BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING: GENERATING, REVIEWING,...

BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING: GENERATING, REVIEWING, AND COMMUNICATING THE EXPECTATIONS OF THE

OWNER, DESIGNER, AND CONSTRUCTOR

By

MARK T. KILGORE

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

2016

To dedicate this work to one person would be a grave mistake on my part. Many have walked by my side throughout the entire process of obtaining a PhD. To say that I did it myself would show much ingratitude to those who believed in me from the first thought of returning to school to work toward the dream of earning the degree Doctor of Philosophy. To say that it was not providentially ordained would be to shake my hand in denial at the very one who blessed me with family, friends, intellect, the motivation to be successful, and life abundant and eternal. I have many people to thank and whom to dedicate this work. My loving parents, the late James Lawrence Kilgore Sr., Mary Lee Streetman Kilgore; My wife, Mary Lyn Krpan-Kilgore, whose undying devotion, sacrifice, and selflessness enabled me to follow my dream; my sons and their families, Micah (Katie) Kilgore, Matthew (Hayley) Kilgore, and my grandchildren, Cazwell James, Clinton Andrew, Cooper Thomas and Madolyn Abigail Kilgore. My dearest friend on this earth, Nancy Moss Casaday, whose constant love, friendship, critique, and encouragement inspired me to stay the course. Finally, and most importantly, I dedicate this work to the King of Kings and Lord of Lords, Jesus Christ. Without Him, I am nothing. With Him, and because of His Grace, I shall worship at His feet forever.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am deeply indebted to the Rinker Foundation for selecting me as the recipient

of the Rinker Fellowship in September, 2011. Additionally, I am very thankful for the

assistance of Ms. Patti Barritt, Office Manager of the Rinker School of Construction

Management at the University of Florida. It was her willingness to be proactive in

arranging meetings with the faculty advisors of the PhD program that set the wheels in

motion toward the goal of completing a PhD. I will be forever grateful Patti.

The friendships of Dr. Brittany Giel, Dr. Hamzah Shanbari, Laura Dedenbach,

and Dr.Jim Antonuchi were, while not always geographically close, immensely

motivating, encouraging, and treasured.

Finally, I will always have tremendous respect and admiration for Dr. R.

Raymond Issa, who believed in my abilities and resolve to complete this journey from

the very start. Your direction and guidance were most appreciated!

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TABLE OF CONTENTS page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ 9

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 10

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... 14

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 16

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 18

Project History ........................................................................................................ 20

Research Questions ............................................................................................... 21 Research Objectives ............................................................................................... 21 Limitations ............................................................................................................... 22

2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 23

Limitations ............................................................................................................... 23

Capabilities of Building Information Modeling and Related Litigation ...................... 23 Description of BIM ............................................................................................ 23

Building Information Modeling in the Electrical Construction Industry .............. 25 Value of 4D Visualizations for Enhancing Mindfulness in Utility Rework .......... 27

Sensitivity to operations ............................................................................. 28

Pre-occupation with failures ....................................................................... 28

Reluctance to simplification........................................................................ 29

Commitment to resilience .......................................................................... 29 Deference to expertise ............................................................................... 29

BIM Education .................................................................................................. 30 Future Use of BIM ............................................................................................ 31 Examining 4D and 5D BIM Software Capabilities ............................................. 32 BIM-Based Construction Scheduling and Optimization Method ....................... 33 BIM Related Litigation ...................................................................................... 38

Integrated Project Delivery ............................................................................... 40 BIM Emerging as Construction’s Legal Standard of Care ................................ 42 BIM Standard in Off-Site Construction ............................................................. 45

Factors Affecting the Success of a Construction Project .................................. 48 Building Information Modeling (BIM) - Versioning for Collaborative Design ..... 50

Literature Review Conclusions and Validation for Research .................................. 51

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................... 54

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Gathering of Data ................................................................................................... 55 Analysis of Survey Data .......................................................................................... 55 Generation of Revit Models .................................................................................... 55

Analysis of Revit Models ......................................................................................... 56 Participants ............................................................................................................. 56

Commercial Construction ................................................................................. 56 Residential Construction................................................................................... 56 Industrial Construction ...................................................................................... 57

Infrastructure .................................................................................................... 57 Federal Construction ........................................................................................ 57

Materials ................................................................................................................. 57 Design ..................................................................................................................... 58 Procedure ............................................................................................................... 60 Selected Case Studies............................................................................................ 61

4 CASE STUDY 1 ...................................................................................................... 62

Residence Water Intrusion ...................................................................................... 62

Parties to the Dispute ....................................................................................... 62 Case Study Research Questions ..................................................................... 62 Research Approach .......................................................................................... 63

Results Analysis ............................................................................................... 63 Case Analysis ......................................................................................................... 64

3D View Analysis .............................................................................................. 67 Floor Plan Analysis ........................................................................................... 68

5 CASE STUDY 2 ...................................................................................................... 73

Church Floor Water Accumulation .......................................................................... 73 Parties to the Dispute ....................................................................................... 73

Research Questions Related to This Case Study ............................................ 73 Research Approach .......................................................................................... 74

Research Analysis ............................................................................................ 74 Case Analysis ......................................................................................................... 75

3D View Analysis .............................................................................................. 78 Elevation Sheet Analysis .................................................................................. 79

6 CASE STUDY 3 ...................................................................................................... 83

Hospital Mechanical Systems ................................................................................. 83 Parties to the Dispute ....................................................................................... 83

Research Questions Related to this Case Study .............................................. 84

Research Approach .......................................................................................... 84 Research Analysis ............................................................................................ 84

Case Analysis ......................................................................................................... 85 3D View Analysis .............................................................................................. 88

Clash Detection Analysis .................................................................................. 88

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7 CASE STUDY 4 ...................................................................................................... 91

Cement Silo Collapse ............................................................................................. 91 Parties to the Dispute ....................................................................................... 91

Research Questions Related to this Case Study .............................................. 91 Research Approach .......................................................................................... 91 Research Analysis ............................................................................................ 92

Case Analysis ......................................................................................................... 92 3D View Analysis .............................................................................................. 94

2D View Analysis .............................................................................................. 94

8 CASE STUDY 5 ...................................................................................................... 99

Wholesale Produce Market ..................................................................................... 99 Parties to the Dispute ....................................................................................... 99 Research Questions related to this Case Study ............................................... 99 Research Approach .......................................................................................... 99

Research Analysis .......................................................................................... 100 Case Analysis ....................................................................................................... 100

3D View Analysis ............................................................................................ 103 Room and Finish Schedule Analysis .............................................................. 103

9 CASE STUDY 6 .................................................................................................... 105

Condominiums ...................................................................................................... 105 Parties to the Dispute ..................................................................................... 105

Research Questions Related to this Case Study ............................................ 105 Research Approach ........................................................................................ 105

Research Analysis .......................................................................................... 106 Case Analysis ....................................................................................................... 106

3D View Analysis ............................................................................................ 109

2D View Analysis ............................................................................................ 109

10 CASE STUDY 7 .................................................................................................... 112

Retail Store Renovation ........................................................................................ 112 Parties to the Dispute ..................................................................................... 112

Research Questions Related to this Case Study ............................................ 112 Research Approach ........................................................................................ 112 Research Analysis .......................................................................................... 113

Case Analysis ....................................................................................................... 113 3D View Analysis ............................................................................................ 116

2D View Analysis ............................................................................................ 116

11 RESULTS ............................................................................................................. 119

Residence Water Infiltration .................................................................................. 121 Church Floor Water Accumulation ........................................................................ 122

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Hospital MEP Systems ......................................................................................... 123 Silo Roof Collapse ................................................................................................ 123 Wholesale Produce Market ................................................................................... 124

Condominiums ...................................................................................................... 124 Retail Store Renovation ........................................................................................ 125

12 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................... 128

Conclusions and Opinions of the Researcher ....................................................... 128 Residence Water Intrusion ............................................................................. 128

Church Floor Water Accumulation .................................................................. 129 Hospital MEP Systems ................................................................................... 130

Silo Roof Collapse .......................................................................................... 130 Wholesale Produce Market ............................................................................ 131 Condominiums ............................................................................................... 132 Retail Store ..................................................................................................... 132

Drawbacks ............................................................................................................ 133 Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................... 134

APPENDIX

A UTILIZATION OF BIM IN THE AEC INDUSTRY .................................................. 136

B RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BEST PRACTICE ................................................... 159

C CASE STUDY PHOTOS ....................................................................................... 163

D CASE STUDY DOCUMENTS ............................................................................... 170

LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 174

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .......................................................................................... 176

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LIST OF TABLES

Table page 2-1 Electrical contractors stated level of involvement with BIM ................................ 25

2-2 Typical number of BIM staff members on a project for electrical contractors ..... 26

2-3 BIM cost as a percentage of total electrical construction cost on a project ......... 26

2-4 Electrical contractors perceived levels of risk of BIM implementation ................. 27

2-5 Breakdown of mindfulness principles in observable actions and statements ..... 28

2-6 Typical number of BIM staff members on a project for electrical contractors ..... 32

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page 2-1 Optimized scheduling algorithm considering construction risk factor by

genetic algorithm (Moon et al. 2013) .................................................................. 34

2-2 SORi: Schedule overlapping ratio of activity i. (Moon et al. 2013) ...................... 35

2-3 Search process for schedule overlapping by each activity. (Moon et al. 2013) .. 36

2-4 Fuzzy-base risk analysis process (Moon et al. 2013) ......................................... 37

2-5 GA-based schedule optimization process to minimize schedule overlapping. (Moon et al. 2013) .............................................................................................. 38

2-6 Overview of off-site construction characteristics (Nawari 2012) ......................... 46

2-7 Exchange of BIM model between different software tools via IFC (Nawari 2012) .................................................................................................................. 47

3-1 Flowchart for research methodology .................................................................. 54

3-2 Flowchart for methodology design ...................................................................... 59

4-1 3D model residence water intrusion ................................................................... 64

4-2 Residence water intrusion main level floor plan.................................................. 65

4-3 Bay window detail residence water intrusion ...................................................... 65

4-4 Bay window cross-sectional detail residence water intrusion ............................. 66

4-5 Building section residence water intrusion .......................................................... 66

4-6 3D modeling screen residence water intrusion ................................................... 67

5-1 Church campus as designed .............................................................................. 76

5-2 Church campus as-built ...................................................................................... 76

5-3 Church campus camera view ............................................................................. 77

5-4 Church FLC east elevation as designed ............................................................. 77

5-5 Church FLC west elevation as designed ............................................................ 77

5-6 Screenshot of 3D modeling screen Church Facility ............................................ 78

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6-1 3D model Hospital mechanical systems ............................................................. 86

6-2 Structural 3D model Hospital mechanical systems ............................................. 86

6-3 3D model one section of one floor of the Hospital mechanical systems ............. 87

6-4 Example of structural/HVAC clash Hospital mechanical systems ....................... 87

6-5 Clash summary Hospital mechanical systems.................................................... 88

7-1 3D model cement silo collapse ........................................................................... 93

7-2 Silo roof deck framing plan cement silo collapse ................................................ 93

7-3 Beam pocket/beam assembly for cement silo collapse ...................................... 94

8-1 3D model wholesale produce market ............................................................... 101

8-2 Screenshot of 3D model wholesale produce market ........................................ 101

8-3 Screenshot of 3D model finish schedules wholesale produce market .............. 102

8-4 Floor finish schedule from model of the wholesale produce market ................. 102

9-1 Screenshot of 3D model condominiums ........................................................... 107

9-2 Screenshot of 3D model building cross-section condominiums ........................ 107

9-3 Partial floor plan depicting shared cavity wall space ......................................... 108

9-4 Full floor plan depicting shared wall cavity space ............................................. 108

9-5 Screenshot of 3D model detail of shared wall cavity space .............................. 109

10-1 Screenshot of 3D model retail store ................................................................. 114

10-2 Floor plan retail store ........................................................................................ 114

10-3 Screenshot of 3D model building section ......................................................... 115

10-4 Bearing wall callout retail store ......................................................................... 115

A-1 Question 1 survey statistics .............................................................................. 136




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A-10 Question 10 survey statistics ............................................................................ 145














C-1 Residence water intrusion location ................................................................... 163

C-2 Church sports floor location .............................................................................. 163

C-3 Church sports floor ........................................................................................... 164

C-4 Church sports floor elevation differential .......................................................... 164

C-5 Hospital MEP systems location ........................................................................ 165

C-6 Cement silo collapse location ........................................................................... 165

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C-7 Cement silo roof support beams ....................................................................... 166

C-8 Wholesale produce market location .................................................................. 166

C-9 Wholesale produce market interior ................................................................... 167

C-10 Condominium location ...................................................................................... 167

C-11 Condominium vent pipe .................................................................................... 168

C-12 Condominium SER cable ................................................................................. 168

C-13 Retail store location .......................................................................................... 169

D-1 Hospital MEP systems coordination drawing .................................................... 170

D-2 Hospital MEP systems coordination drawing .................................................... 171

D-3 Hospital MEP systems coordination bulletin ..................................................... 172

D-4 Hospital MEP systems BIM implementation directive ....................................... 173

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

2D Two Dimensions of Orthographic Projection

3D Three Dimensions of Orthographic Projection

4D Fourth Dimension of BIM - Time

5D Fifth Dimension of BIM – Cost

AEC Architecture, Engineering, Construction

AIA American Institute of Architects

AOR Architect on Record

BEP BIM Execution Plan

BIM Building Information Modeling

CACIM Center for Advanced Construction Information Modeling

CD Construction Document

CPM Critical Path Method

CSI Construction Specification Institute

EIFS Exterior Insulation and Finish System

FFL Finish Floor Level

FLC Family Life Center

FM Facility Management

GA Genetic Algorithm

GC General Contractor

GSA General Services Administration

ICC International Code Council

IDM Information Delivery Method

IFC Industry Foundation Classes

IPD Integrated Project Delivery

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LLC Limited Liability Company

LOB Line of Balance

LOD Level of Development

MEP Mechanical, Electrical, Plumbing

MSHA Mine Safety and Health Administration

MVD Model View Definition

NAVFAC Naval Facilities Engineering Command

OCA Office of Contracts Administration

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

OSH Act Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970

PPE Personal Protective Equipment

RFQ Request for Quote

SOR Schedule Overlapping Ratio

SOW Scope of Work

USACE United States Army Corps of Engineers

WRB Weather Resistant Barrier

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Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING: GENERATING, REVIEWING, AND

COMMUNICATING THE EXPECTATIONS OF THE OWNER, DESIGNER, AND CONSTRUCTOR

By

Mark T. Kilgore

August 2016

Chair: R. Raymond Issa Major: Design, Construction, and Planning

Building Information Modeling (BIM) is a process that assists in the design,

construction, and operation of buildings and facilities. Because of the relatively short

time that BIM has been utilized in the design and construction industry, no entrenched

standard for its implementation, utilization or precedence exists at the level of what

would be considered accepted industry practice. The absence of that level of

acceptance has prompted owners, practitioners, suppliers, constructors, and the legal

profession to seek the definition of what would be considered the standard of care for

the utilization of BIM.

Architects, engineers, constructors, attorneys, and owners were consulted to

ascertain the impetus for litigation connected to their BIM projects. The data that was

compiled covered a broad array of topics, primary among them the expectations of the

practitioners and the owners. Additionally, the methods that historically have been used

to design, build and operate the buildings commissioned by owners were studied to

determine what portions, if any, of those methods have been included in the BIM

process. Relationships between designers, contractors, subcontractors and suppliers

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were studied to determine the best allocation of risk and distribution of rewards from

being involved in BIM driven projects.

Requirements and expectations differed, dependent on who was providing the

information. Owners want and expect error-free BIM models with reduced Architect and

Engineering fees. A/E firms have yet to fully integrate the capabilities of BIM software

and as a result, are not as efficient as they need to be in its use. The high cost of the

software, restructuring of A/E firms and training of practitioners, along with reduced

levels of design and construction work has delayed the full amortization of the capital

cost required to incorporate BIM as a viable business practice.

Multiple case studies were undertaken as the main focus of this research. Each

case study centered on a particular issue that was the impetus of litigation associated

with each study. Among these were design errors, construction management issues,

construction site safety, and the standard of care for an Architectural Firm, and

construction project schedule issues.

The case study projects, as modeled, demonstrated that information such as

sub-assemblies, component details and placement, construction project schedules, and

schedule(s) of values could be embedded within the models. However, in the absence

of competent, knowledgeable, and experienced design and construction professionals,

the models like all other construction management tools offered little advantage in

completing projects on schedule and within budget.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Building Information Modeling (BIM) is undoubtedly an affirmative step toward

total integration of Information Technology into the world of Professional Construction

Management and Architectural design. As with any emerging technology, many issues

regarding liability are just now beginning to unfold as this technology gains a foothold

and consequently impacts the productivity and profitability of construction firms,

subcontractors, and owners’ representatives. The obligations associated with

professional practice such as accuracy, punctuality of important decisions, timely

sharing or submission of information and the collaboration requirements of various

professions do not simply disappear with the implementation of BIM. What exactly is

timely submission of information? What is accuracy? What is the proper and acceptable

form of communicating the information contained in any BIM project? What, if any, are

the obligations of the software authors other than properly functioning software?

BIM, as we now know it, is a process by which buildings and other construction

projects are designed, built, operated and maintained. Some long term plans call for

BIM to be utilized in the deconstruction of these same buildings. A major component of

the BIM process is a software platform that will create or “model” the project under

commission by the client. The model is outwardly a three-dimensional (3D)

representation of the project. Typically, the software has the ability for the modeler to

view the model from any vantage point, including a walk-thru of the project. So far it

sounds as if the only component of BIM is the software used to model the project. If this

indeed were the case, the potential for BIM as an emerging technology and process

would be severely restricted and its use limited to the design professional.

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Two additional dimensions have been incorporated into BIM related software to

depict two very important aspects of any construction project: time and cost. These are

currently being referred to, respectively, as the fourth and fifth dimensions (4D & 5D).

How does time affect a construction project? Time, as it is routinely stated, is money.

Project owners develop project feasibility plans based on occupying a building or

utilizing a project from a certain point in time, typically due to the fact that this new

building, which is considered an investment, will generate a certain amount of income

due to the location, size or features of the building. If this projected time frame is not

realized, the owner incurs financial losses and routinely looks to the contractor and in

some instances the design professional for reimbursement for those losses or

damages. Proper scheduling, or time management of the project, is vital to meeting

these contractual project completion dates. The ability to look forward in time and

accurately predict the status of the project, anticipate any potential schedule delays and

make alternate plans has now been realized with the incorporation and development of

the fourth dimension into the BIM process.

The fifth dimension of BIM, cost, is now being addressed by project planners,

schedulers, financial officers, and cost estimators. A construction project estimate

cannot be complete without a schedule. A schedule, in some instances, cannot be

complete without an estimate which outlines all of the components, elements and

assemblies that are required to complete a building. Going back to the statement about

time being money, project planners, fully implementing the 5D capability of BIM related

software, can project cash flow needs by determining the earned values of work in-

place. Historically, payments from the owner to the contractor have been based on

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payment applications, which in turn are generated by the use of perceived percentage

of completion of various tasks, alternately referred to as earned value. The correct, or

incorrect, determination of these percentages of completion can directly affect the

financial success of one or more of the project principals. Contractors that are paid for

work that is not in place, commonly referred to as front-end loading, assume a liability in

that they now have to deliver products or labor in order to avoid breaching their contract

with the owner. Conversely, owners that are overly conservative in the estimation of the

earned value in an effort to protect their financial interest put the contractor in peril of

financial default due to the inability to pay their subcontractors and suppliers. Typically

improper or inadequate cash flow is the principal reason for contracting firm failure. The

use of the fifth dimension of BIM allows the contractor, designer, owners, and

subcontractors to plan their cash flow needs by utilizing an accurate depiction of the

work that is projected to be in place at certain completion milestones of the project.

Project History

The excitement that is inherent with the introduction of an innovative product

tends to apply blinders to those who utilize the product, and in many cases, the

recipients or ancillary users of this new product become somewhat of a captive

audience to the outcome. How should a newcomer to the product, be they a specifier of

the product or end user, know what to expect from the use of this product?

Building projects typically fall into what is referred to as a “one off” prototype. This

means that the unique layout, geometry, and MEP systems contained within the project

will only be constructed one time. The one off process does not afford the owner, design

professional or constructor the opportunity to perfect the product through repetition. As

such, it is incumbent upon all of the parties to the contract to perform as flawlessly as

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possible to mitigate rework, remain within the confines of the budget, and deliver the

project on schedule.

With these things in mind, how can BIM be utilized to provide “a better product”,

as it relates to the design/construction project? Can the use of BIM eliminate design

errors? And to that, what is a design error? Will the use of BIM in the planning stages of

the construction phase eliminate or mitigate construction site accidents? Can BIM

predict structural failures? Can the use of BIM, utilized in facility management (FM),

assist in determining best practices for FM? Lastly, how is the best way to communicate

between the parties to a design and construction project what is expected from each of

them?

The first litigation involving the use of BIM was initiated in 2009 by a contractor

that was relying on a BIM model that was provided by the project architect. The

contractor, in their ignorance of the process and the product, had unrealistic

expectations that ultimately cost millions of dollars to litigate and settle.

Research Questions

This research specifically addresses the following questions:

Can design errors be eliminated through the use of BIM?

Does BIM offer a universal language that all parties to the contract understand?

Does BIM provide a means to thoroughly review a project prior to commencement of construction operations?

Can BIM be utilized to discover safety issues associated with a particular project design?

Does 3D modeling offer sufficient detail to convey the intent of the Owner, Designer, and Constructor?

Research Objectives

The objective(s) of this research was to determine how proper implementation

and use of the BIM process by designers, engineers, contractors, and owners can

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mitigate the unintended and unexpected results on a project while educating the AEC

community on the use of BIM and helping the community realize the full potential of

BIM.

Limitations

The lack of input from other construction management professionals was a

significant limitation to this research. As such, the perspective of the research was

limited to that of the researcher, without the benefit of a collaborative review or analysis

of the case studies.

As the investigation(s) of each case study was conducted after the occurrence of

the stated issues, no vehicle existed to monitor how similar projects/situations may have

benefited from the implementation of BIM and to allow a comparative analysis of the

different perspectives.

Having seven case studies to utilize for this research did not provide an adequate

population to allow for a statistical analysis of the results. Therefore to produce more

definitive results would require a substantially larger number of cases to review along

with commensurate research personnel, time, and funds.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

While best practices for the delivery of a building project have been established

and accepted by the AEC professions, a perfect method of delivering a building project

does not exist. Civilizations have designed and built simple and complex projects for

thousands of years, and with each project comes challenges. Different challenges for

different types of projects. Different challenges for projects of a similar nature. As

society became more complex, so did the buildings of particular eras and civilizations.

Limitations

The articles, books, and other related literature reviewed for this research

covered the definition of BIM, the implementation of BIM, the capabilities of BIM, the

shortcomings of BIM, and BIM related litigation matters. Additionally, in the latter stages

of this research newly published works were reviewed so as to allow the research to

reflect the state of the art as near to the presentation of this work as possible.

This review did not include writings of how to use BIM related software, how to

become a BIM practitioner, software company marketing materials, hardware

requirements or articles that proposed the best way to implement BIM into the operation

of AEC firms. Additionally, this review did not include articles associated with any

particular software brand.

Capabilities of Building Information Modeling and Related Litigation

Description of BIM

Building information modeling (BIM) is a relatively new process by which the

design, construction, and operation of a facility is managed and directed (Kymmell

2008). The process starts with the generation of a building “model”, which in layman’s

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terms is a three-dimensional drawing of the proposed project. Heretofore, electronic

drawings of projects were limited to the traditional two-dimension variety which includes

length and width. In addition to the third dimension of depth, building models can now

include an additional two dimensions: time and cost (Kymmell 2008). With the addition

of these two dimensions, BIM can be utilized as a very efficient construction

management tool.

Time and cost, as a function of a building model, provide the construction project

manager with the ability to view the project at any point in the design and construction

process. This proves to be very valuable to the project manager when developing

construction project schedules that must be cost-loaded in order to determine the cash

flow needs and earned values of the project (Kymmell 2008). Earned values are the

basis for determining payments made to the contractor, subcontractors and suppliers.

As BIM models are typically assembled from component libraries, this feature easily

lends itself to unit price cost estimating, determination of a schedule of values and

payment application review and approval.

Project quality control is another valuable aspect of BIM. As the design of the

project progresses, models that are generated by various engineering consultants and

subcontractors can be integrated into the model provided by the architect to detect

points of interference (clash) by utilizing the clash detection feature of currently

available software programs. A clash can result from the unintended and unwanted

intersection of two or more building components such as piping, HVAC ductwork,

electrical conduits or structural elements (Kymmell 2008). Detecting and correcting this

type of issue at the design stage is less expensive than reconfiguring work that has

25

already been installed on the project. As a result, schedule delays due to the rework of

building elements can be reduced or eliminated.

Building Information Modeling in the Electrical Construction Industry

Current BIM Utilization. Electrical contractors, while a vital component in the

design and construction process, have not fully embraced the idea of implementing BIM

into their daily operations (Hanna et al. 2014). As of 2009, only 20% of electrical firms

surveyed utilized BIM for their projects. However, as of 2014, that percentage had

increased by a factor of 2.5 among medium to large contractors (Table 2-1).

Table 2-1. Electrical contractors stated level of involvement with BIM

Number Contractors level of involvement of BIM Responses Percentage

1 We are not utilizing BIM within our company 21 30

2 We are using existing BIM tools but are

creating our own tools within our company 18 26

3 We are creating BIM tools to use within our

company 5 7

4 We are using existing tolls within our

company and creating BIM tools 26 37

Total 70 100

(Adapted from Hanna et al. 2014)

The reason for this dramatic increase was attributed to market demand on the

part of the project owners (Hanna et al. 2014). With that, it is arguable that electrical

contractors are becoming more experienced with the utilization of BIM and it can be

stated that their levels of expertise have risen as a direct result of the increase in

utilization rates.

The number of electrical contractor employees dedicated to BIM remains

relatively low as a percentage of the total employment by electrical contractors (Table 2-

2).

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Table 2-2. Typical number of BIM staff members on a project for electrical contractors

Number Number of Staff Responses Percentage

1 1 23 47

2 2 to 3 21 43

3 4 to 5 5 10

4 More than 5 0 0

Total 40 100


Forty-seven percent of electrical contractors dedicated one employee for

modeling, 43% dedicated two or three, while only 10% dedicated four to five employees

for BIM related tasks (Hanna et al. 2014).

A direct correlation to the number of dedicated electrical contractor employees

was the percentage of cost to implement BIM (Table 2-3).

Table 2-3. BIM cost as a percentage of total electrical construction cost on a project

Number Percent cost Responses Percentage

1 Less than 1.0 13 27

2 1.0 to 2.0 20 41

3 2.0 to 3.0 7 14

4 3.0 to 4.0 4 8

5 4.0 to 5.0 2 4

6 More than 5.0 3 6

Total 49 100


The cost of BIM implementation as a percentage ranged from less than one to as

much as two, dependent upon the levels of expertise and the years of experience held

by the contractors (Hanna et al. 2014).

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While it can be surmised that a lack of expertise and experience with BIM can

lead to errors, electrical contractors that implemented BIM verified that conclusion by

rating their perceived levels of risk associated with the use of BIM in their projects

(Table 2-4).

Table 2-4. Electrical contractors perceived levels of risk of BIM implementation

Number Risk Percentage

1 Lack of BIM protocol 35%

2 Lack of commitment/leadership by others 16%

3 Cost overrun 14%

4 Lack of commitment internally 4%

5 Mistakes by BIM staff 2%

6 Poor software 2%

7 Unclear contracts related to BIM 2%

8 No risk 6%

(Adapted from Hanna et al. 2014) Value of 4D Visualizations for Enhancing Mindfulness in Utility Rework

Underground utility projects encompass unknown conditions, danger, and risk

due to the nature of the work. Typically, the rework of these types of systems involve

ancillary systems, structures, transportation systems interruptions, and the possibility of

omitting a critical component. Additionally, due to the complexity of these systems,

assignment of a resource at the wrong time or incorrectly sequenced can lead to

expensive rework. How can the use of 4D reduce the inherent dangers and risks

associated with utility systems rework? Mindful behavior (Scholtenhuis et al. 2015)

incorporating five mindfulness principles (Table 2-5) were incorporated into 4D

scheduling practice to add to the effectiveness of the construction schedule.

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Table 2-5. Breakdown of mindfulness principles in observable actions and statements

Mindfulness principle constructs

Observable actions based on theoretical mindfulness

Sensitivity to operations

Trying to understand work processes beyond one’s own job; building a clear picture of the current situation; paying attention to operations from day to day

Pre-occupation with failures

Looking for design/schedule conflicts and trying to understand them; investigating why the unexpected occurs and figuring out why expectations were not met; discussing mistakes to learn

Reluctance to simplification

Not taking anything for granted; challenging the status quo; deepening analyses to better grasp nature of the problems; expressing different views of the world

Commitment to resilience

Building response repertoires; having a number of informal contacts to solve problems; discussing alternatives to normal work processes; pooling expertise to solve problems

Deference to expertise

Valuing expertise over hierarchical rank; knowing who has the expertise to respond to situations

(Adapted from Scholtenhuis et al. 2015) Sensitivity to operations

Utility systems work affects more than just the specific utility system. Other utility

systems, adjacent structures, hardscaping, landscaping, transportation system

components, and people must be accounted for in the preparation of the schedule, i.e.

trying to understand the work processes beyond one’s own job (Scholtenhuis et al.

2015).

Pre-occupation with failures

Because of the level of risk(s) associated with utility systems work, the

generation of a 4D schedule assists in discovering potential errors, omissions, and

clashes between system components. In many utility systems projects, the work is

linear in nature, necessitating the completion of one element of the project, in correct

sequence, to allow subsequent components/activities to be installed in a timely manner,

to prevent rework (Scholtenhuis et al. 2015).

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Reluctance to simplification

The use of 4D scheduling can lead to increased levels of detail in the schedule.

As such, no construction activity is assumed to be known or understood by project

management personnel. The concept of a construction task being the status quo and

accepted throughout the construction industry must be challenged. The result of this is a

deeper analysis of the real or perceived problems with the project. Additionally,

encouraging input to the construction schedule from all of the parties to the project

presents views that would not normally be utilized in creating the construction schedule.

While not resulting in initial time savings during the generation of the schedule, this

mindful principle is seen as proving its value in the finished construction project

(Scholtenhuis et al. 2015).

Commitment to resilience

The generation of a schedule can be accomplished by one person or many,

depending on the complexity of the project. However, the adoption of any proposed

schedule while ignoring alternatives does not encourage the input from other project

team members. The use of a 4D schedule tends to extend the stakeholder’s response

repertoire (Scholtenhuis et al. 2015).

Deference to expertise

The 4D scheduling process has not proven itself or shown evidence of lending

credence to the idea of expertise over rank (Scholtenhuis et al. 2015).

While 4D scheduling can be utilized for various project management purposes,

the amount of documented utility projects incorporating 4D scheduling is limited. It is

therefore difficult to statistically evaluate the effect of 4D scheduling on this type of

project (Scholtenhuis et al. 2015).

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BIM Education

To realize the maximum benefits and returns of BIM related software and the

BIM process, practitioners must have skillsets that are related to the construction

management profession. Among those necessary skills are construction scheduling and

the knowledge of the relationships between construction activities (tasks) and the

necessary links, or logic that assists in the timely placement of resources.

Construction management students are typically required to complete basic

construction scheduling courses, which exposes them to a variety of software programs

used for construction scheduling. The typical construction management student has

little to no experience on a construction project; moreover, their level of knowledge of

the construction process is very limited. In order to efficiently utilize the abilities of a 4D

component of BIM, the practitioner must possess a certain level of construction

scheduling ability. Okere (2015) conducted a case study regarding the ability of student

construction schedulers using traditional 2D documents and activity lists to generate a

construction schedule vs. a similar group of student construction schedulers utilizing 4D

scheduling techniques.

The study focused on two questions:

1. Is 4D scheduling effective at enhancing the planning and scheduling process for beginners who lack field experience?

2. Is the outcome from introducing 4D scheduling sufficient to continue introducing 4D scheduling and making it part of a university’s planning and scheduling training?

In preparing for this study, Okere (2015) found that novice practitioners could

generate a CPM schedule utilizing parametric data that was found in a BIM related

model and linking that data with productivity information found in the R.S. Means

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Construction Cost Data to set the sequence of the activities (Kim et al. 2013). Additional

studies showed that 4D scheduling could be used to improve schedule development

and control. The improvement in the control aspect included progress updates, change

requests, and time impact analysis (Coyne 2005).

Traditionally, a CPM schedule has been utilized to validate time extensions,

delay claims, and the impact of such on the overall construction schedule. Because of

this, local, state, and Federal agencies are beginning to include 4D scheduling into their

contract language and project specifications. To facilitate this, it was determined that 4D

practitioners possess competency in working with BIM related software and the skilled

use of 4D software to portray and simulate the events in a construction schedule in lieu

of simply showing animation (Raiola 2014).

Okere (2015) found that 4D scheduling enhances and assists novice schedulers

in generating viable construction schedules. Additionally, participants in his studies

agreed that 4D scheduling training should be incorporated into University level planning

and scheduling training.

Future Use of BIM

Among electrical contractors currently utilizing BIM, the outlook for an increase in

the utilization of BIM is minimal, if not only maintaining status quo (Table 2-6).

Among electrical contractors not currently implementing BIM, approximately 81%

state that they will begin using BIM on less than 15% of their projects. Among electrical

contractors currently implementing BIM, 33% state that they will use BIM on 30-60% of

their projects (Hanna et al. 2014).

For electrical contractors currently utilizing BIM, the outlook for future investment

in BIM appears to show confidence in the process, as between 29- 45% plan to invest in

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software, creation of BIM procedures within their company, creation of BIM libraries,

creation of BIM procedures with other companies, and training their staff in BIM

procedures and technology (Hanna et al. 2014).

Table 2-6. Typical number of BIM staff members on a project for electrical contractors

Number Percentage of projects to use BIM

Responses Percentage

1 Fewer than 15 14 29

2 15 to 30 12 24

3 30 to 60 16 33

4 More than 60 7 17

Total 49 100


Examining 4D and 5D BIM Software Capabilities

This article discusses a comparison of three different software products, which

are only referred to by SP1, SP2, and SP3. SP1 was an application that extends a 3D

model into 4D BIM with advanced scheduling capabilities. SP2 was an application that

extends a 3D model into 5D BIM with cost estimating abilities. SP3 was an integrated

platform with modules for flexibility in 4D and 5D.

A comparison of the native functionalities of the systems revealed the following

traits:

1. The location based SP3 schedule planner module promoted the rapid creation of schedules for construction projects; additionally, it allowed for input to control the flow of work production to further productivity improvements during the production phase;

2. SP3 schedule planner improved project management by synchronizing the risk management of projects that are underway;

3. The 4D capabilities of SP3 enabled users to view past versions of schedules and compare them with current versions;

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4. SP3 uses a location based quantity information as opposed to SP1, which utilizes a critical path (CPM) scheduling;

5. The location based management system within SP3 relies on the progress of the work crews as they move through a building. This is done in an effort to minimize the number of starts and stops, which leads to inefficiency in the utilization of resources;

6. SP1 incorporates an automatic reschedule option, keeping the schedule updated and accurate at all times;

7. SP1 utilizes a line of balance (LOB) option, which schedules resources in repetitive activities, resulting in continuous utilization of resources;

8. SP3 cost estimation module is based on target cost planning, a concept that utilized the highest amount that can be incurred on a project, while retaining the desired level of profit;

9. SP2 and SP3 have the ability to link databases to include estimates and material take-offs;

10. SP1 modules allow for multiple users to work simultaneously;

11. SP2 utilizes a more traditional approach, in that copied files can be used and the group’s edits and import them into the final consolidated model.

The decision to adopt a particular software package may be influenced by the

project type, current needs and budget, or the skillset of the practitioners. The added

value of a software package that incorporates 3D, 4D, and 5D is proving to be a wise

investment for practitioners of BIM (Fosu 2013).

BIM-Based Construction Scheduling and Optimization Method

Moon et al. (2013) discussed the use of BIM-based scheduling as a passive tool

(current use) and the proposition that BIM-base scheduling could become an active tool

for the project manager that is proficient in the use of BIM related software.

Currently, the schedule is constructed within the BIM related software and is

taken at face value for its efficiency and effectiveness. As these two traits of the

schedule are dependent on the skills of the one generating the schedule, there are

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areas where value to the project (work in place) can be increased by optimizing, or

increasing, the placement of resources in adjacent areas of the project (Figure 2-1).

Figure 2-1. Optimized scheduling algorithm considering construction risk factor by genetic algorithm (Moon et al. 2013)

Typically, when a “work area” becomes overcrowded with labor and materials,

the efficiency of the process is decreased. As such, ways to avoid this overcrowding or

“overlap” must be employed by the project manager (Figure 2-2).

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Figure 2-2. SORi: Schedule overlapping ratio of activity i. (Moon et al. 2013)

This can be done by minimizing the overlap of the tasks taking place in nearby or

adjacent areas (i.e. columns and beams being erected in the same corner of the

building).

Moon et al. (2013) proposed a method of optimization that uses a three-step

process for schedule optimization.

1. Search algorithm of overlapping activities;

2. Risk analysis algorithm for performance risk of construction operations using fuzzy theory; and

3. Schedule optimization algorithm using GA (genetic algorithm)

This process requires that all activities be compared with base activities. A base

activity is any activity to be analyzed for overlapping. The start and finish dates are set,

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then the start date of each activity is searched for and then sorted in ascending order by

the earliest start time (Figure 2-3).

Figure 2-3. Search process for schedule overlapping by each activity. (Moon et al. 2013)

Analysis of the overlapping of activities can be checked by comparing the

difference between center dates for the two activities with the sum of the activity

durations divided by two. If the difference between the two center dates is less than half

of the sum of the two durations, there will be an overlapping between the two activities.

If not, there will be no overlapping, and further schedule overlapping check processes

will be skipped (Moon et al. 2013). At this point, a schedule overlapping ratio (SOR)

must be computed and analyzed for all activities. The sum of all of the SOR’s is then

utilized as a project’s overall overlapping level. This level is then used for the GA

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analysis, which minimizes them after analyzing schedule overlapping risks (Moon et al.

2013) (Figure 2-4).

Figure 2-4. Fuzzy-base risk analysis process (Moon et al. 2013)

GA-based algorithm for schedule overlapping optimization. This is the basis

for a methodology that will allow an active BIM system to minimize construction activity

schedule overlap. Once the risk analysis for each high risk activity has been completed,

the overlapping level for each activity should be mitigated to the lowest level possible.

Without this, the execution of high risk activities could suffer along with a strong

concentration of resources. This process of activity/schedule optimization includes the

following steps (Figure 2-5):

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1. Registration of the risk analysis results for overlapping activities;

2. Analysis of activity schedule (early start, early finish, late start, late finish, and total float);

3. Analysis of overlapping activities;

4. Creation of initial chromosome of a GA algorithm to minimize the number of overlapping activities;

5. Computation of GA operators (selection, crossover, mutation, replacement);

6. Creation of an optimized solution (computations of schedule overlapping ratios and fitness functions);

7. 4D simulation of the final solution (optimized schedule) (Moon et al. 2013).

Figure 2-5. GA-based schedule optimization process to minimize schedule overlapping. (Moon et al. 2013)

BIM Related Litigation

Inherently, new products or processes have problems that must be addressed in

order for the state of the art to progress. Such is the case with BIM. The first BIM related

litigation centered on poor communication between the designers and the contractor.

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While the MEP components theoretically fit into the plenum space, the need for a

unique sequence of component installation was not communicated to the contractor

(USGLASS Network 2011). Early followers of BIM continue to promote its usefulness

and search for more efficient methods by which to employ its abilities in additional

projects (Hill 2011).

At this point in the ongoing development of BIM, one might expect that a plethora

of causations for issues associated with the use of BIM exists. Industry will continue to

move forward in the development and use of BIM, as long as it proves to be a viable,

profitable concern. DeVries (2011) asserts that communication, or lack thereof, could be

a major contributor to problems, disagreements and ultimately, litigation.

When speaking of communication, DeVries (2011) outlines three areas in which

communication should be established and maintained:

1. Communication within your own team. At the contractor level, this would include the active participation of the preconstruction, scheduling, estimating, and onsite project management personnel. The model is a work in progress and undergoes constant change due to budget considerations, timing issues, constructability, and in some instances, changes in the weather.

2. Communication among the project team. As stated prior, the BIM team is more than just the design professionals. It involves owners, subcontractors, suppliers, in some cases tenants and what may be the most overlooked party of all, the property managers. If a lack of communication exists between these parties, expectations, requirements, wants, and other important issues can be overlooked, forgotten, and eventually left out of the design and planning process.

3. Communication per the contract documents. Different roles in the process have certain bias in connection with contract documents. This is the case when using BIM, as it by its nature, involves professionals from the design and construction industry. Architects are partial to American Institute of Architects (AIA) drafted contract documents, which historically and by the nature of the author(s), gives them more latitude, authority and precedence when conducting architectural design duties. Contractors, on the other hand, more and more are incorporating a new line of contracts named “ConsensusDOCS”. Both of these industry groups have developed contracts for conducting business through what is termed Integrated Project Delivery (IPD). In these, responsibilities, deliverables, and

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other issues such as risk sharing and rewards are addressed in detail. Whatever version or profession oriented contract forms are selected, they should in the end conform to the interests, expectations, abilities and understanding of the project at hand.

Integrated Project Delivery

In light of the forgoing information, how should project teams or team members

conduct their business and actions? BIM will continue to evolve, and so will the way

project teams are assembled and organized. The traditional approach to project delivery

typically involves design professionals, construction professionals, subcontractors, and

suppliers, each with different contractual arrangements and agreements. Architecture

and Engineering firms (A/E) provide construction documents (CD’s) that (hopefully)

would tell the contractor, their subcontractors, and suppliers what to build to satisfy the

needs and wishes of their clients. The different tasks and associated responsibilities of

each project participant drive their need to shield themselves from and transfer liability

to other parties. With all parties seeking to protect themselves financially, where is the

motivation for collaboration, risk sharing, and reward sharing? In discussing the teaming

alliance for the construction of the Australian National Museum, (Noble 2011)

highlighted the facets of the teaming agreement that served as a successful model for

collaboration:

The main goal of the alliance agreement was for the benefit of the project as a whole

Each alliance member was compensated on an open-book, cost reimbursed basis with a pre-established profit margin

Gain share” rewards and “Pain share” penalties were included in the alliance agreement as incentives to all parties except the owner

100% attendance at all project meetings was required to constitute a quorum

All decisions regarding the overall project welfare had to be unanimous

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Personnel from alliance organizations were selected and assigned to the project according to their skills and their ability to serve the needs of the team

Owner and all team members agreed to release one another from all liability arising out of the project except for willful default

Willful default excluded any error of judgment, mistake, act or omission, whether negligent or not, made in good faith by an alliance member

The American Institute of Architects (AIA 2009) has termed the virtual design and

construction process as “integrated practice”. Integrated practice should allow access to

construction expertise, facility operations, and maintenance experience during the

formative stages of a design and construction project. The intent of this is to minimize

the revision of completed works within the design and construction phases of a project.

With integrated practice comes the need for new standards and procedures to

address various issues that are applicable to all of the organizations contributing to a

model (AIA 2009).

1. Compensation of parties

2. Risk allocation and reliance

3. Design ownership and access

4. Intellectual property

5. Model hosting

6. Insurance

As design, quality, construction, financing, and schedule options continue to

evolve new forms of project delivery based on integrated practice will continue to be

developed and investigated as a way of improving the design and construction process

(AIA 2009).

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BIM Emerging as Construction’s Legal Standard of Care

Every profession, in particular Architects, Engineers, Constructors, and Attorneys

have a standard of care to which they must adhere. What defines a standard of care?

Essentially, an accepted standard of care is what another professional, in good

standing, would use in the course of their practice, in the same locality, i.e. what another

architect/engineer would do in the same city, county, or region (Salmon 2011).

Should BIM be a part of that standard of care? Salmon (2011) demonstrated how

a 3D model would have discovered problems with a particular building design. The 3D

model clearly exhibited the defects in the design, alleging that if the AEC team had

utilized a similar 3D model, the construction issues would have been discovered in the

pre-construction phase, thereby eliminating the problems before time and material had

been consumed in the construction process (Salmon 2011).

Academia has not taken a backseat to the issues inherent with BIM, and in fact

has been proactive in the development, refinement and teaching of various software

platforms and their inclusion in the BIM process. Becerik-Gerber and Kensek (2010)

discussed several key factors necessary to the continued improvement and success of

BIM:

A mutually beneficial industry and academic collaboration will lead to a growth in strategic BIM research

Identifying the need to produce and maintain a single project information base (model) throughout the duration of the project and into the operational and maintenance phase of the building life cycle

Current state of the art of BIM associated software is a barrier to total implementation of the BIM process

Identifying the need for a stable means of archiving models that can be repurposed throughout the life-cycle of the building

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Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) is probably the most important aspect of BIM

Additional research is necessary to correctly determine the cost-saving aspect of BIM and the validity of the claims made by BIM proponents

IPD poses problems that must be addressed both within and between the parties to a BIM related project. While all parties contribute to the makeup of the project model, one party, typically but not always the architect, must be designated as the lead modeler, now referred to in AIA E202 as the Model Element Author (AIA 2008). The Element Author has to update the project model as input is created by each consulting engineer, contractor and the various subcontractors and suppliers. Additionally, AIA E202 addresses model file formats, model origin, coordinate system and units and the file storage locations. This is a step in the right direction for improvement of the BIM process and management thereof. Undoubtedly, due to the “immaturity” of AIA E202, its merits and other attributes will be challenged through litigation. E202-2008 has been replaced as of 2013 with E203-2013, G201-2013 and G202-2013.

How has BIM as a process and the use of various software platforms made

progress in light of the foregoing discussion? How will it continue to progress in a soft

economy? Are there additional costs associated with the use of BIM? The General

Services Administration (GSA) established the National 3D-4D program, which stated

that the GSA is committed to a strategic and incremental adoption of 3D, 4D and other

BIM technologies (Matta 2011). As of 2007, all major GSA projects receiving design

funding are required as a minimum, the use of spatial program BIM’s for submission to

the Office of Contracts Administration (OCA) for final concept approval by the Chief

Architect of the GSA. Additionally, in the National 3D-4D program, the GSA is creating

specific incentives for the use of 3D-4D BIM.

In a soft economy, a dichotomy exists with the need for increased business

revenues and the need to provide a better product at a lower cost to the client. Efficient

management of the design process and better value-engineering by the entire design

team alliance establishes the qualities of the project that are necessary to satisfy client

and end user needs and expectations (Whole Building Design Guide 2012). While the

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use of BIM and its associated modeling software contributes to this efficient

management and as a consequence, an increase in the number of design contracts,

practitioners are hesitant to state that costs have been reduced by the incorporation of

BIM process. According to Haynes (2009):

The cost of procurement of the software and training of personnel can be significant. To what extent these costs can and should be passed on directly to the Owner or to what extent they will have to be absorbed as a cost of business going forward is a critical issue. Perhaps as Owners better appreciate the value of the design model as a deliverable to used for life-cycle analysis and future operation and maintenance, then they may be more willing to reimburse separate line items for these BIM costs. Another issue that must be included in determining the total cost for the adoption

of BIM is the soft cost of the learning curve, which could conceivably be included as a

part of the training cost. At what point does the user of BIM and the process consider

the cost to be fully amortized?

The intended purpose of the design effort is to establish the parameters of the

project as envisioned or needed by the owner. To realize the full potential of the design,

the project must be constructed. “Construction services are a commodity” (Coil 2003).

With this in mind, how can one constructor provide a better product than any other in

the industry? What is a better product in the construction industry? Issues that define

“better” on any construction project are:

Contract completion date (schedule)

Cost overruns (budget and estimating)

Construction activity sequencing to mitigate injuries to construction workers

Cash flow and timely payment of invoices

Force and subcontractor staffing

OSHA compliance

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Earned value of work-in-place

Quality of work-in-place

Clarity and accuracy of the scope of work for General Contractors/Construction Managers and Subcontractors

BIM Standard in Off-Site Construction

Off-site construction, better known as pre-fabrication of building components and

systems, contributes many of the elements that are required for every building project.

As BIM continues to be implemented on a world-wide scale, the need for capturing and

communicating the correct information needed by various stakeholders and

standardized digital exchange and communication across the trades is vital to the

ultimate success of BIM as utilized by suppliers and manufacturers (Nawari 2012).

As competitiveness increases among off-site suppliers, the ability to provide

components that meet contract specifications, timeliness in delivery, and cost

restrictions can be improved through the use of BIM (Figure 2-6).

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Figure 2-6. Overview of off-site construction characteristics (Nawari 2012)

One aspect of this mindset is “don’t make it until you sell it” (Nawari, 2012) is a

direct result of cost of capital, cost of inventory, deficiencies in inventory homogeneity,

and the potential for obsolescence.

A major contributor to this challenge, particularly among those incorporating BIM

into their project management policies, is the ability to capture all relevant data

associated with the fabrication of off-site components into the BIM model and also be

able to exchange data between the various project participants. The standard that has

emerged in the AEC community for these interoperability tasks is Industry Foundation

Classes (IFC). IFC represents an open, nonproprietary standard for data exchanges

between parametric modeling software (Nawari 2012) (Figure 2-7).

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Figure 2-7. Exchange of BIM model between different software tools via IFC (Nawari 2012)

The BIM standards specification process consists of three major steps (Nawari

2012):

1. Develop the Information Delivery Manual (IDM), which is intended to provide the integrated reference for process and data required by BIM by identifying the discreet processes undertaken with building construction, the information required for their execution, and the results of that activity;

2. Translate the IDM into a specification that can be incorporated into software applications, relying all the while on an appropriate set of standard data models defined through the Model View Definition (MVD);

3. Implementation and testing of the exchange specifications, with possible final certification.

Hopefully, taking these steps will result in an IFC model that will more closely

reflect actual project requirements and promote BIM for off-site construction.

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Factors Affecting the Success of a Construction Project

While there are factors that can be attributed to the success of a construction

project, or the concept of what constitutes a successful construction project, no general

consensus has been reached among industry professionals (Chan et al. 2004). As a

means of improving the effectiveness of a project, research including critical success

factors (CSF’s) has identified major factors that could be instrumental in both defining

and controlling the success of a construction project. These CSF’s can be divided into

five main categories, as follows (Chan et al. 2004):

1. Project related factors:

a) Type of project

b) Nature of project

c) Number of floors in a project

d) Complexity of project

e) Size of project

2. Procurement-Related Factors

a) Procurement method (selection of the organization for the design and construction of the project)

b) Tendering method (procedures adopted for the selection of the project team and in particular the General Contractor (GC)

3. Project Management Factors

a) Proper use of construction management tools

b) Communication methods

c) Feedback capabilities

d) Troubleshooting

e) Coordination effectiveness

f) Decision making effectiveness

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g) Project monitoring

h) Project organization structure

i) Following work plan and project schedule

j) Project related previous management experience

4. Human Related Factors

a) Project manager

b) Client

c) Contractor

d) Consultants

e) Sub-contractors

f) Consultants

g) Supplier

h) Manufacturer

5. External Factors

a) Economic environment

b) Political environment

c) Social environment

d) Technical systems

Chan et al. (2004) suggested that all of the aforementioned factors could be

incorporated into a “Conceptual framework for factors affecting project success”, in that

they contributed to the success of a project, on both an interrelated and intra-related

basis. They further suggested that a project would be executed more successfully if the

following factors were present: project complexity were low; the project is short in

duration; that overall management actions were effective; if the project is funded by an

experienced, private entity; the client is competent in setting up the parameters of the

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project and making related decisions; and the project team leaders are experienced and

competent. Additionally, the overall success of the project will be improved if the project

is executed in a stable environment, and utilizes developed, proven technology coupled

with an appropriate organizational structure (Chan et al. 2004).

Building Information Modeling (BIM) - Versioning for Collaborative Design

Collaborative design involves ever changing forms of the project as it moves from

its’ inception to the finished product. This requires that the parties to the project be able

to communicate effectively and efficiently when introducing changes to the project that

could possibly affect the work of other parties.

Building Information Modeling (BIM) plays a vital role in the process of

collaborative design, as it contains the integral digital representation of all building

information for the different stages of project development (Zada et al. 2014).

Each discipline involved in the design of a project will develop a model

independently; many times utilizing different software platforms that ultimately must

communicate the objects contained in the model to a central repository for analysis,

comment, and dissemination to the original modeler. Hence, the interoperability of the

different design software platforms and the standardization of building data is a major

requirement for successful collaboration (Zada et al. 2014). To assist in the transfer of

data, the Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) was developed. It was specifically

developed to exchange model-based data between the different model-based

applications. Several areas of concern were identified that required improvement in the

interoperability of the software platforms:

Changes made in the building model and its’ related information

Information sharing and changes effected in the BIM models

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History of the objects in BIM models

Records of earlier versions of BIM models

Collaborative BIM-framework. A collaborative BIM framework should cover the

economic, technological, and practical aspects within the design process along with the

requirements of the inter-disciplinary and intra-disciplinary design teams. Satisfying the

need for compatibility among the different BIM models is seen as paramount to the

advancement of a successful collaborative design effort. Suggestions for the

collaborative framework solution are as follows (Zada et al. 2014):

Creation of an extended data model file - considers the effected changes in object versioning

Storing the extended data model file - change management in a central server

Reading the extended data model file – allows the different design teams to implement changes made in the central model to their respective models

Communication among the different design teams – allows for version control and response to changes made to the central model

Zada et al. (2014) in their approach, as it relates to collaborative design, would

leverage the collaborative work between each team’s specific models as well as

improve the methods and systems by which changes to each disciplines model are

communicated to the central model and then communicated to the other project

participants.

Literature Review Conclusions and Validation for Research

The intent of this literature review was to determine what, if any, research had

been undertaken to define how the AEC professions could deliver a better product due

to the implementation of the BIM process and use of the related models. However, after

a rigorous search for this research, it was determined that no research endeavor had

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encapsulated a concise, proven method of assisting the owner, the design professional,

the constructor, or the student in mitigating errors due to communication in the design

and construction process.

Based on the literature review the following conclusions have been made:

1. The BIM process and its associated software programs are firmly entrenched in the mindset and operational policies of private AEC firms, academia, and local, state, and federal government facilities programs;

2. BIM, while gaining acceptance among the AEC professions, has not been fully implemented into operational policies of many firms, owners, and constructors;

3. The capabilities of 3D modeling programs have yet to achieve full utilization for design and construction, other than parametric modeling;

4. 4D modeling possesses the ability to present a “day in the life” picture of the construction project;

5. 4D modeling, properly implemented, can determine a measure of “work-in-place” i.e. added value to a project;

6. 4D modeling can be of assistance in analyzing delay claims for construction projects;

7. Academia has the ability to contribute to the optimization of BIM as an analysis tool;

8. Operating systems need to have the ability to communicate among different software platforms to ensure maximum efficiency in the utilization of BIM;

9. The ability to efficiently store and refer to earlier versions of a BIM model would increase the effectiveness of a collaborative design effort;

10. Examples of litigation are limited as a means of setting precedence in the use of BIM;

11. There are many factors that affect the outcome, or success, of a construction project. The “success” of a project has not been defined, nor is there any consistent overriding component of a project that will determine the success or failure of a project;

12. Practitioners of BIM should be well-versed in the subject matter of the AEC professions, in that simply pulling building components from an Imperial Library and inserting them into a 3D, 4D, or 5D model does not present the best form of a project;

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13. The BIM process is not error free;

14. BIM has been proven to reduce design, construction, and documentation cost;

15. No one reference has been produced that offers a single “best practice” for the communication between project participants.

Taking into consideration that the purpose of this research is to set forth a means

of efficiently and effectively communicating between project participants and that was

not found in the review of available BIM related literature, the research is justified.

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CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The initial objective of this research was to determine how and if the proper

implementation of the BIM process by designers, engineers, contractors, and owners

can mitigate the unintended and unexpected results commonly associated with the

design, construction, and management of buildings and similar projects.

As shown in Figure 3-1, the research methodology for this research is divided

into four sections:

1. Gather data regarding the utilization of BIM in the AEC community;

2. Analysis of the data received from the AEC community to determine the extent to which BIM is utilized for the types of projects included in the case studies;

3. Generate the Revit models and include 4D and 5D elements as appropriate for the selected projects;

4. Determine if the use of BIM would have mitigated or prevented the issues as defined in each of the selected case studies.

Figure 3-1. Flowchart for research methodology

Gather data regarding the utilization of BIM in the AEC community

Analyze the data received from the AEC community to determine the extent to which BIM is utilized for the types of projects included in the case studies

Generate Revit models and include 4D and 5D elements as appropriate for the selected projects

Determine if the use of BIM would have mitigated or prevented the issues as defined in each of the selected case studies

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Gathering of Data

It was vital to know to what extent the AEC industry utilized BIM/3D modeling for

various types, sizes, and cost(s) of projects. Without a certain level of saturation of BIM

within the AEC industry, no substantiation for this research would exist. Once it could be

determined that BIM was an accepted process for designing and managing the

construction of a homogenous cross-section of projects, case studies were identified

that would provide a current, diverse representation of the AEC industry.

Analysis of Survey Data

The data was analyzed by searching for projects that exhibited issues in the

following areas:

1. Water infiltration;

2. Compliance with approved construction documents;

3. Proper implementation and management of the BIM process;

4. Design professional standard of care;

5. Code compliance;

6. Construction project management;

7. Quality of construction documents.

Generation of Revit Models

The generation of Revit models was outsourced to students in the Rinker School

of Construction for efficiency and the effective utilization of skills and resources. Two-

Dimensional drawings of the selected case studies were provided to the students to

prevent the duplication of effort in describing the various buildings and other structures

associated with the case studies.

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Depending upon the case study and building types, different elements were

incorporated into the model to highlight the issues that arose as a result of design,

safety, water intrusion, implementation of BIM, and standard of care on the part of the

design professional.

Analysis of Revit Models

The building information models were analyzed to determine conformance to

original building designs, realistic and useful incorporation of 4D and 5D elements into

the model, ease of use by project field personnel, and the ability of the model to

communicate the issues as defined in regard to each case study.

Participants

It was essential that a population consisting of design professionals, owners,

contractors, subcontractors, suppliers and attorneys be included in the research that

was conducted. Because construction includes multiple categories, samples were

collected from the target population listed below that actively practice or engage in the

following categories:

Commercial construction

1. Office space

2. Retail space

3. Educational facilities

4. High-rise office space

5. Multi-use retail and residential projects

Residential construction

1. Single-family

2. Multi-family

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3. Entry Level

4. Move-up Level

5. Speculative

6. Custom/luxury

Industrial construction

1. Food Production

2. Light Manufacturing

3. Heavy Manufacturing

Infrastructure

1. City

2. County

3. State

4. Federal

Federal Construction

1. Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC)

2. United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

3. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife

Materials

A series of interviews, surveys, case reviews and questionnaires were utilized to

collect data pertaining to construction projects, classified according to the categories

listed previously in the participants section of this methodology. The types of data that

were gathered included, but were not limited to:

1. Implementation of BIM

a) Was BIM utilized?

b) If BIM was utilized, why?

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c) If BIM was not used, why not?

d) How long has BIM been in use by your firm?

2. In what areas of your practice has BIM been utilized?

a) Architectural design and planning;

b) Structural Engineering;

c) Civil and Site Engineering;

d) MEP systems Engineering;

e) Interior Design;

f) Infrastructure;

g) Construction Scheduling and Estimating;

h) Risk Assessment and management;

3. What percentage of the projects undertaken by your firm has utilized BIM?

4. How many projects utilizing BIM have been involved in litigation?

5. Has BIM or the lack of knowledge connected with BIM been the causation of any litigation?

Design

As this research is based upon multiple case studies, a replication approach will

be utilized to determine if the initial theory (utilization of BIM to deliver a better product)

is correct. Results found to be contradictory to that theory will be the subject of further

research.

1. Develop Theory

a) Select Cases

b) Design data collection protocol

i) Conduct 1st case study

(1) Write individual case results

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ii) Conduct 2nd case study


iii) Conduct remaining case studies


iv) Draw cross-case conclusions

(1) Modify theory

(2) Develop policy implications

(3) Write cross-case results

Figure 3-2. Flowchart for methodology design

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Procedure

Using the information collected from interviews, questionnaires and surveys

develop a data bank related to the implementation of BIM for various types, sizes, and

costs of construction project. This compilation of information will enable the researcher

to chronicle the following:

1. Issues with RFP’s;

2. Litigation involving BIM;

3. Design errors;

4. Communication deficiencies;

5. Extent of due diligence associated with the BIM process;

6. Contractor errors- causation;

7. Contractor errors- remediation;

8. Delay claims due to clash issues;

9. Delay claims resolution;

10. OSHA issues;

11. Construction document quality;

The information gathering effort takes place in this order:

1. Sent via email or hard copy the questionnaires and/or surveys to provide the participants a proper review and response period;

2. With selected participants, conducted a physical interview at their place of business in order to obtain a sense of the culture of the firm; this provided a sense of identification with the research effort and promote the receipt of better information;

3. At the conclusion of this procedure, prepared a statistical analysis of the data collected and create practice policies, guidelines and recommendations to prevent the conditions, issues, errors or contractual obligations that led to disagreements, arbitration and litigation.

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Selected Case Studies

The initial purpose for conducting this research was, as the title of the

dissertation suggests, to utilize BIM to identify (generate), analyze (review), and share

(communicate) the needs and expectations of the principal parties to a design-build

construction project. While this objective appears simplistic, there are many facets of

the design-build construction process that must be considered in order to complete a

comprehensive analysis of one or more construction projects. So that a diverse cross-

section of construction projects is included in the research effort, the following specific

construction projects, along with the issue(s) associated with each, have been selected

as individual case studies. Each of the selected cases exhibited at least one common

trait in that either the owner, designer, or the constructor had unexpected issues to

contend with that were not a part of the original plan for the design, construction or

utilization of the facility.

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CHAPTER 4 CASE STUDY 1

Residence Water Intrusion

This case study focused on the apparent breakdown in the construction

management process utilized by a national homebuilding company. The homeowner

elected to file a legal complaint against the homebuilder, alleging “mold” damage due to

reported water intrusion.

The building envelope of the subject residence included Exterior Insulation and

Finish System (EIFS) as the main component of the Thermal and Moisture Protection

system. Two vital component of the EIFS assembly are corrosion resistant flashing and

elastomeric sealant. Reportedly, neither the flashing nor sealant was installed during the

normal course of construction, which allegedly led to the reported water intrusion.

As a result of the reported water intrusion, a mold-like substance appeared within

the confines of the basement area, and in isolated locations of the interior wall finish

material, which was composed of drywall. Due to past health issues with one of the

homeowners, the homeowners and their family members moved out of the residence,

pending the outcome of the on-going litigation.

Parties to the Dispute

Homeowner

Homebuilder

EIFS sub-contractor

Case Study Research Questions

RQ1. Was flashing and sealant required by the applicable building code?

RQ2. If flashing and sealant was required, who was responsible for installing these items?

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RQ3. Did the construction management process utilized by the GC contribute to the omission of the flashing and sealant?

RQ4. Did the subcontractor who installed the EIFS fail to comply with the scope of work as agreed to in the contract with the GC?

RQ5. Did the construction drawings, as prepared and utilized by the GC and subsequently presented to the EIFS subcontractor for use, have the flashing and sealant installation properly detailed and specified?

Research Approach

1. Created a 3D model of the subject residence, including details of the EIFS assembly, cross-sectional view of the wall construction, and the flashing and sealant installation;

2. Created 4D model supplement encompassing design/bid/build construction schedule;

3. Created SOW for each party to the design-build process;

4. Created schedule of values for each construction task associated with the building envelope/EIFS assembly that contributes to the earned value of the construction project;

5. Assigned resources and their associated contractual scope of work within the construction schedule (4D model supplement);

6. Documented scope of work (SOW) discussion/acknowledgement meetings and incorporate into the 4D/5D model supplement;

Results Analysis

RA1. Is the level of detail available in the 3D model sufficient to show flashing and sealant installation in a manner that is understandable in the bidding process as well as during field operations?

RA2. How would the 4D supplement be available to the bidders and field personnel?

RA3. How would the 5D supplement be available to the bidders and field personnel?

RA4. Could the information contained in the models be utilized by field personnel that interacted with their home office via electronic tablets?

RA5. How/should contract and SOW information be included in the models for use by subcontractor office and field personnel?

RA6. What did the 3D model communicate?

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RA7. How did the 3D model offer the ability to review the intent of the designer?

RA8. Did the 3D model correctly generate what was necessary and/or expected by all of the effected parties to the project?

Case Analysis

This case study focused on the issue of water infiltration at a residential structure

that manifested in the discovery of mold-like growth within the cavities of the wooden

frame walls as well as on the surface(s) of the interior finishes. Investigation discovered

that flashing, as required by the International Residential Code, 2006 edition, had not

been installed at the wall fenestrations.

The residence was modeled in Revit, based on actual design drawings and

included six different plan sheets:

Three-dimensional (3D) model of the subject structure (Figure 4-1)

Floor plan of the main living level of the residence where the mold-like growth was discovered (Figure 4-2)

Detail of the bay window area located on the main living level (Figure 4-3)

Cross-sectional detail typical fenestration (Figure 4-4)

Building Section Ferris Residence (Figure 4-5)

Screenshot of the 3D model that exhibited the ability to include information such as construction schedules (4D) and cost information (5D) in the 3D model (Figure 4-6)

Figure 4-1. 3D model residence water intrusion

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Figure 4-2. Residence water intrusion main level floor plan

Figure 4-3. Bay window detail residence water intrusion

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Figure 4-4. Bay window cross-sectional detail residence water intrusion

Figure 4-5. Building section residence water intrusion

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Figure 4-6. 3D modeling screen residence water intrusion

3D View Analysis

As a stand-alone sheet, the view of the model as shown in Figure 4-1 offers a

visual description of the subject project. Additionally, the relationship(s) between major

sub-assemblies of the residence can be readily observed. In a “working” model, as

would be the case while in a 3D drawing program, the model may be rotated 360° in

any direction to offer differing views of the exterior of the residence. Dependency on the

visual model alone offers minimal, if any detail of the building envelope or the

fenestrations. As part of a set of “construction drawings”, this model sheet should be

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likened to that of the “key plan” sheet that is normally included in a set of construction

drawings.

Floor Plan Analysis

The floorplan sheet (Figure 4-2) contains details and dimensions of the project,

similar to that level of detail that would normally be found in traditional 2D drawings.

This includes wall layout, wall length, door and window opening location/dimensions,

room occupancy, means of egress, and column row/column lines. While not typically

included in a residential floor plan, column row/line callouts are utilized in this sheet to

define differing points within the model that lead the user to details that would be utilized

for the construction of the project.

While not included in this particular sheet, a typical 3D modeling program

contains the ability to “call out” a sectional view of the floor plan, thereby enabling the

modeler to include further levels of detail in regard to opening size, wall components,

finish materials, and additional finish information.

The detail of the bay window area (Figure 4-3) contains a callout for a cross-

sectional view/detail of the wall/window unit assembly. While not containing sufficient

detail to include flashing, sealants, or placement thereof, this sheet directs the

constructor to a model sheet that would contain the final level of detail that normally is

sufficient to make the constructor aware of materials/components, their sizing, and

relationship to adjacent building materials.

Figure 4-4, the cross-sectional detail of a typical fenestration (window), depicts a

window unit that has been installed in the wall of the bay window area. This would be

applicable to most any window that was contained within the residence. A working

model would allow a constructor to increase the size of the details, revealing the

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existence of further details such as flashing, weather resistant barrier (WRB), head

flashing, tuck tape, window unit flanges, and attachment hardware.

Figure 4-4 further shows in detail the relationship of the upper and lower sashes

of the window unit. As depicted, the sashes are reversed from the typical configuration

that would allow for incident storm water to shed from the top sash to the bottom sash

and run off of the window unit to the ground below. Utilizing a detail with a resolution

that would accurately describe the relationship between the various required

components of the fenestration, a constructor would have the ability to detect the

presence of detailed components such as flashing, WRB, and window unit flanges.

Figure 4-5, the cross-sectional view of the residence, contains a callout for the

detail of the bay window area. As this is considered to be a normal component of any

type (2D, 3D) construction drawing, callouts such as this could be included as a part of

the model that is issued to subcontractors. This type of callout could contain notations

such as “detail typical to all openings” within the detail, adding further emphasis to any

general notes that may have been contained within the model.

Figure 4-6 shows the view that is typically presented to the modeler as a result of

selecting a tool known as “default 3D model” from the tool bar located at the top of the

screen. Aside from the 3D perspective of the project, menu(s) containing the information

making up the 3D perspective view are contained within this same screen. As such,

information such as construction schedules, legends, material quantities, and a

schedule of values could be included to provide a model that contained a more

comprehensive description of the project than what could normally be contained within a

2D set of construction drawings.

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Research and Results Questions Responses

In answering the research questions associated with this case study, the

researcher was required to attain a level of knowledge/familiarization with the facts of

the case as a direct result of investigation. As such, it was determined that flashing was

required by Section 703.8 of the 2006 International Residential Code(IRC 2006) which

was in effect in that jurisdiction at the time of construction (RQ1). Could this fact have

been contained within the 3D model or discovered solely through the use of 3D, 4D, or

5D modeling? Without knowledge of the adopted building codes on the part of the

modeler, this requirement would not be incorporated in the parametric model. If this

information were to be input by a knowledgeable modeler it would be available for use

by project management and construction personnel (RA1).

An investigation by the researcher concluded that a determination of

responsibility for providing and installing the flashing had not been agreed upon by

either party. The contract documents were flawed, in that the bid, as presented by the

subcontractor, had not been signed by officer(s) of the subcontracting entity. As such,

no specific binding agreement had been executed as it pertained to the requirement for

flashing (RQ2). The inclusion of a reference to these documents in the model would not

offer a definitive answer to this question.

Owing to the flawed outcome of the installation of the EIFS, it was determined

that the construction management process failed to specifically designate the

responsibility for the installation of the flashing at the subject project (RQ3). Adding to

the failure of the construction management process was the lack of proper supervision

on the part of the General Contractor. Without a proper scope of work being stated in

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the contract and agreed upon, it cannot be stated that the EIFS subcontractor failed to

comply with the scope of work (RQ4).

BIM-related software contains the ability to embed information pertinent to the

project other than graphical representation of components and/or assemblies. The

model (Figure 4-1 thru 4-6) as analyzed contained a properties menu that would allow

for the inclusion of construction schedules (4D) and a schedule of values (5D) that

would have provided information that would alert bidders, field supervision personnel,

and project management personnel that the installation of flashing was a task/activity

that must be completed within a certain phase of the construction (RA2, RA3).

Other pertinent project information such as instructions to bidders, scope of work,

and answered RFI’s could be embedded within the model, accessible through the

properties menu, for use by all parties to the project. As the majority of field personnel

would not be an office setting on a regular basis, the models, including this type of

information, could be accessed through electronic tablets and/or mobile devices while

still on the job site (RA4, RA5).

The 3D model (Figure 4-1 thru 4-6) included a global perspective of the project

as well as detailed floor plans. The floor plans included sufficient detail for rough

carpentry layout and construction as would normally be found on two-dimensional

drawings. Typically, two-dimensional drawings have the ability to depict components

such as flashing. With adequate knowledge of the building code(s), building envelope

design, and water infiltration mitigation knowledge, the modeler and the modeling

software could have embedded a section/drawing with sufficient detail to call attention

to the need for flashing at the fenestrations (RA6).

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The 3D model (Figure 4-1 thru 4-6) as presented, offered no more ability to

interpret the intentions of the designer than two-dimensional drawings. As such, it

should be stated that the use of parametric modeling at this Level of Development

offered no advantage over conventional two-dimensional drawings, and therefore would

not be considered an efficient expenditure of time or financial resources (RA7, RA8).

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Church Floor Water Accumulation

This case study focused on issues associated with an Athletic type sports floor

located within a Family Life Center (FLC) on the campus of a Church.

The plans as prepared by the Architect of Record (AOR) called for the finish floor

elevation of the FLC to be the same as the finish floor elevation of the main sanctuary.

Due to unknown influences, the finish floor elevation of the FLC was constructed

approximately three feet (3’) lower than the specified elevation. As a result, the finish

floor elevation of the FLC was near the 500 year flood line, exposing the finish floor to

excessive water/moisture accumulation.

The construction drawings were prepared in their entirety by an architect, with no

evidence that a civil engineering professional was involved in the preparation of the

civil/site plans. Additionally, there were no specific plans for the finish grading adjacent

to the perimeter of the building. As a result, the finish grade was flat with no apparent

slope to allow for drainage of storm water away from the building.


Church (Owner)

General Contractor

Research Questions Related to This Case Study

RQ1. Did the absence of a civil engineering professional affect the final product of the AOR?

RQ2. Was the AOR qualified to perform engineering tasks on this project?

RQ3. What issues were created by constructing the finish floor elevation in a non-conforming manner?

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RQ4. What issues could have been avoided by complying with the construction drawings in regards to the finish floor elevation of the FLC?

RQ5. Did the plan review process include verification of the AOR’s qualifications? (State Licensure, Continuing Education requirements, etc.)

RQ6. Would an inspection of the project under construction have discovered the discrepancy between the specified and as-built finish floor elevations?

RQ7. If a 4D model supplement had been included in the Federated Model, would the construction tasks/durations been adequately detailed so as to allow for a proper review and evaluation of the construction schedule as it related to site preparation (e.g. building pad construction)?

RQ8. If a 5D model supplement had been included in the Federated Model, would the inclusion/absence of funds for site preparation have been discovered so as to afford a modification/change order?

Research Approach

1. Created a 3D model of the FLC;

2. Created a 4D model supplement encompassing a construction schedule;

3. Created a 5D model supplement that includes a schedule of values Data analysis coordinating with the construction schedule;

4. Identified points in the construction schedule and/or schedule of values where the task durations and the schedule of values would have included appropriate resources for the construction of the building pad.

Research Analysis

RA1. Did the 3D model include civil drawings?

RA2. If civil drawings were a part of the 3D model, did the model show the building pad and correct elevations of such?

RA4. If the 4D component of the model were structured to include the elements as shown in the 3D model, did it include task(s) for constructing the building pad?

RA5. If the 5D component of the model were structured to include the elements as shown in the 4D model, did it include a schedule of values for constructing the building pad?

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Case Analysis

The Family Life Center (FLC) at the Church was experiencing problems with the

specialty sports floor membrane that had been installed as part of the new construction.

The floor covering membrane was delaminating, which led to ripples, bubbling, and

bunching of the membrane materials.

A preliminary investigation showed that the finish floor level (FFL) of the FLC was

constructed at an elevation that was lower than what was specified on the construction

documents. The design called for the FFL of the FLC to be the same as the FFL of the

main Sanctuary and administration areas. The manifestation of this error in construction

was a build-up of water in the soil underneath the FLC and significant effects of water

ponding around the entire periphery of the FLC.

The FLC was modeled, based on actual design drawings, to show both the

original design and the as-built condition. Contained within this model were the following

sheets:

3D model of the Church campus as designed (Figure 5-1)

3D model of the Church campus as built (Figure 5-2)

3D model of the Church campus camera view (Figure 5-3)

East elevation as designed (Figure 5-4)

West elevation as built (Figure 5-5)

Screenshot of 3D modeling screen (Figure 5-6)

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Figure 5-1. Church campus as designed

Figure 5-2. Church campus as-built

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Figure 5-3. Church campus camera view

Figure 5-4. Church FLC east elevation as designed

Figure 5-5. Church FLC west elevation as designed

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Figure 5-6. Screenshot of 3D modeling screen Church Facility

3D View Analysis

The 3D model view as shown in Figure 5-1 offers an overall descriptive view of

the entire Church facility. Within that view, contour lines have been placed by the

modeler based on information that was contained within the 2D drawings that were

provided. As such, reliance on these contour lines would be suspect, at best. In order to

provide accurate representation(s) of the topography surrounding the facility, a proper

site plan that contains accurate information as gathered by a Registered Surveyor is

required.

While the topography at the project site somewhat contributes to the issue as

discovered, proper interpretation and execution of detailed models is required by the

constructor. Figure 5-2, a 3D model of the Church campus as-built offers no more

descriptive information than was contained in Figure 5-1, the as-designed 3D model.

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Figure 5-3, a 3D model Camera View contains contour lines that offer some

insight as to the laminar flow of incident storm water that would drain toward the FLC.

However, the parking lot which is situated to the rear of the Sanctuary is not modeled,

rendering this view unreliable for accurate placement of the FFL of the FLC.

Elevation Sheet Analysis

Figures 5-4 and 5-5 contain valuable information concerning the FFL of both the

Main Sanctuary and the FLC. The FFL of both buildings is called out as part of the

modeling process along with the plate lines of both the Main Sanctuary and the FLC.

This type of construction drawing sheet is typically what a constructor would depend

upon to set elevations for finish floors, laminar flow drainage systems, and building pad

construction.

Figure 5-6 possesses the ability to exhibit descriptive information other than

graphics, e.g. building elevations. This information is contained within the contents of

the properties menu located on the left side of the modeling screen. Information of this

type would include detailed construction activities (4D), and financial information such

as a schedule of values (5D), both of which would be generated by project management

personnel during the collaborative design process. If the design process was not

collaborative, an intentional addition of 4D and 5D information would provide essential

project information to tradesman working on the project.

Research Analysis and Results Questions Responses

Typically, a project of this size and scope could be designed by an architect with

no sub-consultants. If the architecture firm possesses the capabilities in-house to

perform all of the necessary design functions, the site work, including drainage, storm

water retention, hardscaping, and landscaping, the services of a civil engineer are

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unnecessary. In the absence of the aforesaid skills, problems such as were

encountered on the FLC will arise and pose a threat to the integrity of the project design

(RQ1).

In the matter of the FLC, the AOR did not present a design that included proper

drainage, drainage calculations, or specific topographical design features. Design of the

site, by default, was completed by the General Contractor on the project. The final

grading, sloping, and sculpting of the soil adjacent to the FLC did not allow for the storm

water to flow away from the foundation of the FLC, resulting in ponding. As such, the

AOR was not qualified to perform engineering tasks on this project (RQ2).

The General Contractor became the de-facto designer when the decision was

made to lower the FFL of the FLC. In doing so, the ability to properly drain the incident

storm water away from the building was compromised. The IBC dictates the minimum

amount of slope of the surrounding grade away from a building. The surrounding insitu

soil exhibited characteristics that were dependent on the FFL of the building being set

so that incident storm water would drain away from the concrete slab on grade of the

FLC. With the FFL set as it was, approximately three feet lower than design, all incident

storm water pooled around the perimeter of the FLC, causing the water to migrate

through the concrete slab on grade, thereby compromising the ability of the finish floor

to properly adhere to the concrete slab on grade (RQ3, RQ4).

The plans, as reviewed in the investigation process, did not exhibit a seal or

stamp of a registered design professional. The application of a stamp or seal of a

currently registered design professional would have indicated that the designer had met

at least the minimum requirements of the State in which the designer was practicing.

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This provides verification of the qualifications of the design professional to a planning

and zoning department plan review official. In regards to the implementation of BIM,

only if the AOR had applied a stamp or seal to the drawings would it appear in the

model. Modeling software is not dependent on this requirement to properly display the

characteristics of a construction project (RQ5).

With a properly generated model that included notes and callouts for FFL’s, and

in the presence of a qualified building inspector, an elevation inspection/certificate

would have discovered the variance from the construction drawings as it pertained to

the construction of the concrete slab on grade, thereby preventing the issues

encountered on this project (RQ6).

Had the model contained 4D and 5D elements such as a construction schedule

(including a milestone for FFL elevation certification) and a schedule of values

(specifying amounts to be paid for certain tasks), qualified project management

personnel could have discovered the variance from the plans of the as-built situation.

While this would have taken place, more likely than not at the completion of the

construction of the slab on grade, the corrective action would have been less costly than

the corrective action required for the lower than specified concrete slab on grade (RQ7,

RQ8).

The 3D model(s) of the Church project were generated utilizing existing two-

dimensional drawings as the basis of the models. These two-dimensional drawings did

not include separate civil drawings, and as such no effort to create civil drawings was

undertaken (RA1). While no indication of the FFL of the FLC was included on the 3D

model, the FFL of the concrete slab on grade could have been included within a key

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plan drawing or on the floor plan drawing in the 3D model (RA2).

In an effort to show what was included in the two-dimensional drawings, no 4D

or 5D elements were included. This was completed in this manner to demonstrate the

inability of two-dimensional drawings to include vital information such as construction

schedules, schedule of values, RFI’s, and comprehensive construction specifications

(RA3, RA4).

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Hospital Mechanical Systems

This case study focused on two issues that are common to any commercial

construction project: proper bid procedures and MEP coordination. This project was

undertaken by a prominent commercial builder that was in the genesis of incorporating

BIM into its standard operating procedure. A BIM execution plan (BEP) was prepared in

advance of the bidding process so as to outline the requirements of each of the parties

to the contract. One of the requirements as listed in the BEP was the attendance and

participation in BIM coordination meetings by the subcontractors, as they were required

to contribute to the generation of the 3D model as it related to their scope of work

(SOW).

As the project progressed, the MEP subcontractor (sub) realized that they had

not adequately accounted for the number of coordination meetings that would be

required during the course of the project, nor had they accounted for the associated

costs associated with preparing the 3D model to the level of development (LOD) that

would be required to properly detect clashes within their MEP systems as well as other

elements of the building. Due to the vast amount of MEP system components, in

additional to the medical system components required in a facility of this type, major

expenditures of time and resources were required to facilitate properly installed and

functioning MEP and medical systems.


Construction Manager

MEP subcontractor

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Research Questions Related to this Case Study

RQ1. What was the level of detail required of each of the parties to the contract in utilizing the BIM process/3D modeling?

RQ2. Was there a standard amount of meetings or coordination hours (hours or meetings/square foot, story, hospital bed) at the time of the request for quotes?

RQ3. Did the contract between the CM and the MEP subcontractor require the designation of a model manager/coordinator for the preparation of the model elements as contributed by the subcontractor?

RQ4. Would a properly prepared 3D model, as generated by the subcontractor and managed by the designated Federated Model Manager have prevented the clashes as discovered during the construction process, given the required LOD.

Research Approach

1. Constructed a 3D model of selected portions of the construction project at LOD 3 and LOD 4;

2. Performed clash detection operations in an effort to discover clashes between the MEP, medical gas systems, and the structural frame of the selected portion of the project;

3. Reviewed the BEP as prepared by the CM;

4. Reviewed the RFQ’s as distributed by the CM;

5. Reviewed the proposal as submitted by the subcontractor.

Research Analysis

RA1. Was a LOD 3 and/or LOD 4 model appropriate for a project of this magnitude?

RA2. Did the RFQ as distributed by the CM properly describe the requirements of each party to the contract in regards to the utilization of the BIM process and 3D modeling?

RA3. How did the RFQ as distributed by the CM conform or differ from the normal RFQ for large commercial projects?

RA4. Did the CM have a duty to advise their bidders as to the proper method of assembling their respective bid packages?

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Case Analysis

The Hospital project (project) was a project that had a budget for design and

construction of $75,000,000. The CM, was charged with implementing BIM into the

design and construction, utilizing a BIM Execution Plan that was prepared with the

assistance of the Facilities Engineering Department of the Owner.

Each subcontractor was contractually obligated to contribute to a central, or

Federated Model, with the CM designated as the model manager. As such, the CM was

responsible for ensuring compliance by all subcontractors and suppliers as it pertained

to the requirements of the RFQ’s. The major MEP subcontractor filed a claim for

additional compensation based on their allegation that they were not aware of the need

for BIM coordination meetings during the design and construction process. As a result

of the numerous clashes encountered by the subcontractor, the project fell behind

schedule with other subcontractors filing claims for additional compensation based on

delays caused by the subcontractor.

The project was modeled to show architectural, structural, and MEP systems as

contained in the 2D drawings originally developed during the collaborative design effort.

At that point, clash detection was conducted utilizing the Navisworks clash detection

program.

The project was modeled in Revit for architectural, structural, and MEP

considerations. For clash detection purposes, these models were utilized within the

Navisworks platform. Utilizing the report function of Navisworks, a clash detection report

was generated for one level (floor) of the project.

The following models, based on actual design drawings of the facility were

utilized in the analysis of this case study:

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3D model of the project (Figure 6-1)

3D model of the structural system (Figure 6-2)

3D model, MEP, one section of one floor (level) of the project (Figure 6-3)

3D clash detection example, structural vs. mechanical systems (Figure 6-4)

Clash Summary (Figure 6-5)

Figure 6-1. 3D model Hospital mechanical systems

Figure 6-2. Structural 3D model Hospital mechanical systems

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Figure 6-3. 3D model one section of one floor of the Hospital mechanical systems

Figure 6-4. Example of structural/HVAC clash Hospital mechanical systems

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Figure 6-5. Clash summary Hospital mechanical systems

3D View Analysis

The perspectives shown in the 3D models offered insight as to the complexity of

the project. Figures 6-2 and 6-3 were modeled using 2D drawings as an information

repository of the actual design as generated by the project team. As these would have

been modeled during the design effort, it is conceivable that the complexity of the

architectural/structural and the structural/mechanical would not have been known to its

fullest extent at the time that the subcontractor prepared and submitted a bid for their

portion of the work on the project.

Clash Detection Analysis

During the course of modeling one section of one floor of the project, in excess of

3800 clashes were generated and detected utilizing Navisworks. Again, the clashes

being generated after the bidding process would not have led to a reliable benchmark

upon which to base a proposal.

The clash summary (Figure 6-5) lists a total number of clashes that would require

attention by the subcontractor at 203. As the MEP model (Figure 6-3) represented

approximately five percent (5%) of the total area of the project, direct extrapolation

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would lead to a total number of clashes in excess of 4,000. Utilizing comparable models

of similar projects would have provided a level of knowledge upon which to base a

proposal for the MEP work required on the project.


The contract between the CM and the subcontractor was not specific in outlining

the requirements for the implementation of BIM for the project. In order to establish the

expected levels of performance by all parties, certain procedures and standards related

to BIM must be included and enforced as a part of the design and construction

contracts. These include Level of Detail (LOD), number of BIM coordination meetings or

a minimum number of hours to collaborate with the other team members, and the

designation of one person or entity as the Federated Model Manager. It was discovered

that none of these three standards were included in the contract, which ultimately

proved to be the downfall of the relationship between the CM and the subcontractor

(RQ1, RQ2, RQ3, RA2).

To say that a properly prepared and managed 3D, 4D, or 5D model would have

prevented the issues and clashes that arose on this project would be presumptuous. As

in any design and construction project, the outcome of the project is entirely dependent

on the experience, knowledge base, level(s) of experience of the project personnel, and

the amount of time expended in designing and constructing the project. However, the

use of a clash detection software program coupled with the 3D model would have

allowed the designers to detect the clashes prior to the commencement of construction.

No software program or project management team possesses the ability to detect and

prevent all clashes within the confines of a design. While that may be the intent of the

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clash detection software and the design team, contingencies must be included in the

project planning to address these issues as they arise during the course of design and

construction (RQ4).

For this type and magnitude of a project, a Level of Development (LOD) of 300

would be the minimum that would be acceptable. At this LOD, all of the information

necessary to design and install the MEP system components would have been included

on the model. Without this requirement being stated in the RFP or the contract, differing

LOD’s were utilized to the detriment of the design and construction process (RA1).

RFP’s for this type of project are typically very specific concerning what must be

addressed in the proposal as submitted by a subcontractor. Adding to that, “Instructions

to Bidders” outline items such as bid due date, addenda, site inspection visits, payment

terms, type of project delivery (lump sum, cost plus, unit pricing, design-bid-build,

design-build), and any required participation in the design process, such as the

implementation of BIM. The RFP, as issued by the CM, was vague in its wording,

without specific directions (instructions) to bidders as to the level of involvement in the

BIM process, other than stating that the use of BIM was required as a condition of

subcontract award (RA3). Proper pre-construction management of this project, and the

assignment of a qualified design/construction team would have proven beneficial in

mitigating the issues as encountered on this project (RA4). Where is partial image of

instructions to bidders!!!

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Cement Silo Collapse

This case was centered on the collapse of a large cement silo. As a direct result

of this event, a factory worker was killed, with the remains being recovered twenty-eight

days later. The accident was first investigated by the Mine Safety & Health

Administration (MSHA) which published its findings and recommendations in regards to

the owner of the factory as well as civil penalties.


Plaintiff

Owner

Process Piping subcontractor


RQ1. Did the original design of the cement silo roof contribute to the failure?

RQ2. If found to be true, would allegations of improper maintenance on the part of the Owner have contributed to the failure of the silo roof?

RQ3. Was the design of the support beams assembly correct?

RQ4. How could 3D scanning have served to prevent this incident?

Research Approach

1. Generated 3D model of the cement silo in connection with this incident;

2. Within the 3D model of the cement silo, detailed the following:

a) Silo roof support beams;

b) Silo roof lateral bracing between roof support beams;

c) Silo roof metal decking;

d) Beam pockets for support beams;

e) Beam extension modifications;

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Research Analysis

RA1. Was the “slip form” method of construction necessary?

RA2. Would utilizing full length beams have been more efficient during the construction process?

RA3. Would utilizing full length beams have prevented the failure of the silo roof assembly?

RA4. How did the lack of lateral bracing contribute to the failure of the silo roof?

RA5. Would the use of a 3D model have allowed for sufficient detail in depicting lateral bracing in the silo roof assembly?

RA6. How would the use of a 3D scan assist in the management of the silo, more particularly in the silo roof assembly?

Case Analysis

This case study involved a cement silo that was owned by a multinational

materials manufacturer. A plant employee was working on top of one of the silos when

the roof deck collapsed, entrapping the employee in cement powder, resulting in the

death of the employee.

Investigation revealed that the support structure for the silo roof contained design

and construction defects that were the cause of the collapse. Those defects were as

follows:

Lack of lateral bracing between the support beams

Incorrectly fabricated beam pockets in the silo walls

Dependency on puddle welds in the metal roof decking to provide lateral stability of the support beams

Failure to account for a live load due to the collapse of cement product within the silo, which caused an uplift on the silo roof structure

Failure to conduct a survey of the existing conditions of the silo(s) prior to the addition of larger process piping The following models, based on actual design drawings of the facility were


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3D model of the silos as-built (Figure 7-1)

2D view of the support beam layout (Figure 7-2)

2D view of the beam pocket/beam assembly (Figure 7-3)

Figure 7-1. 3D model cement silo collapse

Figure 7-2. Silo roof deck framing plan cement silo collapse

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Figure 7-3. Beam pocket/beam assembly for cement silo collapse

3D View Analysis

The 3D model as depicted in Figure 7-1 exhibited a typical perspective view of

the silo/support beam configuration. Limited detail, as modeled, was evident for analysis

of the structure or the components of the roof structure. It was evident that some

manner of beam pocket was modeled as a location for the beams to rest. Further detail

of the support beams, beam pockets, and means of attachment would be necessary for

the model to offer beneficial information in regards to the construction of the silo roof

assembly.

2D View Analysis

Figure 7-2, 2D view of the Support Beam Layout begins to offer details of the roof

support assembly. Beam designations, along with the designation(s) of the C-channels

that were utilized for beam bearing points are exhibited in this view. A description of the

means of attachment of the metal decking to the support beams was included, as well

as a general note regarding the thickness of non-shrink structural grout that was to

support the ends of the support beams. No details of the beam pockets were included

on this view that would describe the size of the beam pocket, adjacent steel

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reinforcement, or the means of attachment of the beam to the silo/beam pocket. As

such, this view proves to be of no benefit in preventing the incident.

Figure 7-3 contains only general information regarding the fabrication of the

beam pockets and the configuration of the beams within the silo. Typically, these views

would include callouts of additional sections, details and possibly reference(s) to an

erection plan for the support beams. The use of a 3D model would allow design and

construction personnel to readily view perspectives of the assembly, cut sections of the

model, and study the relationship of the various components of the silo roof

structure/assembly.


The original design of the silo roof deck assembly was flawed, in that three major

issues were detected during the investigation of this case study. The substructure

beams possessed no means for lateral bracing/load sharing among the adjacent

beams. The metal decking that was situated on the top of the beams was attached to

the top of the beams by “puddle welding”, a process that only serves to provide a

temporary means of attachment to the beams. Additionally, the beams were designed to

be utilized as a slip form type of platform that was utilized as a work surface during the

casting of the reinforced silo walls. When the work platform (silo roof substructure)

reached the top of the silo, “C” channels were attached to the ends of the beams to

lengthen the beams to a point where they would rest in beam pockets, located around

the periphery of the silo. These are not accepted means of designing and constructing

substructures that are expected to support in excess of 12” of concrete cover. As such,

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the original design of the roof structure was a major contributor to the collapse (RQ1,

RQ3).

The investigation revealed that the roof structure had experienced repeated

instances of unanticipated uplift loading due to the collapse of product contained within

the cement silo. As this would occur, the uplift load would act to separate the metal roof

decking from the top of the support beams, thereby allowing cement powder to build up

between the metal decking and the top of the beams. This created a mechanism to

promote the failure of the puddle weld, removing any lateral support of the beams which

may have been provided unintentionally by the metal decking/puddle weld arrangement.

The Owner of the facility performed only perfunctory, required maintenance tasks

on the silo in an effort to avoid citations from the regulatory agencies with oversight on

the industry. This fact, coupled with the effects of the unintended uplift loading on the

roof assembly was a direct causation of the silo roof collapse (RQ2).

The utilization of a 3D scanning process would have mapped the current state of

the silo roof structure. It is doubtful that the buildup of the cement powder between the

metal decking and the support beams could have been quantified (i.e. thickness),

although an anomaly would have been apparent in the display of the 3D scan. The

discovery of this anomaly should have led the Owner to instigate further investigation to

determine the reason for the separation between the metal roof decking and the support

beams (RQ4).

The use of the term “slip form” for this project takes into consideration that the

support beams ultimately utilized for the substructure of the roof assembly were a

component of a work platform that was elevated to match the height of the silo walls as

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they were cast. However, this method of construction operations, converted into a

permanent component of the silo roof assembly, proved to be a contributor to the

collapse of the roof assembly. Other forms of elevated work platforms existed at the

time of the original construction of the silo which would have been removed from the

site at the completion of the construction (RA1).

As the support beams utilized in the work platform were shorter than the needed

length to allow direct bearing within the beam pockets, modifications were necessary to

incorporate the beams into the final silo roof assembly. This was accomplished

(incorrectly) by adding “C” channels to both sides of each end of the support beams

(Figure 7-3). The use of the C channels was not accounted for in the design of the

beam pockets cast into the top of the silo walls (Figure 7-1). This led to the installation

of excessive amounts (thickness) of non-shrink structural grout as a bearing surface for

the C channels. While not being considered in the short term as being more efficient,

the use of the beams as designed and constructed led to increased fabrication and

installation cost at the time of construction. In hindsight, the chosen method of design

and installation was not the most efficient use of materials and time (RA2). To state that

the use of full-length support beams would alone have prevented the collapse of the

roof would be incorrect. The collapse was a result of multiple design and construction

errors (RA3).

Without proper lateral support/bracing between support beams, an increasing

load can cause the beam to move out of its’ intended plane of utilization. The load

carrying capacity of a beam decreases until the point of failure. The minimal lateral

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bracing imparted to the roof support beams led directly to the failure of the roof

assembly (RA4).

Figures 7-1 and 7-3 clearly shows the components utilized for the silo roof

assembly. For this research, the components were not detailed to a level that would

have allowed for fabrication and installation of said components. To adequately exhibit

the components for fabrication would have required that the LOD of the model be no

less than LOD 300. The 3D modeling software utilized for the generation of the subject

models contained the ability to provide LOD 300 (RA5).

Proper utilization of a 3D scanner for maintenance purposes would require the

establishment of a baseline model of the cement silo. At the completion of an initial

scan, anomalies could be documented, addressed, and relegated to project files as a

basis of comparison for future scans. Access to the interior of the silo would require that

an access opening be provided in order to lower a 3D scanner into the silo to conduct

scans of the roof structure, sidewall conditions, and to document product levels and

configuration (RA6).

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Wholesale Produce Market

This case study focused on the Standard of Care for Architectural practice. The

particular building in the case study served as a distribution center for wholesale

produce, beef, and frozen fruit juices. Allegations were made that the Architect of

Record (AOR) did not adhere to the standard of care for architectural practice by failing

to specify a proper floor finish for the interior of the facility.

In the design of the buildings, more particularly the floor surfaces, the IBC 2006

required that all floor surfaces encompassing the means of egress were to be designed

and constructed as “slip-resistant”. As there are standards that offer a definition of slip-

resistant, this case study will not address that in particular.


Plaintiff

Architect of Record

Research Questions related to this Case Study

RQ1. Was the area in which the incident took place considered to be within the means of egress?

RQ2. Should the area in which the incident took place have been designated as either:

a) Not within the means of egress?

b) A storage area?

c) Limited access?

RQ3. Was the Architect adhering to the Standard of Care in the design of the floor surface(s) as contained within the construction documents?

Research Approach

1. Created a 3D model of the facility;

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2. Created a finish schedule for the relevant interior surfaces of the subject facility;

3. Compared the finish schedule of the interior surfaces to the relevant IBC code requirements;

4. Created a detail of the subject storage area showing its’ location relative to the closest means of egress, with relevant occupancy utilization for each.

Research Analysis

RA1. Would the 3D model have the ability to exhibit sufficient detail in regards to interior finishes?

RA2. Does the 3D modeling software have the ability to associate any type of reminder/red flag as it might relate to code requirements for interior surface finishes?

RA3. Does the 3D modeling software have the ability to cross-reference applicable building codes when modeling final-draft and/or issued for construction models/plans?

Case Analysis

This case study was focused on the floor finish of a large wholesale produce

market. An employee of the market was working in a storage bay, transferring product

from wooden pallets to a fork truck. As the floor finish in the storage bay did not meet

applicable ASTM standards, the worker slipped and fell, incurring personal injury.

As the sole source of recovery for the worker was workmen’s compensation, a

personal injury lawsuit was instigated against the AOR. Plaintiff argued that the AOR

failed to meet the standard of care in the design of the produce market.

While there are other factors that contributed to the storage bay floor surface not

having a non-slip surface, the study was limited to how BIM related models could have

ensured that measures were taken to include the installation of non-slip flooring

surfaces in the subject area(s).



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3D model of the facility (Figure 8-1)

Screenshot of the 3D model that exhibited the ability to include information such as room and floor finish schedules and construction schedule information (4D) (Figure 8-2)

Screenshot of the 3D model showing room and floor finish schedule (Figure 8-3)

Room and floor finish schedule (Figure 8-4)

Figure 8-1. 3D model wholesale produce market

Figure 8-2. Screenshot of 3D model wholesale produce market

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Figure 8-3. Screenshot of 3D model finish schedules wholesale produce market

Figure 8-4. Floor finish schedule from model of the wholesale produce market

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3D View Analysis

The 3D view of the facility (Figure 8-1) did not exhibit information that would have

called attention to an inclusion of a non-slip finish on the storage bay floors. However,

the 3D modeling screen (Figures 8-2 and 8-3) contained information via the properties

menu that would have alerted a constructor to the exclusion of a non-slip floor finish in

the storage bay area.

Room and Finish Schedule Analysis

The room and floor finish schedule (Figure 8-4), although contained within the

properties menu of the model, is a customary view of schedules (room finish, door,

window, etc.) that are typically included in construction documents. As such, an

experienced constructor, when exposed to this type of information, would recognize the

need to review and verify the contents of these schedules to ensure proper

fabrication/construction of the project.

Additionally, a construction schedule (4D) and a schedule of values (5D) could be

included as a part of the properties menu so that experienced project management

personnel would take notice of these requirements for incorporation into the project.


A thorough review of the construction drawings as prepared by the Architect

showed that the storage area in which the incident took place was not considered to be

within the pathway of the means of egress (RQ1). As such, per the applicable building

codes in place at the time of the project design, it was not required that the floor surface

contain a slip-resistant surface (RQ2). However, other nationally accepted standards

suggest that floor surfaces contained within a building be of a slip-resistant construction

to mitigate the possibility of slip and fall injuries. Best practice dictates that due to the

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nature of the occupancy of the building, considerations should be taken to provide other

than a smooth finish concrete floor surface in storage area, areas of limited access, and

areas that are not contained in a means of egress. Consideration must be afforded

additional codes that apply specifically to the food storage and distribution industry.

The standard of care for the Architect was to design the facility in accordance

with applicable building codes, food storage and distribution codes, and any applicable

statutes and codes that may have been adopted locally (RQ3).

Any ability of a parametric model to depict the inclusion of a slip-resistant floor

finish would have been contained within a floor plan (notes and legends) and within the

properties menu of the model. Construction schedules (4D), finish schedules, and a

schedule of values containing the application/fabrication of a slip-resistant floor surface

could be embedded into the model, allowing for access to this information by the

designer, constructor, and sub-contractors.

The 3D model of the facility would only be able to detail the slip-resistant floor

surface/finish by utilizing call out leaders, notes and legends. The 4D model contains

the ability to embed room finish schedules, which could list the floor finish surface

texture/type within the properties menu (RA1). General and specific notes with regards

to code or safety matters could be included on a title/specification sheet of the model

(RA2). References to building codes could be embedded into the model within the

properties menu, albeit based on the knowledge and direction of the designer/modeler

(RA3).

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Condominiums

This case study involved the coordination of MEP systems within a multi-family

development located in a large metropolitan area. A shared utility wall contained

elements of different MEP systems that were in close proximity to each other, resulting

in a service entrance cable coming into contact with metallic ventilation ductwork. As a

result of this contact, a fire ensued, severely damaging the condominium building.


Insurance carrier for the Condominium development

Electrical subcontractor


RQ1. Were the MEP components, as designed to be installed within the shared utility walls, in compliance with applicable building codes?

RQ2. Were the MEP components contained within the shared utility wall installed in compliance with applicable building codes?

RQ3. If the as-built drawings as presented to the GC were correct, would they have alerted any party to a non-compliant condition of the installation or design?;

RQ4. Did the 3D modeling software have the capability to automatically provide the proper spacing between the MEP components in the design phase?;

RQ5. Did the 3D modeling software contain the ability to accept digital photographs taken at the completion of the work and compare the contents of those photographs to code requirements?

Research Approach

1. Created a 3D model of the condominium building;

2. Within the 3D model of the condominium building, detail the shared utility wall, as designed;

3. Within the detail of the shared utility wall, incorporate the subject MEP components as found in a forensic investigation of the fire scene;

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4. Created a construction schedule within the model for the MEP tasks associated with the subject systems located within the shared utility wall;

Research Analysis

RA1. Determine the proper clearance, per the applicable building code, of the specified MEP components;

RA2. Compare the relative installed clearances between the subject MEP components;

RA3. Did the modeling software have the ability to create alerts for critical inspections as included on the construction schedule that was part of the model?;

RA4. Did the modeling software have the ability to detect clashes between the components of the MEP system? If so, to what level of accuracy was utilized for the clash detection?

Case Analysis

The investigation involving the condominiums was centered on the causation of a

fire that occurred within a shared wall cavity space. Contained within that space was

electrical service entrance cables, clothes dryer vent piping, potable water and DWV

piping. The electrical service entrance cable was situated against the clothes dryer vent

pipe due to installation means and methods, or lack thereof. Over time, due to

vibrations, thermal expansion and contraction, and the close proximity of the electrical

service cable to the clothes dryer vent pipe, an arc fault occurred that ignited the

combustible building components contained within the shared wall cavity space.



Screenshot of 3D modeling screen showing cut section of condominium unit and properties menu (Figure 9-1)

Building cross-section depicting the location of the shared cavity wall space (Figure 9-2)

Partial condominium floor plan depicting the shared cavity wall space location (Figure 9-3)

Full condominium floor plan depicting the global location of the shared wall cavity space (Figure 9-4)

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Cross-sectional detail of shared cavity wall space (Figure 9-5)

Figure 9-1. Screenshot of 3D model condominiums

Figure 9-2. Screenshot of 3D model building cross-section condominiums

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Figure 9-3. Partial floor plan depicting shared cavity wall space

Figure 9-4. Full floor plan depicting shared wall cavity space

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Figure 9-5. Screenshot of 3D model detail of shared wall cavity space

3D View Analysis

The screenshot of the 3D model view (Figure 9-1) generated from this model

exhibited the multiple advantages of the modeling process that would assist in

preventing the situation that was the causation of the fire event:

Properties menu could contain information such as a construction schedule (4D) that called for an MEP coordination meeting prior to the commencement of the MEP rough installation

Properties menu could contain information such as a milestone on a construction schedule (4D) that could require an inspection of the MEP systems rough-in to ensure proper separation of system components

2D View Analysis

The cross-sectional view of the condominiums (Figure 9-2) shows the global

location/existence of the shared wall cavity space. Contained within the cross-section

view of the building was a callout of the detail of the shared wall cavity space (Figure 9-

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5), and that detail could be utilized to layout the different MEP system components that

would be located there. The detailing of the layout would be the responsibility of the

various subcontractors contributing to the design and generation of a model.

Figures 9-3 and 9-4 (condominium floor plans) contain information that would

make construction management personnel aware of the existence of the shared cavity

wall space. Experienced construction project management personnel know the

importance of MEP coordination, coordination meetings, and the potential for major

clearance issues if this aspect of the project management process is omitted, forgotten,

or marginalized in any way.


The MEP components to be provided and installed (by virtue of the

subcontractor) were not included as a part of the original construction drawings. As

such, a comparison of the design to the applicable codes could not be conducted (RQ1,

RQ2). Correctly prepared as-built drawings should, in the hands of an experienced,

knowledgeable field superintendent, provide an alert or “red flag” for non-compliant

installation practices (RQ3).

As with any software program, the output of parametric modeling software is only

as reliable as the input. Components and assemblies contained within an Imperial

Library are typically configured by the software author or the modeler. Should a modeler

know the required spacing/separation of various system components, an assortment of

typical assemblies could be modeled and included in the Imperial Library for reference

while building a parametric model. Ultimately, the output would be the work product of

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the modeler (RQ4). Photographs of completed work could be included in the model,

embedded within the properties menu, for comparison to code requirements (RQ5).

The applicable code required that the affected MEP components be installed so

as to prevent abrading, crimping, and interference with surrounding components.

Additionally, the applicable electrical code specified a minimum bend radius for the

service entrance cable (RA1). During the investigation, it was discovered that the

service entrance cable was in direct contact with a section of the ventilating system,

more specifically the exhaust ducting for the clothes dryer (RA2). In order to provide an

alert/reminder for a cover-up inspection, a milestone could have been included in a

construction schedule, which in turn could have been embedded in the properties menu

of the 4D model. While not automatic, this information, in the hands of competent

project management personnel, would have served as a reminder of the required cover-

up inspection (RA3).

The use of a clash detection software could have found a clash between the

service entrance cable and the dryer ventilation ducting. As with any software program

designed for clash detection, the ability to detect a clash of this nature would be

dependent on the quality and comprehensiveness of the modeler. Per accepted Levels

of Development, an LOD of 300 would be required to sufficiently model the MEP

systems of this project (RA4).

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Retail Store Renovation

This case study examined the process by which a small commercial retail

location was renovated. During the demolition process, the demolition crew began the

removal of a wall, which at the time was unknown to the crew as a load-bearing wall. As

the crew undertook a piece by piece removal of the wall, the roof assembly exhibited

dramatic deflection. Upon discovering the deflection of the roof assembly the crew

ceased work to allow for an engineering evaluation of the situation.


Owner

Demolition and Framing contractor


RQ1. Are load-bearing walls normally identified as such on “for construction” drawing sets?

RQ2. What type of drawing elements would link dead load components of the building to a particular load supporting structure?

RQ3. Would a 3D model of the building automatically show the results of the removal of a structural element?

RQ4. Does the software have the ability to create an alert for load critical structural elements?

RQ5. Does the software have the ability to identify structural elements of a building as the design is generated?

Research Approach

1. Constructed a 3D model of the subject location; identify the following within the model:

a) Load bearing wall(s);

b) Non-load bearing walls;

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2. Imbedded a pre-construction survey into the model as a 4D component;

3. Identified and located within the model building system components that would affect the load paths within the structural system of the building;

4. Created within the model, if possible, a system of alerts in connection with the removal of structural frame elements;

5. Imbedded a construction schedule that includes the framing modifications; if possible, show milestones within the schedule that call for threshold inspections of the structural frame.

Research Analysis

RA1. Geometry of load bearing components;

RA2. Geometry of structure after removal of load bearing components;

RA3. Adherence to construction schedule;

RA4. Accuracy of pre-construction survey.

Case Analysis

The facility that was being remodeled for use as a retail store experienced a

sudden downward shift in the roof trusses of the facility. As a framing carpentry crew

was demolishing the interior of the facility, the majority of a supporting wall was

removed. Prior to the commencement of demolition operations, the framing crew was

instructed to remove all interior walls, regardless of height, length, position, or

configuration.



3D model retail store (Figure 10-1)

Verizon Retail Store floor plan (Figure 10-2)

Screenshot of 3D modeling screen showing building section (Figure 10-3)

Bearing wall callout from building section drawing (Figure 10-4)

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Figure 10-1. Screenshot of 3D model retail store

Figure 10-2. Floor plan retail store

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Figure 10-3. Screenshot of 3D model building section

Figure 10-4. Bearing wall callout retail store

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3D View Analysis

The 3D view of the facility (Figure 10-1) offered a minimum of definitive detail as

to the existence of an interior supporting wall. While the roof top units (RTU’s) were

shown on the roof of the facility, there is no visual correlation between the RTU’s and

the location of the subject supporting wall.

The properties menu contained information that would alert the user of the model

to the existence of a supporting wall, in that within the Building Sections portion of the

properties list both an AHU bearing wall callout as well as an AHU bearing wall section.

2D View Analysis

The floor plan/3D modeling screen of the facility (Figure 10-2) shows in phantom

lines the locations of the RTU’s, the approximate weight of the AHU’s and the same

notations and references to the existence of a supporting wall in the properties menu

under “Sections”. Additionally, a wall type symbol is connected to the supporting wall,

which would lead the user of the model to refer to a separate wall schedule to determine

the construction of the supporting wall.

The 3D modeling screen (Figure 10-3) that contains the bearing wall section (as

denoted in the properties menu) depicts a cross-section of the facility that includes the

RTU’s, the bearing wall and a further call out of a detail for the bearing wall assembly.

Figure 10-4 (Bearing wall callout) depicts in detail the relative location of the

bearing wall, adjacent interior finish components, and a wall type callout that would refer

the user of the model to a separate wall schedule for construction details of the

supporting wall.

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Construction drawings for a project of this nature do not typically identify

elements of the framework as being load-bearing. As this was a renovation project, best

practice would dictate that some method of alerting framing contractors to the presence

of a component that is critical to the support and rigidity of a structure (RQ1). In this

investigation, RTU’s were discovered to be in place directly above the subject wall.

Critical elements such as this could be identified and called out in a 3D model within a

building section drawing, a detail drawing of any support wall/load relationship, or by the

insertion of notes on the floor plan or in a general note sheet (RQ2).

A typical 3D modeling program does not contain the ability to predict the behavior

of structural systems, and as such, the model is generated based on the input of the

structural designer/engineer (RQ3, RQ5). As the modeling software does not possess

the ability to predict the behavior of structural systems, no system for identifying

structural elements during the process of generating a model is contained with the

software program (RQ5).

The abilities of a parametric modeling program are dependent on the skills,

knowledge base, and experience of the designer/modeler. Additionally, identification of

load-bearing structural elements would be based on a thorough review and analysis of

the project site, existing construction drawings, and an analysis of the existing structural

frame. Experience has shown that compressed construction schedules, behind

schedule construction projects, price-restrictive budgets, and inexperienced personnel

are the causation of a multitude of errors such as was experienced in this project. The

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utilization of a 3D model would not have automatically prevented the issue as

encountered on this project (RA1, RA2, RA3, and RA4)

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CHAPTER 11 RESULTS

As this research has been case study oriented, the results of the research will be

presented separately for each case study. There are results that are common to all of

the case studies and as such, will be discussed in detail as a summarization of the

results. The research questions as originally proposed bear repeating here for

expediency:

Can design errors be eliminated through the use of BIM?

Does BIM offer a universal language that all parties to the contract will understand?

Does BIM provide a means to thoroughly review a project prior to commencement of construction operations?

Can BIM be utilized to discover safety issues associated with a particular project design?

Does 3D modeling offer sufficient detail to convey the intent of the Owner, Designer, and Constructor?

The elimination of design errors is entirely dependent on the expertise,

experience, and the thoroughness of the individuals that comprise the design team.

Adding to that is the time frame in which the design was generated. Was the timeframe

compressed, as compared to what might be considered “normal”, such as in a fast-track

situation? Was the design team under adverse pressure to meet a budget for design

costs? It is issues such as these that determine the “correctness” of a design.

Additionally, what is “correct” design? Owner expectations, compliance with code,

suitability for intended purpose? BIM, and associated modeling software, contain the

ability to capture and exhibit the intentions of the Owner, designer, and constructor. It

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does not contain the ability to completely eliminate errors in building design and

construction that are routinely encountered.

BIM, as stated previously, contains the ability to contain and exhibit the intentions

of the associated parties to a design and construction project. Does BIM offer a

universal language that all parties to a contract will understand? Like any electronic

medium, i.e. software, the parties utilizing the software must have a thorough

understanding of its capabilities and be well-versed in the use of the software. The idea

of being able to understand what is being exhibited by the software is entirely

dependent on the knowledge base of the parties incorporating a particular software

platform, in this case BIM related software such as 3D modeling, clash detection, or fly-

through software programs.

BIM related software does contain the ability to thoroughly review a project prior

to the commencement of construction operations. This is evident in that a skilled user of

BIM related software can view the project from essentially any angle, create a cut

section of the building, increase the level of detail of any particular component in the

building, and “fly through” the complete structure. However, the user must possess a

comprehensive knowledge of design and construction within their particular class of

facility (residential, commercial, industrial) as well as a checklist of the items required to

be in conformance with the construction documents, building codes, and Owner

requirements.

Construction site safety is not an intended utilization of BIM. While BIM and its’

related software can comprehensively exhibit the components, assemblies, and

schedules of a design and construction project, the inherent ability to discover and

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automatically warn of safety issues does not exist. Again, the knowledge base,

experience, skills, and forethought of the project and safety management personnel are

invaluable in predicting and warning of perceived safety issues on a construction

project. As an example, work or space stacking could be predicted and exhibited in BIM

related software, in the form of construction schedules. This would be the product of

skilled project management personnel creating baseline schedules and integrating

these schedules into the 4D and 5D models.

3D modeling, proven herein and in practical use, contains the inherent ability to

convey sufficient detail necessary to meet the expectations of the Owner, Designer, and

Constructor. Once again, the skillset, knowledge base, experience, familiarity with the

project scope of work, and attention to detail by the modeler(s) are the driving factors in

the BIM process (See Table 11-1)

The following is a case by case discussion of the results of the case study

analysis.

Residence Water Infiltration

The issue of the inclusion or exclusion of flashing was based on several key

factors:

Instructions to bidders (or lack thereof)

Knowledge base of the pre-construction process of the developer

Management capabilities of the developer

Management capabilities of the stucco contractor

Level of technical expertise of the stucco contractor

Level of technical expertise of field management personnel It was shown in the developed model that the capability to embed sufficient detail

of window and door flashing exists within current 3D modeling programs. This particular

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model would be classified as a LOD 300. Additionally, the model contained the ability to

embed construction management documents such as construction schedules (4D) and

a schedule of values (5D) that would have contained references to the window and door

flashing(s).

The weak link in the proper design and construction of the Ferris residence was

management skills on the part of the developer. Competent construction management

staff, had they been involved in the modeling aspect of the project, could have

contributed vital information to the model, and/or the Federated model that would have

been available to any of the final users of the model. If information such as this had

been included on the model, field management personnel with basic skills in the use of

3D modeling would have been able to recognize and/or be reminded of the need for the

installation of flashing at the window and door locations.


The 3D model generated for this case study contained sufficient information at a

LOD 300 that would have alerted subcontractors and project management personnel of

the Finish Floor Level of the Family Life Center. The model had the capability of having

construction schedules (4D) and a schedule of values (5D) embedded into the model for

reference by project management personnel and subcontractors. Additionally, the 3D

model had the capability of showing a relative difference in the elevation(s) of the

existing Church facility and the Family Life Center.

In lieu of proper construction management, the model would serve only to

document the physical characteristics of the project. This would be true in any

construction project.

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Hospital MEP Systems

The 3D model as generated for this case study at a LOD 400 contained sufficient

detail to exhibit the complexity associated with the architectural aspects of the building,

the structural system, and the MEP systems. Furthermore, the clash detection program

showed that for an isolated portion of one floor of the multi-story building, in excess of

3,000 clashes were detected.

While the clashes were detected due to the generation of the model, which would

in fact be generated after the awarding of a contract and modeling agreement, it would

be expected that a competent MEP contractor, experienced in the utilization of the BIM

process, would have sufficient knowledge to expect multiple MEP systems clashes. As

such, the amount of time necessary for modeling, clash detection, and BIM coordination

meetings would be taken into account when preparing a proposal for a major project

such as the Children’s Hospital.

Silo Roof Collapse

The model generated for this case study contained sufficient detail at a LOD 400

that would have alerted an experienced, competent structural engineer to the

deficiencies contained in the design of the silo and its’ roof structure. It is imperative to

note here that prior to preparing the design for the addition of the new process piping,

no survey of the existing conditions was performed at the subject facility. Additionally,

the personnel that prepared the original design were not structural engineers, nor did

they possess the necessary skills to evaluate the structure for additions or

modifications. This further strengthens the position that a 3D model or the BIM process

does not ensure the absence of design errors or construction process mismanagement.

The causation of the subject incident was a lack of proper facility management, project

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management, and a faulty original design. A 3D model without proper understanding

and utilization would not have prevented this incident.

In utilizing the model for evaluation purposes, best practice would dictate the use

of a 3D scan to digitally record the condition of the facility and to develop a model at a

LOD 500. A facility such as the cement silo undergoes applications of differing live loads

over time that in this case altered the relationship of adjacent structural components. It

is unknown to what extent or level of detail a 3D scan would have provided in this case.


The 3D model that was generated for this case study exhibited sufficient detail at

a LOD 200 to include multiple callouts that would alert construction management

personnel to the requirement of a non-slip surface within the storage bay area. While

not necessarily a building code requirement, ASTM standards, if made a part of the

project specifications, would dictate the fabrication/installation of a non-slip surface on

both the means of egress paths as well as the storage bays.

It should be noted here that a 3D model, or the BIM process, does not ensure

that certain requirements of a building code or other standard will automatically be

included as a part of a 3D model. Again, the level of experience/expertise on the part of

the modeler and modeling team would lend itself to the inclusion of pertinent information

such as was the case herein. As with any type of construction document, a thorough

review by all members of the project team is necessary to mitigate errors and omissions

on the project construction documents.

Condominiums

The models as generated for this case study contained sufficient detail at a LOD

300 and capabilities such as clash detection that would have allowed for more detailed

125

design and design review to have taken place prior to the commencement of

construction activities. Typically, MEP coordination only takes place in a commercial or

industrial class of project, due to budget considerations. In the relatively risk-free

environment of 3D modeling, issues such as the interference between mechanical and

electrical system components can be detected and corrected with little relative cost.

In the 4D and 5D portions of a model such as this, construction schedules

containing milestones associated with MEP coordination, fabrication and inspection

could be included as reminders of the need for close inspection and verification of the

absence of MEP systems clashes. Again, the need for competent design and

construction personnel is evident.

Retail Store Renovation

The model for this case study was developed to a level that would be considered

LOD 200. This included sufficient information that would have allowed the contractor to

be made aware of the existence of a load bearing wall, without regard to the removal or

non-removal of said wall. While the existing load bearing wall was not detailed, the need

for such did not exist, as this wall was scheduled to be removed as a part of the

renovation process. A model that contained specific details of a modification to the

supporting wall/system would require modeling at LOD 400 to allow for proper pricing

that would include means and methods of completing the structural modifications.

In preparing for the modeling process, a design professional or contractor could

have developed a model to LOD 500, which would have exhibited the load bearing wall

and called it to the attention of the owner and project personnel.

Proper project management, in addition to a model with an appropriate LOD

would have mitigated the issue that was encountered on this project.

126

Finally, an overriding thought that should be taken into consideration for the AEC

community is the idea of competency of the project participants. This does not exclude

the project Owner. While the Owner will typically not be technically trained, it is very

important that owners be familiar with the type of facility that has been commissioned

for design and construction to afford the modeling team insight as to the expectations of

the Owner.

Table 11-1. Case study comparison matrix

Case study AOR/Engineer involvement BIM implemented

Residence water intrusion No No

Church floor water accumulation Yes No

Hospital MEP systems Yes Yes

Cement silo collapse Yes No

Wholesale produce market Yes No

Condominium Yes No

Retail store renovation No No

Case study Site safety injury/death GC/CM involved

Residence water intrusion No Yes

Church floor water accumulation No No

Hospital MEP systems No Yes

Cement silo collapse Yes Yes

Wholesale produce market No Yes

Condominium No Yes

Retail store renovation No No

Case study Water intrusion Property damage description

Residence water intrusion Yes Mold, mildew, wood rot

Church floor water accumulation Yes Delamination of sports floor

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Table 11-1. Continued --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Case Study Water Intrusion Property damage description ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Hospital MEP systems No N/A

Cement silo collapse No Complete collapse of roof deck

Wholesale produce market No N/A

Condominium No Major fire damage

Retail store renovation No Partial structural collapse

______________________________________________________________________

Case study Future use of BIM

Residence water intrusion Flashing/fenestration detailing/construction schedule

and schedule of values utilization

Church floor water accumulation Construction schedule/schedule of values utilization

including milestone for AOR and municipal inspection

Hospital MEP systems Better RFP’s, BIM coordination meetings

Cement silo collapse Facility maintenance/3D scanning with 3D model

review by AOR/Engineer

Wholesale produce market Construction schedule/schedule of values and

depiction of room occupancies/labeling

Condominium Clash detection and resolution; milestones in

construction scheduling for AOR and municipal

inspection

Retail store renovation Detailing and callout of critical structural elements and

review by AOR/Engineer

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CHAPTER 12 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions and Opinions of the Researcher

BIM as a process and 3D modeling are not a cure-all for the issues as identified

and otherwise related to the design and construction of a project. While the drafting of

the construction project can be much faster, and completed at a lower overall cost for

the construction documents, competent design and construction professionals are still a

vital component of the success of the project. The model(s) can only be as effective as

the information that is embedded in them by the modeling team.

The ability of the BIM process to communicate the intent(s) of the project

participants is dependent on the knowledge base of the participants; the level of

expertise of the participants in regards to engineering knowledge; construction means

and methods; and construction management skills. Additionally, utilizing seasoned 3D

modeling personnel to create the models was vital to the effective and efficient

communication of the project elements and assemblies.

BIM software, utilized effectively, meaning the inclusion of all necessary

elements such as floor plans, elevations, fly-throughs, and schedules provides a distinct

advantage over 2D plans in regards to a thorough review and evaluation of a completed

design. This in turn would lend itself to proper work planning and execution. As such,

properly executed, the BIM process provides a means of communicating project

requirements to all associated parties.

Residence Water Intrusion

The issue of the inclusion or exclusion of flashing was based on several key

factors:

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Instructions to bidders (or lack thereof)

Knowledge base of the pre-construction process of the developer

Management capabilities of the developer

Management capabilities of the stucco contractor

Level of technical expertise of the stucco contractor

Level of technical expertise of field management personnel

It was shown in the developed model that the capability to embed sufficient detail

of window and door flashing exists within current 3D modeling programs. This particular

model would be classified as a LOD 300. Additionally, the model contained the ability to

embed construction management documents such as construction schedules (4D) and

a schedule of values (5D) that would have contained references to the window and door

flashing(s).

The weak link in the proper design and construction of the Ferris residence was

management skills on the part of the developer. Competent construction management

staff, had they been involved in the modeling aspect of the project, could have

contributed vital information to the model, and/or the Federated model that would have

been available to any of the final users of the model. If information such as this had

been included in the model, field management personnel with basic skills in the use of

3D modeling would have been able to recognize and/or be reminded of the need for the

installation of flashing at the window and door locations.


The 3D model generated for this case study contained sufficient information at a

LOD 300 that would have alerted subcontractors and project management personnel of

the Finish Floor Level of the Family Life Center. The model had the capability of having

130

construction schedules (4D) and a schedule of values (5D) embedded into the model for

reference by project management personnel and subcontractors. Additionally, the 3D

model had the capability of showing a relative difference in the elevation(s) of the

existing Church facility and the Family Life Center.

In lieu of proper construction management, the model would serve only to

document the physical characteristics of the project. This would be true in any

construction project.

Hospital MEP Systems

The 3D model as generated for this case study at a LOD 400 contained sufficient

detail to exhibit the complexity associated with the architectural aspects of the building,

the structural system, and the MEP systems. Furthermore, the clash detection program

showed that for an isolated portion of one floor of the multi-story building, in excess of

3,000 clashes were detected.

While the clashes were detected due to the generation of the model, which would

in fact be generated after the awarding of a contract and modeling agreement, it would

be expected that a competent MEP contractor, experienced in the utilization of the BIM

process, would have sufficient knowledge to expect multiple MEP systems clashes. As

such, the amount of time necessary for modeling, clash detection, and BIM coordination

meetings would be taken into account when preparing a proposal for a major project

such as the Children’s Hospital.

Silo Roof Collapse

The model generated for this case study contained sufficient detail at a LOD 400

that would have alerted an experienced, competent structural engineer to the

deficiencies contained in the design of the silo and its’ roof structure. It is imperative to

131

note here that prior to preparing the design for the addition of the new process piping,

no survey of the existing conditions was performed at the subject facility. Additionally,

the personnel that prepared the original design were not structural engineers, nor did

they possess the necessary skills to evaluate the structure for additions or

modifications. This further strengthens the position that a 3D model or the BIM process

does not ensure the absence of design errors or construction process mismanagement.

The causation of the subject incident was a lack of proper facility management, project

management, and a faulty original design. A 3D model without proper understanding

and utilization would not have prevented this incident.

In utilizing the model for evaluation purposes, best practice would dictate the use

of a 3D scan to digitally record the condition of the facility and to develop a model at a

LOD 500. A facility such as the cement silo undergoes applications of differing live loads

over time that in this case altered the relationship of adjacent structural components. It

is unknown to what extent or level of detail a 3D scan would have provided in this case.


The 3D model that was generated for this case study exhibited sufficient detail at

a LOD 200 to include multiple callouts that would alert construction management

personnel to the requirement of a non-slip surface within the storage bay area. While

not necessarily a building code requirement, ASTM standards, if made a part of the

project specifications, would dictate the fabrication/installation of a non-slip surface on

both the means of egress paths as well as the storage bays.

It should be noted here that a 3D model, or the BIM process, does not ensure

that certain requirements of a building code or other standard will automatically be

included as a part of a 3D model. Again, the level of experience/expertise on the part of

132

the modeler and modeling team would lend itself to the inclusion of pertinent information

such as was the case herein. As with any type of construction document, a thorough

review by all members of the project team is necessary to mitigate errors and omissions

on the project construction documents.

Condominiums

The models as generated for this case study contained sufficient detail at a LOD

300 and capabilities such as clash detection that would have allowed for more detailed

design and design review to have taken place prior to the commencement of

construction activities. Typically, MEP coordination only takes place in a commercial or

industrial class of project, due to budget considerations. In the relatively risk-free

environment of 3D modeling, issues such as the interference between mechanical and

electrical system components can be detected and corrected with little relative cost.

In the 4D and 5D portions of a model such as this, construction schedules

containing milestones associated with MEP coordination, fabrication and inspection

could be included as reminders of the need for close inspection and verification of the

absence of MEP systems clashes. Again, the need for competent design and

construction personnel is evident.

Retail Store

The model for this case study was developed to a level that would be considered

LOD 200. This included sufficient information that would have allowed the contractor to

be made aware of the existence of a load bearing wall, without regard to the removal or

non-removal of said wall. While the existing load bearing wall was not detailed, the need

for such did not exist, as this wall was scheduled to be removed as a part of the

renovation process. A model that contained specific details of a modification to the

133

supporting wall/system would require modeling at LOD 400 to allow for proper pricing

that would include means and methods of completing the structural modifications.

In preparing for the modeling process, a design professional or contractor could

have developed a model to LOD 500, which would have exhibited the load bearing wall

and called it to the attention of the owner and project personnel. Proper project

management, in addition to a model with an appropriate LOD would have mitigated the

issue that was encountered on this project.

Finally, an overriding thought that should be taken into consideration for the AEC

community is the idea of competency of the project participants. This does not exclude

the project Owner. While the Owner will typically not be technically trained, it is very

important that owners be familiar with the type of facility that has been commissioned

for design and construction to afford the modeling team insight as to the expectations of

the Owner.

Drawbacks

This research was based on actual projects that experienced the issues as

contained herein. As such, the analysis of the said incidents was conducted with an

after-the-fact mindset, slanting the researcher towards identifying problems instead of

preventing problems. Additionally, the bulk of the models were generated by

construction management students that had varying, but limited experience in the field

of design and construction.

The research was conducted over a period of three years. In any field of

endeavor, technology advances with little regard to what has happened. While every

effort was made to utilize the latest versions of the various modeling programs, it is

134

conceivable that improvements in the field of 3D, 4D, and 5D modeling would change

the outcome of portions of this research.

As the population for this research was limited to seven case studies, a statistical

analysis of the results would not provide a definitive representation of the

implementation of BIM either mitigating or preventing the issues as encountered in the

selected case studies.

Recommendations for Future Research

As the focus of this research has been to outline a best practice for the

communication of project information among AEC professionals and owners, specific

findings in regards to BIM related software programs will not be addressed herein.

However, much work is yet to be done in regards to the education and training of those

personnel who are currently active in the field of modeling and/or those who are

considering the field as a career path.

Areas that warrant further examination are as follows:

1. Training/education and certification for model builders

Examine the current state of “model builder” training

Determination of minimum levels of training for model builders

Determination of required training in the area(s) of design and construction for model builders

Examine the feasibility of state or industry certification or registration of model builders

Should model builders be insulated from liability by virtue of employment?

2. Additional licensure requirements for design professionals

Modeling concentration

3. Education for construction management/construction engineering students

135

3D, 4D & 5D courses as a mandatory part of the curriculum

Construction means and methods courses as a mandatory part of the curriculum

Construction scheduling courses as a mandatory part of the curriculum

BIM as part of State licensing requirements (All classifications of contractors)

Additional training/education/practical experience in the bidding process

Exposure to “scope” meetings and negotiations

4. Increased emphasis on composition and technical writing education

Drafting of contracts

Consensus Docs training and familiarization

AIA format contracts

As with any venture, hindsight affords enormous amounts of knowledge. That is

certainly the case with this research project.

More case studies should be conducted that would allow for a statistical analysis

of the results. Limiting the quantity of case studies to seven did not allow for a sufficient

number of samples to conduct a statistical analysis. In addition, a more diverse set of

case studies is required in order for the sample to be more representative.

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APPENDIX A UTILIZATION OF BIM IN THE AEC INDUSTRY

Figure A-1. Question 1 survey statistics

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APPENDIX B RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BEST PRACTICE

Based on the findings of this research, including the Data received through

surveys, interviews, and on the experience of this writer, the implementation and

qualified use of BIM to provide a better product for all of the parties to a design and

construction project is in need of improvement. The areas in need of improvement are

not isolated to any one segment of the AEC community and as such should be

addressed from a Global perspective. Based on the findings of this research, it is

recommended that components of the design and construction process as listed below

be addressed and slated for improvement:

1.0 Project Development

1.1 Owner Education regarding Building Information Modeling

1.2 Design Professional knowledge of Building Information Modeling

1.3 Contractor knowledge of Building Information Modeling

1.4 Costs of Building Information Modeling Implementation

1.5 Decision to imbed 4D & 5D into the Federated Model

2.0 Schematic Design

2.1 Development of the 3D model

2.1.1 Identification of subconsultants

2.2 Development of the Design and Construction Schedule

2.2.1 Design milestones

2.2.2 Construction milestones

2.3 Development of the Conceptual Estimate

2.3.1 Major subassemblies identification

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2.3.2 Identification of possible long lead time items by category

3.0 Design Development

3.1 Refinement of the 3D model

3.1.1 Contractor Selection

3.1.1.2 Subcontractor Selection

3.1.1.2.1 Identification of Modeling Personnel

3.1.1.2.2 Identification of Model Manager

3.1.1.3 Supplier Selection

3.1.2 Owner Involvement/Feedback

3.1.3 Multiple BIM Coordination meetings as necessary

3.1.3.1 Quantification of BIM Coordination meetings poses

difficulties

3.2 Refinement of the Construction Schedule

3.2.1 Alignment of the Construction Schedule (4D) with the

Federated Model Multiple iterations

3.3 Refinement of the Construction Estimate

3.3.1 Alignment of the Construction Estimate (5D) with the

Federated Model Multiple iterations

4.0 Construction Documentation

4.1 3D model

4.1.1 2D floor plans

4.1.2 2D elevations

4.1.3 2D details

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4.1.4 List of Materials

4.2 4D model

4.2.1 Construction Schedule

4.2.1.1 Start Date

4.2.1.2 Construction Phase

4.2.1.3 Tasks

4.2.1.4 Milestones

4.2.1.4.1 Long-lead time material delivery dates

4.2.1.5 Substantial Completion

4.2.1.5.1 Punch list

4.2.1.5.2 Warranties

4.2.1.5.3 As-built drawings

4.2.1.5.4 Temporary Certificate of Occupancy

4.2.1.6 Final Completion

4.2.1.6.1 Certificate of Occupancy

4.2.1.6.2 Final Application for Payment

4.2.1.6.3 Final lien waivers

4.3 5D model

4.3.1 Construction Estimate

4.3.1.1 Cost loading

4.3.1.2 Schedule of Values

4.3.1.3 Unit costs

4.3.1.4 Estimate exclusions

162

4.3.1.5 Estimate clarifications

4.4 Specifications

4.4.1 Contributions by Designer of Record (DOR)

4.4.2 Contributions by Subconsultants

4.4.3 Contributions by Subcontractors

4.4.4 Contributions by Suppliers

4.4.5 Compliance with applicable building codes

The listing of best practices above, while seemingly accepted practice in the AEC

community, are not implemented on a consistent basis in the implementation of BIM.

While it is not in the best financial interest of the contractor for a Project Manager or

Project Executive to build the respective models, a comprehensive review of the model

prior to the commencement of construction would be a wise corporate policy. This

would afford the contractor the opportunity to exploit the expertise and experience of the

senior project management personnel in an effort to comply with corporate best practice

policies (be proactive) in an effort to reduce mistakes, rework items, and cost overruns.

163

APPENDIX C CASE STUDY PHOTOS

Figure C-1. Residence water intrusion location (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

Figure C-2. Church sports floor location (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

164

Figure C-3. Church sports floor (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

Figure C-4. Church sports floor elevation differential (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

165

Figure C-5. Hospital MEP systems location (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

Figure C-6. Cement silo collapse location (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

166

Figure C-7. Cement silo roof support beams (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

Figure C-8. Wholesale produce market location (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

167

Figure C-9. Wholesale produce market interior (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

Figure C-10. Condominium location (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

168

Figure C-11. Condominium vent pipe (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

Figure C-12. Condominium SER cable (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

169

Figure C-13. Retail store location (courtesy of Mark T. Kilgore)

170

APPENDIX D CASE STUDY DOCUMENTS

Figure D-1. Hospital MEP systems coordination drawing

171

Figure D-2. Hospital MEP systems coordination drawing

172

Bulletin No. 1 Date: 28 May 2010 RE: Medical Center Children’s Hospital

Project No. 40461.00 From: To: THIS DOCUMENT IS NOT A CHANGE ORDER OR A CONSTRUCTION CHANGE DIRECTIVE, NOR IS IT A DIRECTION TO PROCEED WITH CHANGES TO THE CONTRACT FOR CONSTRUCTION. THIS DOCUMENT ACTS AS A MEANS OF SUMMARIZING PROPOSED MODIFICATIONS TO THE CONTRACT DOCUMENTS. REFER TO CONTRACT FORMS ISSUED BY THE CONSTRUCTION MANAGER FOR DIRECTION REGARDING CONTRACTUAL STATUS OF THIS DOCUMENT. This Bulletin summarizes proposed modifications to:

The original Construction Documents dated January 29, 2010 All previous Bulletins to the Construction Documents.

The descriptions that follow may be limited to a summary of each change. Descriptions are not comprehensive. The documents listed in each of the item descriptions have been revised and are attached for reference. Refer to both the written narratives and the attachment for the change(s).

1. CHANGES TO SPECIFICATIONS:

1.1. None

2. CHANGES TO DRAWINGS:

2.1. Refer to attached REVISED drawing S2.11 dated 05.28.10:

a. Revised top of pedestal for column C/X. This was previously coordinated in the shop drawing process.

2.2. Refer to attached REVISED drawing S2.12 dated 05.28.10:

a. Detail 9: Revised elevation.

b. Sheet Notes - Added Note 8. This was previously coordinated in the shop drawing process.

c. Added GB1 bearing depth at B.5/5 provided dimensions for pier and added reference to Note 8.

d. Added dimensions for pier at B.5/14 and B.5/13; added reference to Note 8.

e. Revised dimension between 12.5 and 12.

Figure D-3. Hospital MEP systems coordination bulletin

173

Figure D-4. Hospital MEP systems BIM implementation directive

174

LIST OF REFERENCES

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"Project Planning, Delivery and Controls." (2012, June 11). Retrieved October 2, 2012, from Whole Building Design Guide: www.wbdg.org/project/pm.php

American Institute of Architects. (2008). AIA Document E202-2008. "Building Information Modeling Protocol Exhibit." Washington, District of Columbia, United States: The American Institute of Architects.

American Institute of Architects. (2009). The Architecture Student's Handbook of Professional Practice, "Project Delivery". 379-380; 387-391. 14th edition, Wiley, New Jersey.

BIM Education Co-op. (2011) "BIM Emerging as Construction's Legal Standard of Care". For Construction Pros.com, www.forconstructionpros.com

Chan, A, Scott, D., and Chan, A. (2004) "Factors Affecting the Success of a Construction Project". Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 130 (1), 153-155.

DeVries, M. J. (2011, May 23). Communication, Communication, Communication: Lessons from a BIM Lawsuit. Retrieved October 2, 2012, from Best Practices Construction Law: www.bestpracticesconstructionlaw.com

Fosu, R. (2015). "Examining 4D and 5D BIM Software Capabilities." Journal of the National Institute of Building Sciences. 3(6), 18-22.

Hanna, A., Yeutter, M., and Aoun, D. (2014). "State of Practice of Building Information Modeling in the Electrical Construction Industry." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 140 (12), 1-11

Haynes, D. (2009, June). Reflections on Some Legal and Contractual Implications of Building Information Modeling. Retrieved October 2, 2012, from Pepe & Hazard, LLP Construction Watch: www.scribd.com

Hill, C. G. (2011, February 28). BIM and REVIT- The Way to the Future. Retrieved October 2, 2012, from Construction Law Musings: www.constructionlawva.com/bim

International Code Council. (2006). International Residential Code 2006. “Flashing”.§703.8.

http://www.usgnn.com/newsbim

http://www.wbdg.org/project/pm.php

http://www.forconstructionpros.com/

http://www.bestpracticesconstructionlaw.com/

http://www.scribd.com/

http://www.constructionlawva.com/bim

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Kensek, B. B.-G. (2010). Building Information Modeling in Architecture, Engineering and Construction: Emerging Research Directions and Trends. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 139-147.

Kim, H., Anderson, K., Lee, S., and Hildreth, J., (2013) "Generating Construction Schedule through Automatic Data Extraction Using Open BIM Technology." Automation in Construction, (35), 285-295.

Kymmell, W. (2008). Building Information Modeling: Planning and Managing Construction Projects with 4D CAD and Simulations. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Matta, C. (2011, August 7). 3D-4D Building Information Modeling. Retrieved February 13, 2012, from General Services Administration: www.gas.gov/portal/content/105075

Moon, H., Kim, H., Kamat, V., and Kang, L. (2013). "BIM- Based Construction Scheduling Method Using Optimization Theory for Reducing Activity Overlaps." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,140 (3), 1-16.

Nawari, O. (2011). "BIM Standard in Off-Site Construction." Journal of Architectural Engineering, 18(2), 107-113.

Noble, C. (2011). "Can Project Alliancing Agreements Change the Way We Build?" Architectural Record.

Okere, G. (2015). "4D and CPM Scheduling". Journal of the National Institute of Building Sciences, 3(6), 14-16.

Railo, J., (2014) "Assessment of Future Employment and Competency Skill in BIM: A Delphi Study." PhD Dissertation, Indiana State University, Terra Haute, Indiana

Salmon, J. (2001). “BIM Emerging as Construction’s Legal Standard of Care”. For ConstructionPros, http://www.forconstructionpros.com/article. (October 15,

2012).

Scholtenhuis, L., Hartmann, T., and Doree, A. (2015). "Testing the Value of 4D Visualizations for Enhancing Mindfulness in Utility Reconstruction Works." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 0 (0), 1-11.

Zada, A., Tizani, W., and Oti, A. "Building Information Modeling (BIM) - Versioning for collaborative design." Journal of Computing in Civil and Building Engineering, 130 (1), 512-519.

http://www.gas.gov/portal/content/105075

http://www.forconstructionpros.com/article

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Mark T. Kilgore, P.E. was born in Atlanta, Georgia in 1956. He received his

Bachelor of Science in mechanical engineering from Southern Polytechnic State

University in 1992. While earning his Bachelor of Science Degree, he owned and

managed a design-build construction firm, The Kilgore Company, LLC. In 1997 he

received his Master of Science in construction management from Southern Polytechnic

State University.

After selling The Kilgore Company, LLC, he taught construction management at

The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. While at The University of Tennessee at

Chattanooga, he was awarded The Rinker Scholar Fellowship for doctoral studies in the

College of Design, Construction and Planning at the University of Florida.

Prior to commencing his doctoral studies at the University of Florida, he taught

building construction science at Mississippi State University in Starkville, Mississippi.

While completing his doctoral studies, he also received the degree Master of

Engineering, with a major in civil engineering.

Upon completing his residency at the University of Florida, Mr. Kilgore began

working full-time as a Senior Forensic Structural Engineer for a firm located in

Annapolis, Maryland. He completed his Ph.D. from the University of Florida in the

summer of 2016.

Mr. Kilgore’s research interest is in the area of Building Information Modeling

(BIM), focusing on how BIM can be utilized to properly communicate the expectations of

the Owner, Designer, and Constructor while designing, constructing, and managing a

building project.

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