwide
• Cheaper distribution and processing costs
• Flexible, but
– Extensive differences in the capabilities of
respondents’ computers and e-mail software limit
the types of questions and the layout
• E-mails are not secure and “eavesdropping”can possibly occur
• Respondent cooperation
– Varies depending if e-mail is seen as “spam”
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 34/152
6. Internet Surveys
• A self-administered questionnaire posted on a Web site.• Respondents provide answers to questions displayed
online by highlighting a phrase, clicking an icon, or
keying in an answer.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 35/152
Internet Surveys
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 36/152
Internet Surveys• Versatility of questioning: Extremely versatile
• Questionnaire length: varying according to the answers ofeach respondent
• Item non-response: Software can assure none
• Possibility for respondent misunderstanding: High
• Interviewer influence of answers: None
• Supervision of interviewers: not required
• Anonymity of Respondent: Respondent can be anonymous
or known
• Ease of Callback or Follow-up: difficult unless e-mail
address is known
• Special Features: allows graphics and streaming media
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 37/152
Business
Research Methods
William G. Zikmund
Chapter 11:
Observation Methods
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 38/152
Chapter 11:
Observation Methods
1. Types of Observed Phenomena2. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Observation
3. Types of Observation Techniques
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 39/152
1. Types of Observed Phenomena
• Physical actions
• Verbal behavior
• Expressive behavior
• Spatial relations and locations
• Temporal patterns
• Verbal and pictorial records
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 40/152
Phenomena Example Human behavior or physical Shoppers (buyers) movement
action pattern in a store
Verbal behavior Statements made by
airline travelers who wait
in line
Expressive behavior Facial expressions, tone ofvoice, and other form of
body language
Examples for Observed Phenomena
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 41/152
Phenomena Example Spatial relations How close visitors at an
and locations art museum stand to paintings
Temporal patterns How long fast-food customers
wait for their order to be served
Physical objects What brand name items are
stored in consumers’ pantries
Verbal and Pictorial Bar codes on product packages
Records
Examples for Observed Phenomena
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 42/152
“YOU SEE, BUT YOU
DO NOT OBSERVE.”
Sherlock Holmes
2. Advantages and Disadvantages
of Observation
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 43/152
2.1. Benefits of Observing Human Behavior
• Communication with respondent is not
necessary
• Data without distortions due to self-report(e.g.: without social desirability) Bias
• No need to rely on respondents memory
• Nonverbal behavior data may be obtained
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 44/152
Benefits of Observing Human Behavior
• Certain data may be obtained more quickly
• Environmental conditions may be recorded
• May be combined with survey to provide
supplemental evidence
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 45/152
2.2. Limitations of Observing
Human Behavior
• Cognitive phenomena cannot be observed
• Interpretation of data may be a problem
(e.g. misinterpretation)
• Not all activity can be recorded
• Only short periods can be observed
• Observer bias possible (e.g. selective
perception)
• Possible invasion of privacy
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 46/152
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 47/152
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 48/152
3 f Ob i h i
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 49/152
3. Types of Observation Techniques
• Natural versus Contrived Observation
• Direct versus Indirect Observation
• Disguised versus Nondisguised Observation
• Physical-trace evidence Observation
• Mechanical Observation
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 50/152
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 51/152
Contrived Observation:
• Environment artificially set up by the researcher.• Researchers are increasingly relying on
computers to conduct simulated market testing.
• Offers a greater degree of control – Speedy
– Efficient
– Less expensive• However, it may be questionable as to whether or
not the data collected does truly reflect a "real
life" situation.
3 2 Direct versus Indirect Observation
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 52/152
3.2. Direct versus Indirect Observation
Direct observation captures actual behavior or
phenomenon of interest
Indirect observation consists of examining the
results of the phenomenon.
• can give only relatively crude or imprecise
indications of a phenomenon
• More efficient use of research time
• More efficient use of research budget
• May be the only way to get data from situations
impractical to observe directly.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 53/152
3.3. Disguised versus Nondisguised Observation
Nondisguised observation:
• Respondents are aware that they are being
observed• Data may be contaminated by respondent-
induced errors.
• Data gathered through using disguisedobservation might not be as rich as those
from nondisguised observation.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 54/152
Disguised Observation
• Respondents are unaware they are beingobserved
• Allows for monitoring of the true reactions of
individuals.
• Unethical if disguised observation monitors
– Normally private behaviors
– Behaviors that may not be voluntarily revealed to
researchers.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 55/152
• Mystery shopping
– popular disguised observational technique – Mystery shopper
• Unknown to the retail establishment
• Visits the store
• Uses a structured script
• Observes and records the shopping
experience.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 56/152
3.4. Physical-trace evidence
Observation
• Wear and tear of a book indicates
how often it has been read• garbology - looking for traces of purchase patterns
in garbage
• detecting store traffic patterns by observing thewear in the floor (long term) or the dirt on the
floor (short term)
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 57/152
3.5. Types of Mechanical Observation
• Eye-Tracking
• Response Latency
• Voice Pitch Analysis
• People Meter
• Psychogalvanometer
• Monitoring Web Site Traffic
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 58/152
Eye Tracking
Measures unconscious eye movementsRecords how the subject actually reads or views
an advertisement, product packaging,
promotional displays, websites, etc.
Measures which sections attract customers'
attention and how much time they spend
looking at those sections
• Oculometers - what the subject is looking at
• Pupilometers - how interested is the viewer (This
device observes and records changes in the diameter
of the subject’s pupils)
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 59/152
Voice Pitch Analysis
• Measures emotional reactions through
physiological changes in a person’s voice
• Used to determine – how strongly a respondent feels about an answer
– how much emotional commitment is attached to an
answer.• Variations from normal voice pitch is considered
a measure of emotional commitment to the
question's answer.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 60/152
Response Latency
• It measures the speed with which a respondentgives a decision about a choice between
alternatives
• It records the decision time necessary to makethis choice.
• For instance: it can measure the effectiveness
of an advertisement on brand preferences.• It assumes that a quick expression of brand
preference indicates a stronger preference.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 61/152
People Meter
• Electronic device to monitor television
viewing behavior
– who is watching – what shows are being watched.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 62/152
Psychogalvanometer
• Measures galvanic skin response
• Involuntary changes in the electrical
resistance of the skin
• Assumption: physiological changes
accompany emotional reactions
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 63/152
Business
Research Methods
Donald R. Cooper and Pamela S. Schindler
Chapter 12.1.:
Basics of Experimental Research
Chapter 12 1 :
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 64/152
Chapter 12.1.:
Experimental Research
1. Basics of Experiment & Causality2. Advantages and disadvantages of the
experimental method
3. Steps of a well-planned experiment4. Validity in experiments
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 65/152
1.Basics of Experiment & Causality
1.1. Definition of Experiment:An experiment is a study involving intervention by
the researcher beyond that required for
measurement.
The usual intervention is to manipulate some
variable in a setting and observe how it affects the
participants or subjects being studied.
There is at least one independent variable and one
dependent variable in a causal relationship.
1 2 Causal Evidence
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 66/152
1.2. Causal Evidence
There are three types of evidence necessary to
support causality.
Agreement between
Independent and Dependent Variables
Time order of occurrence
Extraneous variables
did not influence Dependent Variables
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 67/152
1.2.1. Agreement between
Independent and Dependent Variables
First, there must be an agreement betweenindependent and dependent variables.
The presence or absence of one is associated with
the presence or absence of the other.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 68/152
1.2.2. Time order of occurrence
Second, beyond the correlation of independent anddependent variables, we consider the time order of the
occurrence of the variables.
The effect on the dependent variable should not precedethe manipulation of the independent variable.
The effect and manipulation may occur simultaneously
or the manipulation may occur before the effect.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 69/152
1.2.3. Extraneous variables
did not influence Dependent Variables
The third source of support comes when researchers are
confident that other extraneous variables did not
influence the dependent variable.
To ensure that these other variables are not the source of
influence, researchers control their ability to confound
the planned comparison.
2. Advantages and disadvantages of
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 70/152
2. Advantages and disadvantages of
the experimental method
Advantages
• Ability to manipulate
Independent Variable
• Use of control group
• Control of extraneous
variables
• Replication possible
• Field experiments
possible
Disadvantages
• Artificiality of labs
• Non-representative
sample
• Expensive
• Focus on present and
immediate future
• Ethical limitations
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 71/152
• Replication: is the process of repeating an
experiment with different participant groups and
conditions to determine the average effect of theIndependent Variables across people, situations,
and times.
• A field experiment: is a study of the dependentvariable in actual environmental conditions.
2.1.Explanation of Some Advantages of
Experiments
2 2 Explanation of Some Disadvantages of
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 72/152
• The artificiality of a lab is possibly the greatestdisadvantage of experiments.
• Also, experiments typically use small convenience
samples which cannot be generalized to a larger population.
• Compared to surveys, they are expensive.
• They also cannot deal with past events or predict
events in the far-off future.• Finally, marketing research is often concerned with
the study of people and there are limits to the types ofmanipulation and controls that are ethical.
2.2.Explanation of Some Disadvantages of
Experiments
3 Steps of a well-planned
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 73/152
Specify treatment levels
Control environment
Choose experimental design
Select and assign participants
Pilot-test, revise, and testCollect data
Analyze data
Specify treatment variables
3. Steps of a well planned
experiment
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 74/152
Steps of a well-planned experiment
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 75/152
Steps of a well planned experiment
The activities the researcher must accomplish to makean experiment a success:
3.1. Specify treatment variables:a) select variables that are the best operational
definitions of the original concepts, b) determine how many variables to test,c) select or design appropriate measures for the chosenvariables.
The selection of measures for testing requires athorough review of the available literature andinstruments.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 76/152
3.2. Specify treatment levels:In an experiment, participants experience a
manipulation of the independent variable, called theexperimental treatment.
The treatment levels are the arbitrary or natural groups
the researcher makes within the independent variable.
A control group is a group of participants that ismeasured but not exposed the independent variable
being studied.
A control group can provide a base level forcomparison.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 77/152
3.3. Control environment:
Environmental control means holding the physicalenvironment of the experiment constant. When participants do not know if they are receiving theexperimental treatment, they are said to be blind.
When neither the participant nor the researcher knows,the experiment is said to be double-blind.
3.4. Choose experimental design:
The design is then selected. Several designs are discussedon the next several slides.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 78/152
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 79/152
• 3.5.1. Random assignment :
• The sampling frame is often small for experiments
and the participants may be self-selected.
• However, if randomization is used, those assigned to
the experimental group are likely to be similar to
those assigned to the control group.
• Random assignment allows one to make the groups as
comparable as possible.
• It means that participants have an equal and knownchance of being assigned to any of the groups in the
experiment.
3 5 2 Matching :
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 80/152
3.5.2. Matching :
Matching is a control procedure to ensure that
experimental and control groups are equated on one or
more variables before the experiment.
The object of matching is to have each experimental and
control participant matched on every characteristic usedin the research. Matching employs a nonprobability
quota sampling approach.
Quota matrix is a means of visualizing the matching process. If matching does not alleviate assignment
problems, a combination of matching, randomization,
and increasing the sample size may be useful.
Quota Matrix
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 81/152
Example
Exhibit 10-3 presents an
example of a quotamatrix.
One-third of the
participants from each
cell of the matrix would
be assigned to each ofthe tree groups.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 82/152
4. Validity in Experimentation
Internal validity exists when the conclusions
drawn about a demonstrated experimental
relationship truly implies cause.
External validity exists when an observed causal
relationship can be generalized across persons,
settings, and times.
4.1.Threats to Internal Validity
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 83/152
4.1.Threats to Internal Validity
There are twelve possible threats to internal validity:
•History•Maturation
•Testing
•Instrumentation
•Selection•Statistical regression
•Experimental mortality
•Diffusion or imitation of treatment
•Compensatory equalization•Compensatory rivalry
•Resentful Demoralization of the disadvantaged
•Local history
http://cde.annauniv.edu/CourseMat/mba/sem2/dba1657/val.html
Threats to internal validity
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 84/152
Threats to internal validity
•History: In the experimental designs a control
measurement (O1) of dependent variable is often taken
before introducing the manipulation (X).
After the manipulation an after measurement (O2) of thedependent variable is taken. Then the difference between
O1 and O2 is attributed to the manipulation. (See also One
Group Pretest-Posttest Design)
However some events may occur during the course of the
experimental study, which will affect the relationship
between the variables under the study.
Threats to internal validity
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 85/152
Threats to internal validity
•Maturation: Changes may also occur within the
participant that are a function of the passage of time
and are not specific to any particular event.
•A participant may become hungry, bored, or tired andthese conditions can affect response results.
•Testing: The process of taking a test can affect the
scores of a second test. For instance, repeatedly taking(the same or similar) intelligence tests usually leads to
score gains.
Threats to internal validity
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 86/152
•Instrumentation: This threat to internal validity
results from changes between observations in either themeasuring instrument or the observer.
•Selection: Differential selection of subjects for
experimental and control groups affects the validity.Validity considerations require the groups to be
equivalent in every aspect.
The problem can be overcome by randomly assigningthe subjects to experimental and control groups. In
addition matching can be done. Matching the members
of the groups on key factors also enhances the
equivalence of the groups.
Threats to internal validity
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 87/152
•Statistical regression: This factor operates especially
when groups have been selected by their extreme
scores.
•For example, when children with the worst readingscores are selected to participate in a reading course,
improvements at the end of the course might not be
due to the course's effectiveness.
•Experimental mortality: This occurs when the
composition of the study groups changes during the
test. Some participants may drop out the experiment.
Threats to internal validity
Threats to internal validity
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 88/152
•Diffusion or imitation of treatment: If people inthe experimental and control groups talk, then those
in the control group may learn of the treatment. This
eliminates the difference between the groups.
•Compensatory equalization: Where the
experimental treatment is much more desirable for
the experimental group, there may be an
administrative reluctance to deprive the control
group members. Actions to compensate the control
group may confound the experiment.
Threats to internal validity
Threats to internal validity
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 89/152
•Compensatory rivalry: This may occur whenmembers of the control group know they are in
the control group. This may generate competitive
pressures, causing the control group members to
try harder . (e.g. Hawthorne effect )
•Resentful demoralization of the
disadvantaged: When the treatment is desirableand the experiment is conspicuous, control group
members may become resentful that they are
deprived and lower their cooperation and output.
Threats to internal validity
Threats to internal validity
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 90/152
•Local history: The regular history effect
already mentioned impacts both experimental
and control groups alike.
When one assigns all experimental persons to
one group session and all control group people
to another , there is a chance for some peculiarevent to confound results.
Threats to internal validity
4.2.Threats to External Validity
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 91/152
y
External validity is concerned with the interaction of
the experimental treatment (X) with other factors and
the resulting impact on the ability to generalize to (and
across) times, settings, or persons.
External validity is high when the results of anexperiment are applicable to a larger population.
Three major threats to external validity are as follows:
Reactivity of testing on X
Interaction of selection and X
Other reactive factors
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 92/152
Reactivity of testing on X
• The reactive effect refers to sensitizing participants
via a pretest so that they respond to the experimental
stimulus (X) in a different way.
•For instance, people who participate in a web survey
may then be sensitized to store displays and
organization.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 93/152
Interaction of selection and X
The process by which test participants are selected for
an experiment may be a threat to external validity.
The population from which one selects participants
may not be the same as the population to which one
wishes to generalize the results.
It limits the generalizability of the findings.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 94/152
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 95/152
Business
Research Methods
Donald R. Cooper and Pamela S. Schindler
Chapter 12.2.:Types of Experimental
Research Designs
Chapter 12.2.:
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 96/152
Chapter 12.2.:
Types of Experimental
Research Designs
1. Pre-experiments
2. True experiments
3. Field experiments
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 97/152
1 P i t
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 98/152
1. Pre-experiment
Pre-experimental research designs are researchdesigns that are characterized by a lack of randomselection and assignment.
Types of Pre-experiments:
•After-Only Case Study
•One Group Pretest-Posttest Design
•Static Group Comparison
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 99/152
1.1. After-Only Case Study
X O
• In this type of experimental design only one
treatment (X) or manipulation is done on the
independent variable.
• Then, the dependent variable is measured.
X O
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 100/152
An example is a media campaign about a product’s
features without a prior measurement of consumer
knowledge.
Results would reveal only how much target consumers
know after the media campaign, but there is no way to
judge the effectiveness of the campaign.
The lack of a pretest and control group makes this
design inadequate for establishing causality.
X O
1.2. One Group Pretest-Posttest Design
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 101/152
1.2. One Group Pretest Posttest Design
O1 X O2
This design meets the threats to internal validity better
than the one-shot case study, but it is still a weak design.
For example, a researcher examining the effect of a
commercial on brand liking would begin by taking a
pre-test to determine current levels of brand likingamong the participants.
O X O
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 102/152
The commercial would be shown.
Then a post-test would measure brand liking after the
commercial.
A comparison between the post-test and the pre-test
shows the change in liking.
However, any changes in liking are not necessarily due
to the commercial.
The act of giving a pre-test could have influenced liking
(testing effect).
O1 X O2
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 103/152
1.3. Static Group Comparison
Experimental Group: X O1
Control Group: O2
This design provides for two groups, one of
which receives the experimental stimulus whilethe other serves as a control.
For example, imagine that a new type of cheeseburger
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 104/152
p , g yp g
is being introduced, and an advertisement campaign is
run.
After the ad airs, those who remember seeing it would
be in the experimental group (X). Those who have no
recall of the ad would be in the control group.
The intent of each group to purchase the cheeseburger
would be measured.
The main weakness of this design is that there is no
way to be certain that the two groups are equivalent or
that the individuals are representative.
2. True experiment
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 105/152
• A true experiment is a method of social research in
which there are two kinds of variables. The
independent variable is manipulated by the
experimenter, and the dependent variable is
measured.
• The signifying characteristic of a true experiment isthat it randomly allocates the subjects in order to
neutralize the potential to ensure equivalence.
• There is also a control group for comparison.
Types of True experiments:
• Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
• Posttest-Only Control Group Design
2.1.Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 106/152
• The symbol R means that the true experimental designs
use randomly assigned groups to ensure equivalence.
• The effect of the experimental is: E = (O2-O1) – (O4-O3).
• This design deals with many of the threats to internal
validity, but local history, maturation, andcommunication among groups can still lead to problems.
• External validity is threatened because there is a chance
for a reactive effect from testing.
Experimental Group: R O1 X O2
Control Group: R O3 O4
2.2. Posttest-Only Control Group Design
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 107/152
• In this design, the pretest measurements are omitted.
• Pretests are well established in classical research design
but are not really necessary when it is possible torandomize.
• The experimental effect is measured by the difference between O1 and O2.
• Internal validity threats from history, maturation,selection, and statistical regression are controlledadequately by the random assignment.
• Different mortality rates could cause a problem.
Experimental Group: R X O1
Control Group: R O2
E l f P tt t O l C t l G D i
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 108/152
• Buick dealerships wish to determine the effectivenessof a special “test-drive” incentive.
• Buick dealerships nationwide are randomly assigned
to either the control group or the experimental group.• Those in the experimental group use a promotion to
encourage test drives.
• The control group does not use any such promotions.
• The number of test drives throughout are measured
and compared to determine if the promotion resulted
in significantly more test drives.
Example for Posttest-Only Control Group Design
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 109/152
3. Field experiment
• Experiment conducted in a natural setting
(e.g. on a sports field during play). The
conditions of field experiments are usuallyvery difficult to replicate.
Types of Field experiments:
• Nonequivalent Control Group Design• Separate Sample Pretest-Posttest Design
• Group Time Series Design
3.1. Nonequivalent Control Group Design
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 110/152
• This is a strong and widely used quasi-
experimental design.• It differs from the pretest and posttest control
group design because the test and control
groups are not randomly assigned.• There are two varieties: intact equivalent
design and self-selected experimental group
design
Experimental Group: O1 X O2
Control Group: O3 O4
Nonequivalent Control Group Design
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 111/152
• In the intact equivalent design, the membership of
the experimental and control groups is naturallyassembled.
• The self-selected experimental group design is
weaker because volunteers are recruited to form the
experimental group, while non-volunteer
participants are used for control.
• A comparison of the pretest results for each group
is one indicator of the degree of equivalence between test and control groups.
Example for Nonequivalent Control Group Design
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 112/152
• For example, children from two different classes in
school may be asked to test a toy.
• Participants are pre-tested on their interest in the toy.
• The experimental group spends time playing with the
toy while the control group is not exposed to the toy.• A post-test then measures interest in the toy.
3.2.Separate Sample Pretest-Posttest Design
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 113/152
• This design is most applicable when we cannot know
when and to whom to introduce the treatment but we
can decide when and whom to measure.
• The parenthesized treatment (X) means that the
experimenter cannot control exposure to the treatment.
• This is not a strong design because several threats tointernal validity are not handled adequately.
• History can confound the results.
Experimental Group: R O1 (X)
Control Group: R X O2
Example for Separate Sample Pretest-
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 114/152
Posttest Design
• For example, an new advertising campaign for a
prescription drug is introduced on television.
• Awareness of the brand name is measured prior to
the campaign introduction. After the campaign
ends, awareness is measured again.
3.3. Group Time Series Design
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 115/152
A time series design introduces repeated observations
before and after treatment and allows participants to actas their own controls.
The single treatment group design has before-after
measurements as the only controls.
There is also a multiple design with two or more
comparison groups as well as the repeated
measurements in each treatment group.
R O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
R O7 O8 O9 O10 O11 O12
• This format is especially useful where regularly kept
d l f h i d
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 116/152
records are a natural part of the environment and are
unlikely to be reactive.
• The time series approach is also good way to study
unplanned events in an ex post facto manner.
• The internal validity problem for this design is
history. To reduce this risk, we keep a record of possible extraneous factors and attempt to adjust the
result to reflect their influence.
• For example, if the government were to begin price
controls, we could still study the effects of this action
on gasoline prices later if we had regularly collected
records for the period before and after the advent of
price control.
Types of Pre-experiments:
After-Only Case Study Experimental Group: X O
Summary: types of experiments
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 117/152
One Group Pretest-Posttest Design Experimental Group: O1 X O2
Static Group Comparison Experimental Group: X O1 Control Group: O2
Types of True experiments:
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design Experimental Group: R O1 X O2
Control Group: R O3 O4
Posttest-Only Control Group Design Experimental Group: R X O1
Control Group: R O2
Types of Field experiments:
Nonequivalent Control Group Design Experimental Group: O1 X O2
Control Group: O3 O4
Separate Sample Pretest-Posttest Design Experimental Group: R O1 (X)
Control Group: R X O2
Group Time Series Design Experimental Group: R O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
Control Group: R O7 O8 O9 O10 O11 O12
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 118/152
Business
Research Methods
William G. Zikmund
Chapter 13:Measurement and Scaling
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 119/152
1. MEASUREMENTTh f i i b
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 120/152
The process of assigning numbers or scores toattributes of people or objects.
The process of describing some property of a phenomenon of interest by assigning numbers in areliable and valid way
Precise measurement requires:a) Careful conceptual definition – i.e. careful
definition of the concept (e.g. loyalty) to bemeasured
b) Operational definition of the concept
c) Assignment rules by which numbers or scoresare assigned to different levels of the concept
that an individual (or object) possesses
1.1. Conceptual Definition
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 121/152
Concept - A generalized idea about a class of
objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes. Examples: Gender, Age, Education, brand
loyalty, satisfaction, market orientation
Construct - A concept that is measured with
multiple variables. Examples: Brand loyalty, satisfaction, market
orientation, socio-economic status
Variable - Anything that varies or changes fromone instance to another; can exhibit differences invalue, usually in magnitude or strength, or indirection.
Concepts must be precisely defined for effectivemeasurement.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 122/152
Consider the following definitions of “brand loyalty”:
1. “The degree to which a consumer consistently purchases the same brand within a product
class.” (Peter & Olson)
2. “A favorable attitude toward, and consistent purchases of, a particular brand”. (Wilkie, p.276)
The two definitions have different implications formeasurement – they imply different operationalizations
of the concept of brand loyalty
1.2. Operational Definition/Operationalization
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 123/152
p p
Operational definition - A definition thatgives meaning to a concept by specifyingwhat the researcher must do (i.e. activities oroperations that should be performed) in orderto measure the concept under investigation.
Operationalization - The process ofidentifying scales that correspond to variancein a concept.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 124/152
Operationalization should be in line with theconceptual definition. For example:
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 125/152
Conceptual definition # 2 for brand loyalty: A favorableattitude toward, and consistent purchases of, a particular
brand
Operational definition # 2 for brand loyalty: consumers’attitude towards the brand A and the percent of
purchases going to brand A over a period of time.
Operationalization: in order to measure loyalty for brandA, you will need to:
• Observe consumers’ brand purchases over a
period of time,• Compute the percent of purchases going to brand
A, and
• Ask consumers questions to determine their
attitudes toward brand A
C l D fi i i f M di Sk i i
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 126/152
Conceptual Definition of Media Skepticism
• Media skepticism - the degree to which
individuals are skeptical toward the reality
presented in the mass media.• Media skepticism varies across individuals,
from those who are mildly skeptical and
accept most of what they see and hear in the
media to those who completely discount
and disbelieve the facts, values, and
portrayal of reality in the media.
Operational Definition of Media Skepticism
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 127/152
Please tell me how true each statement is
about the media. Is it very true, not very
true, or not at all true?• 1. The program was not very accurate in its
portrayal of the problem.
• 2. Most of the story was staged forentertainment purposes.
• 3. The presentation was slanted and unfair.
2. SCALES
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 128/152
To effectively carry out any measurement we need to
use some form of a scale.
A scale is any series of items (numbers) arrangedalong a continuous spectrum of values for the purposeof quantification (i.e. for the purpose of placingobjects based on how much of an attribute they possess)
The thermometer for instance consists of numbersarranged in a continuous spectrum to indicate themagnitude of “heat” possessed by an object.
2.1. Levels of Scale Measurement
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 129/152
Numbers assigned in measurement can take on
different levels of meaning depending on one offour mapping characteristics possessed by thenumbers:
1. Classification
2. Order
3. Distance
4. Origin
The type of mapping characteristic assumeddepends on the properties of the attribute (or
construct) being measured
The Four Characteristics of Mapping Rules
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 130/152
1. Classification – The numbers are used only to
group or sort responses. No order exists2. Order – The numbers are ordered. One number
is greater than, less than, or equal to another
3. Distance – Differences between the numbersare ordered. The difference between any pair of
numbers is greater than, less than, or equal to
the difference between any other pair of
numbers
4. Origin – The number series has a unique origin
indicated by the number zero
Four levels of scale measurement result from this
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 131/152
Four levels of scale measurement result from thismapping
1. Nominal Scale: a scale in which the numbers orletters assigned to an object serve only as labels
for identification or classification, e.g. Gender(Male=1, Female=2)
2. Ordinal Scale: a scale that arranges objects oralternatives according to their magnitude in anordered relationship, e.g. Academic status(Sophomore=1, Freshman=2, Junior=3, etc
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 132/152
3. Interval Scale: a scale that both arranges
objects according to their magnitude,distinguishes this ordered arrangement in unitsof equal intervals, but does not have a naturalzero representing absence of the given attribute,
e.g. the temperature scale (40o
C is not twice ashot as 20oC)
4. Ratio Scale: a scale that has absolute rather thanrelative quantities and an absolute (natural) zerowhere there is an absence of a given attribute,e.g. income, age.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 133/152
Type ofScale
DataCharacteristics
NumericalOperation
DescriptiveStatistics
Examples
Nominal Classification but Counting Frequency in Gender (1=Male,
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 134/152
no order,
distance, or origin
each category
Percent in each
categoryMode
2=Female)
Ordinal Classification and
order but no
distance or unique
origin
Rank ordering Median
Range
Percentile ranking
Academic status
(1=Freshman,
2=Sophomore,
3=Junior,
4=Senior)
Interval Classification,
order, and
distance but nounique origin
Arithmetic
operations that
preserve orderand magnitude
Mean
Standard
deviationVariance
Temperature in
degrees
Satisfaction onsemantic
differential scale
Ratio Classification,
order, distance
and unique origin
Arithmetic
operations on
actual quantities
Geometric mean
Coefficient of
variation
Age in years
Income in dollars
2.2. Index or Composite Measures
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 135/152
• Both index and composite measures usecombinations (or collection) of several variablesto measure a single construct (or concept); theyare multi-item measures of constructs.
• However, for index measures, the variablesneed not be strongly correlated with each other,whilst for composite measures, the variables are
typically strongly correlated as they are allassumed to be measuring the construct in thesame way
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 136/152
Composite Measures
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 137/152
Example 2: Composite MeasureConstruct: Attitude Toward Brand A
Measures: Extent of agreement/disagreement with
multiple statements:a) “I like Brand A very much”
b) “Brand A is the best in the market”
c) “I always buy Brand A”
• Statements a), b), c), constitute a “scale” to measureattitudes toward brand A
Computing Scale Values for Composite
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 138/152
p g p
Scales
• Summated Scale
– A scale created by simply summing (adding
together) the response to each item making up thecomposite measure.
• Reverse Coding
– Means that the value assigned for a response istreated oppositely from the other items.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 139/152
3.1. RELIABILITY
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 140/152
The degree to which a measure is free fromrandom error and therefore gives consistentresults.
An indicator of the measure’s internalconsistency
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 141/152
3.1.1. Stability (Repeatability)
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 142/152
• Stability the extent to which results
obtained with the measure can bereproduced.
1. Test-Retest Method
• Administering the same scale or measure to the
same respondents at two separate points in time totest for stability.
2. Test-Retest Reliability Problems
• The pre-measure, or first measure, may sensitize
the respondents and subsequently influence the
results of the second measure.
• Time effects that produce changes in attitude or
other maturation of the subjects.
3.1.1. Internal Consistency
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 143/152
• Internal Consistency: the degree of homogeneity
among the items in a scale or measure
1. Split-half Method
• Assessing internal consistency by checking the results of one-half of a set of scaled items against the results from the other
half.
• Coefficient alpha (α)
– The most commonly applied estimate of a multiple itemscale’s reliability.
– Represents the average of all possible split-half reliabilitiesfor a construct.
2. Equivalent forms
• Assessing internal consistency by using two scales designed to be as equivalent as possible.
3.2. VALIDITY• The accuracy of a measure or the extent to
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 144/152
ywhich a score truthfully represents a
concept.• The ability of a measure (scale) to measure
what it is intended measure.
• Establishing validity involves answers tothe following:
– Is there a consensus that the scale measureswhat it is supposed to measure?
– Does the measure correlate with other measuresof the same concept?
– Does the behavior expected from the measure
predict actual observed behavior?
Validity
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 145/152
PredictiveConcurrent
ConstructValidityCriterionValidityFace orContent
TYPES of VALIDITY
1 F t t lidit Th bj ti
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 146/152
1. Face or content validity: The subjective
agreement among professionals that a scalelogically appears to measure what it is intended tomeasure.
2. Criterion Validity: the degree of correlation of ameasure with other standard measures of thesame construct.
• Concurrent Validity: the new measure/scale istaken at same time as criterion measure.
• Predictive Validity: new measure is able to predict a future event / measure (the criterion
measure)
TYPES of VALIDITY
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 147/152
3. Construct Validity: degree to which ameasure/scale confirms a network of relatedhypotheses generated from theory based on theconcepts.
• Convergent Validity.
• Discriminant Validity.
Relationship Between Reliability &Validity
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 148/152
Validity
1. A measure that is not reliable cannot bevalid, i.e. for a measure to be valid, it must be reliable Thus, reliability is a
necessary condition for validity
2. A measure that is reliable is notnecessarily valid; indeed a measure can be
but not valid
Thus, reliability is not asufficient condition for validity
3. Therefore, reliability is a necessary but notsufficient condition for Validity.
Reliability and Validity on Target
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 149/152
3.3. SENSITIVITY
Th bili f / l l
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 150/152
• The ability of a measure/scale to accurately measure
variability in stimuli or responses;
• The ability of a measure/scale to make finedistinctions among respondents with/objects with
different levels of the attribute (construct). – Example - A typical bathroom scale is not
sensitive enough to be used to measure the weightof jewelry; it cannot make fine distinctions among
objects with very small weights.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 151/152
• Composite measures allow for a greater
range of possible scores, they are moresensitive than single-item scales.
• Sensitivity is generally increased by addingmore response points or adding scale items.
8/14/2019 bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-13[1].ppt
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bus-332-scientific-research-techniques-ch9-10-11-12-131ppt 152/152