Building construction 1 experiencing construction

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Transcript of Building construction 1 experiencing construction

ContentIntroduction 1.0

1.1 Introduction to Site Pg1

Site Safety2.02.1 Site safety Pg2 (John)2.2 Construction Safety Pg3 (John)

External Works

Foundation

Superstructure

3.03.1 Signage 3.2 Temporary Buildings 3.3 Services and Facilities3.4 Fencing Works3.5 Machineries 3.6 Equipment 3.7 Sewerage works 3.8 Drainage system

4.04.1 Introduction4.2 Foundation Types 4.3 Foundation Laying Process

5.05.1 Beams and columns 5.1.1 Beams 5.1.2 Types 5.1.3 Installation 5.1.4 Connections 5.1.5 Columns 5.1.6 Joints

Roof

5.4 Staircase5.4.1 Introduction5.4.2 Methodology5.4.3 Material Types5.4.4 Installation I5.4.5 Stair Plans5.4.6 Installation II5.4.7 Skirting5.4.8 Finishes5.4.9 Standard Requirements

5.5 Railings5.5.1 Types5.5.2 Methodology5.5.3 Safety Issues

5.6 Floors5.6.1 Introduction5.6.2 Types5.6.3 Concrete Ground Slab5.6.4 Concrete Slab5.6.5 Ground Slab5.6.6 Reinforce Concrete Floor 5.6.7 Material

5.2 Walls5.2.1 Types of masonry5.2.2 Structural Support5.2.3 On-site brick wall5.2.4 Construction Technique

5.3 Ceiling 5.3.1 Introduction5.3.2 Types5.3.3 Jointless ceiling5.3.4 Skim coating5.3.5 Installation

6.06.1 Introduction6.2 Roof Type6.3 Installation6.4 Roof Insulation

Door 7.07.1 Introduction7.2 Type7.3 Subframing7.4 Main Frame7.5 Door Panel & Iron Mongery7.6 Architraves

Window 8.08.1 Introduction8.2 Material8.3 Type8.4 Sub-frame8.5 Installation8.6 GlazingSummary

Pg11 (Victor)Pg11 Pg12-13

Pg14 (Raymond)Pg14 Pg14 Pg15 Pg15 Pg16 Pg16

Pg17 (Jia Jun)Pg18 Pg19 Pg20 Pg21

Pg22 (John)Pg22 Pg22 Pg23 Pg23 Pg24-25

Pg26 (Pui San)Pg26 Pg27Pg28-29 Pg30 Pg31 Pg32 Pg32 Pg33 Pg34

Pg35 (Nianzi)Pg35 Pg36 Pg37

Pg38 (Jit Ying)Pg38 Pg38 Pg38 Pg39 Pg40 Pg41-42 Pg43

Pg44Pg45-46 Pg46 Pg47

Pg48 (Nianzi)Pg48 Pg49 Pg50Pg51Pg52

Pg53 Pg53 Pg54 Pg55 Pg55 Pg55

Pg5 (Jit Ying)Pg5 (Jit Ying)Pg5 (Jit Ying)Pg6 (Jit Ying)Pg6-8 (John)Pg9 (John)Pg10 (Andrew)Pg10 (Andrew)

9.0 Reflection & citationPg56-57

1.0 Introduction 1.1 Introduction to Project

This project requires us, in a group of 9, to select a minimum of one on-going construction site to survey. The site chosen should be a medium rise building with a maximum of 4-storeys level or a low rise building such as a bungalow house, etc. From the site, we are to identify various types of the building elements. Apart from that, we need to observe as well as to record the construction process, the details such as the specification of the materials used, including the diameters, sizes and procedures in constructing the components. In addition to that, we need to analyse and explain on how the construction chosen affect its surroundings.We have decided to survey only one site for this project. This is because the information from the site are enough us to obtain on the processes that occur on the construction site due to the variation of the type of elements, material as well as the process in completing the building.

1.2 Introduction to sites

Kota Puteri is a new township in Selangor, Malaysia. Have 12 Section in this township. Selangor State Development Corporation is the developer for Kota Puteri. Kota Puteri are under the administration of Majlis Perbandaran Selayang. This township is located near Ijok. Kota Puteri also known as Bandar Baru Batu Arang. Kota Puteri located at the east of Kuala Selangor and west of Rawang. It is at the end of the Gombak district and Kuala Selangor district border. In addition, Kota Puteri near Batu Arang, Bandar Tasik Puteri, Ijok, Kampung Bukit Badong, Bestari Jaya and Hutan Simpan Rantau Panjang.The site we visit is the Double storeys townhouse in Kota Puteri, Rawang, Selangor.

The biggest attraction of the townhouse is it consist two storeys respective house for two different families. Such arrangement allows the selling price to be lower than the normal terrace house. Aslo, sprawling a vast 820 acres (approximate value), Kota Puteri is located at the east of Kuala Selangor, close to the town of Ijok. With a master plan of 12 sections, Kota Puteri features a range of homes and commercial space, amongst other amenities such as school, recreational hubs and more.

In the pipeline are elegant homes in a wide 24’ x 45’ built up. In its very own enclave of Kota Puteri within Seksyen 5, these thoughtfully-designed homes are just around the corner from the Kota Puteri Lake. Kota Puteri is developed by Perbadanan Kemajuan Negeri Selangor (PKNS) which has become synonymous with success and growth in the property development sector within Selangor.

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2.0 Site Safety2.1 Site safetyThe Department of Occupations Safety and Health (DOSH) has stipulated roles of 1994 Section 17 “Duties of employers and self-employed to their employees” which contractors are aware to play in promoting safety programs and safe behaviour. They have an obligation to ensure that their workers are not exposed to risks which can affect their safety and health. This role in not only the workers at the place of work but also the public. These roles and regulations are supply to all Construction Sites in Malaysia who cover by the Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, Act 514.

2.1 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Personal protective equipment, commonly referred to as "PPE", is equipment worn to minimize exposure to serious workplace injuries and illnesses. These injuries and illnesses may result from contact with chemical, radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical, or other workplace hazards. Personal protective equipment may include items such as gloves, safety glasses and shoes, earplugs or muffs, hard hats, respirators, or coveralls, vests and full body suits. Equipment worn to minimize exposure to serious workplace injure and illnesses, items such as gloves, safety boots, safety helmet, respirators and vests. All personal protective equipment should fit well and be comfortable to wear. If the personal protective equipment does not fit properly, it can make the difference between being safely covered or dangerously exposed. Safety Helmet

A safety helmet is a type of helmet predominantly used in workplace environments such as industrial or construction sites to protect the head from injury due to falling objects, impact with other objects, debris, rain, and electric shock. Suspension bands inside the helmet spreads the helmet's weight and the force of any impact over the top of the head. A suspension also provides space of approximately 30 mm (1.2 inch) between the helmet's shell and the wearer's head, so that if an object strikes the shell, the impact is less likely to be transmitted directly to the skull. Some helmet shells have a mid-line reinforcement ridge to improve impact resistance.

 Safety Gloves

Safety gloves are hand garments meant for the protection of the wrist, hand, fingers, and thumbs from adverse processes or conditions. These items are virtually limitless in application and find employment in both industrial and commercial marketplaces. Their functionality is determined by the material and design of the glove.Safety BootsSafety boots is a durable boot or shoe that has a protective reinforcement in the toe which protects the foot from falling objects or compression, usually combined with a mid-sole plate to protect against punctures from below. Although traditionally made of steel, the reinforcement can also be made of a composite material, a plastic such as thermoplastic (TPU) or even aluminum. Steel-toe boots are important in the construction industry and in many industrial settings.

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2.2 Construction SafetyConstruction is one of the most dangerous land-based work sectors. The problem is not that the hazards and risks are unknown, it is that they are very difficult to control in a constantly changing work environment.

Hazards

Various workplace safety signs commonly used at construction sites and industrial work environments. Some of the main health hazards on site are asbestos, solvents, noise and manual handing activities.

 Fire Extinguisher

A fire extinguisher, or extinguisher, is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or control small fires, often in emergency situations. It is not intended for use on an out-of-control fire, such as one which has reached the ceiling, endangers the user, or otherwise requires the expertise of a fire department. Typically, a fire extinguisher consists of a hand-held cylindrical pressure containing an agent which can be discharged to extinguish a fire.ABC is the most used and most popular multipurpose powder fire extinguisher for construction sites, can be used on class A (burning solids), B (liquid fires) & C (gases fires).

Temporary Handrail Temporary Handrail do provide temporary handrail leading people go to the site office and prevent people fall from the slope or staircases.

Fencing Temporary fencing prevent people get into the side easily and provide security and safety.

Safety HarnesA safety harness is a form of protective equipment designed to protect a person, animal, or object from injury or damage. The harness is an attachment between a stationary and non-stationary object and is usually fabricated from rope, cable or webbing and locking hardware. Some safety harnesses are used in combination with a shock absorber, which is used to regulate deceleration when the end of the rope is reached. One example would be construction used

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3.0 External Works

LEGEND

Drainage System

Site Office Building

Small Scale Sundry Shop

Temporary Sheds

External works are all the works that are completed before any foundations are laid. External works are all items outside the building footprint but inside the site boundary, encompassing wastewater and surface water drains, supply of utilities (e.g. gas, electricity and cabled services), footpaths, and access for vehicles including car parks and hard standings to be found in the vicinity of buildings.

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 2. Temporary electric supplyElectric power supply is essential to provide site office, temporary sheds and machinery on site to function properly.  

2. Small scale sundry shopIt is set up to provide food and drinks for labourers during their break time so as to accommodate labourers with refreshment conveniently. 

3.2 Temporary Buildings1. Site office buildingSite office buildings are fundamental for smooth-running operations in any industry. Whether permanent or portable, an on-site office portable cabin must be durable and functional in order to accommodate the intricate demands of daily work. At the same time, it needs to be comfortable and inviting for workers and visitors. This is especially important in remote locations where modular transportable offices are places for both working and living through long hours and in unpredictable environments. 

3. Temporary shedsIt is used to organize and store materials besides acting as shelter for the labourers

3. Temporary toiletsTemporary toilets are normally use in construction site as there is limited space and it is as important to provide restroom facilities that are clean, comfortable and convenient to the labourers as it is part of their welfare. The amount of toilet is equivalent to one toilet to seven people.

 3.3 Services and Facilities

 1. Existing water supplySupplying drinking water throughout construction sites is now a requirement from health and safety standards. Some water usage for construction is for site welfare, drilling operations, hydro-demolition and also wheel washing.

3.1 Signage

Safety signs must be used whenever a hazard or danger cannot be avoided adequately or reduced in another way.  Before installing safety signs an employer should examine whether the hazard can be avoided or reduced by collective precautions (precautions that protect everybody) or safer ways of doing the work.

The Regulations cover a variety of methods of communicating health and safety information in addition to the traditional safety sign or signboard.

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3.5 Machineries3.5.1 Backhoe LoaderBackhoe Loader is a piece of excavating equipment or digger consisting of a digging bucket on the end of a two-part articulated arm. They are typically mounted on the back of a tractor or front loader. The section of the arm closest to the vehicle is known as the boom, and the section which carries the bucket is known as the dipper or dipper-stick (the terms ”boom" and ”dipper" having been used previously on steam shovels). The boom is generally attached to the vehicle through a pivot known as the king-post, which allows the arm to slew left and right, usually through a total of around 200 degrees.

3.5.2 Backhoe Excavator

Backhoe Excavator is a heavy construction equopment consisting of a boom, stick, bucket and cab on a rotating platform known as the "house". The house sits atop an undercarriage with tracks or wheels. A cable-operated excavator uses winches and steel ropes to accomplish the movements. They are a natural progression from the steam shovels. and often mistakenly called power shovels. All movement and functions of a hydraulic excavator are accomplished through the use of hydraulic fluid, with hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors. Due to the linear actuation of hydraulic cylinders, their mode of operation is fundamentally different from cable-operated excavators.

Hoarding is a temporary structure of solid construction, erected around the perimeter of construction sites to shield them from view and prevent unauthorised access.

It also minimise disturbances and improve privacy, both for the general public and for workers on site. It must be structurally stable, as it can be exposed to strong wind loads, or impact.

Hoarding is made up of wide range of materials such as steel, timber or plywood which may be re-useable or disposable after a particular construction work is done.

 

Hoarding/Fencing

3.4 Fencing

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 3.5.5 Compactor (Vibratory Roller)

A compactor is a machine or mechanism used to reduce the size of waste material or soil through compaction. A trash compactor is often used by a home or business to reduce the volume of trash. Normally powered by hydraulics, compactors take many shapes and sizes. In landfill sites for example, a large bulldozer with spiked wheels called a landfill compactor is used to drive over waste deposited by waste collection vehicles (WCVs).WCVs themselves incorporate a compacting mechanism which is used to increase the payload of the vehicle and reduce the number of times it has to empty. This usually takes the form of hydraulically powered sliding plates which sweep out the collection hopper and compress the material into what has already been loaded. Different compactors are used in scrap metal processing, the most familiar being the car crusher. Such devices can be of either the "pancake" type, where a scrap automobile is flattened by a huge descending hydraulically powered plate, or the baling press, where the automobile is compressed from several directions until it resembles a large cube.

3.5.3 Bulldozer

A bulldozer is a crawler(continuous tracked tractor) equipped with a substantial metal plate (known as a blade) used to push large quantities of soil, sand, rubble, or other such material during construction or conversion work and typically equipped at the rear with a claw-like device (known as a ripper) to loosen densely compacted materials. Bulldozers can be found on a wide range of sites, mines and quarries, military bases, heavy industry factories, engineering projects and farms. The term "bulldozer" refers only to a tractor (usually tracked) fitted with a dozer blade.

3.5.4 Pile Driver (Crane Mounted Frame – Drop Hammer)

A pile driver is a mechanical device used to drive piles (poles) into soil to provide foundation support for buildings or other structures. The term is also used in reference to members of the construction crew that work with pile-driving rigs. One traditional type of pile driver includes a heavy weight placed between guides so that it is able to freely slide up and down in a single line. It is placed above a pile (pole). The weight is raised, which may involve the use of hydraulics, steam, diesel, or manual labor. When the weight reaches its highest point it is then released and smashes on to the pile in order to drive it into the ground.

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3.5.6 Mobile Crane (Truck Mounted)

A mobile crane is "a cable-controlled crane mounted on crawlers or rubber-tired carriers" or "a hydraulic-powered crane with a telescoping boom mounted on truck-type carriers or as self-propelled models.” They are designed to easily transport to a site and use with different types of load and cargo with little or no setup or assembly.

3.5.7 Truck

Truck is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, with the smallest being mechanically similar to an automobile. Commercial trucks can be very large and powerful, and may be configured to mount specialized equipment, such as in the case of fire trucks and concrete mixers and suction excavators.

3.5.8 Forklifts

A forklift (also called a lift truck, a fork truck, or a forklift truck) is a powered industrial truck used to lift and move materials short distances. The forklift was developed in the early 20th century by various companies including the transmission manufacturing company Clark and the hoist company Yale & Towne Manufacturing.

3.5.9 Concrete Mixing Transport TrucksConcrete Mixing transport trucks are made to transport and mix concrete up to the construction site. They can be charged with dry materials and water, with the mixing occurring during transport. They can also be loaded from a "central mix" plant, with this process the material has already been mixed prior to loading. The concrete mixing transport truck maintains the material's liquid state through agitation, or turning of the drum, until delivery. The interior of the drum on a concrete mixing truck is fitted with a spiral blade.

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3.6 Equipment

Hoist (device)

A hoist is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a drum or lift-wheel around which rope or chain wraps. It may be manually operated, electrically or pneumatically driven and may use chain, fibre or wire rope as its lifting medium. The load is attached to the hoist by means of a lifting hook.

Concrete Drum MixerA concrete mixer (also commonly called a cement mixer) is a device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components. For smaller volume works portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made at the construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens. An alternative to a machine is mixing concrete by hand. This is usually done in a wheelbarrow; however, several companies have recently begun to sell modified tarps for this purpose.

Power Generators

Power Generators is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy for use in an external circuit. The source of mechanical energy may vary widely from a hand crank to an internal combustion engine. Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric.

Circular Electric SawA circular saw is a power-saw using a toothed or abrasive discord blade to cut different materials using a rotary motion spinning around an arbor. Ahold and ring saw also uses a rotary motion but are different from a circular saw. Circular saws may also be loosely used for the blade itself. Circular saws were invented in the late 18th century and were in common use in sawmills in the United States by the middle of the 19th century. A circular saw is a tool for cutting many materials such as wood, masonry, plastic, or metal and may be hand-held or mounted to a machine.

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3.7 Septic Work

A septic tank is a key component of the septic system, the small-scale sewage treatment system common in areas that lack connection to main sewage pipes provided by local governments or private corporations. Other components, generally controlled by local governments, may include pumps, alarms, sand filters. and clarified liquid effluent disposal methods such as a septic drain field,, ponds, natural stone fiber filter plants or peat moss beds. This septic tank is to be used basically by 50 residential houses in the site.

3.8 Drainage System

Drainage system is provided to discharge effectively the sewage of the building into the public sewer. With efficient drainage, waste matter in residential area can be collected and remove systematically. Size of the drain should be sufficient so that they do not over flow at the time of maximum discharge.

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4.0 Foundation

Choosing a kind of foundation depends on:• The ground conditions• The groundwater conditions • The site, the environment (the buildings nearby) • The structure of our building

AdvantagesUsually it is constructed under the ground, so it is out of sight

DisadvantagesIt is expensive and difficult to repairAn bad/ misapplied foundation could demolish the building

4.2 Foundation Types

Strip foundation (Wall footing)

Strip foundations consist of a continuous strip, usually of concrete, formed centrally under load bearing walls. This continuous strip serves as a level base on which the wall is built and is of such a width as is necessary to spread the load on the foundations to an area of subsoil capable of supporting the load without undue compaction.

There are four type of foundation in general, which is strip foundation, pad foundation, grillage foundation and mat foundation. The type of foundation that has used on the site we have chosen was STRIP FOUNDATION.

4.1 IntroductionFoundation is the structure that transmits the load of the building to the soil and it is also the soil layer that has the sufficient load bearing capacity in relation to the chosen foundation type.

Requirements: • Structural requirements: safe, be able to carry the load of the building• Constructional requirements: schedule, minimal resources, minimal cost

The mistakes: • Construction technology mistakes • Planning mistakes: the type of foundation is inadequate for the ground layers / for the building

When is it applicable?

-The load-bearing layer is near to bottom floor level -The loads of the building are light-medium

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4.3 Foundation Laying Process

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3 (CASTING SLAB)

Wood dividers to form the shape of footings, concrete to be poured into the compartment after rebar is being placed.

After concrete is being poured into the compartments.

Every exceeded rebar in the middle of footings’ corner from the ground will be built as pillars.

-Compacted gravel-Moisture barrier-Laying rebar-Pouring concrete

Before rebar is laid, sand, soil, or gravel are required to fill the underneath of concreate densely (fig.1) to minimize the empty space which concrete might not able to reach as well as saving concrete.

There are a few steps of procedures need to be done in order to make a proper and strong foundation. Without these steps, a foundation might not able to withstand the structure properly, which might lead to a lot of defects in the future.

GRAVELGravel is a loose aggregation of pounded stones that has been widely used in construction industry.

Layer Sequence

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Moisture Barrier

Installing a vapor barrier underneath the concrete slabs properly can prevent moisture build-up related issues such as: -Mold and mildew-Delamination in the overlay or sealer-Joint failure-Spalling-Cracking-Deterioration

It is also to help prevent expensive repairs due to moisture damage.

Mechanical & Electrical work (M&E)

All electrical wiring and traps need to install properly before being covered by concrete.

REBAR

After M&E work, rebar will be laid before concrete is poured. It is to strengthen and hold the concrete in tension.

CONCRETE

The final step, mixed concrete will be poured onto the rebar from the concrete mixing machine/truck.

Before this stage is completely done, workers will manually balance the concrete on the surface to make sure the layer below is all covered in every corners and levelling will be done later on to form a concrete foundation.

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5.1 Beams and columns 5.1.1 BeamsA beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment. Beams are characterized by their profile (shape of cross-section), their length, and their material.

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Reinforcing bars extend into and down column support for structural continuity and to develop the required embedment length for anchorage

Grade beamTo transmit the load from a bearing wall into spaced foundations such pile caps and caissons. Used in footing construction when full footing is not necessary.

Reinforced concrete (RC) A concrete beam designed to act together with longitudinal and web reinforcement in resisting applied forces. Cast-in-place concrete beams are almost always formed and placed along with the slab they support. Because a portion of the slab acts as an integral part of the beam, the depth of the beam is measured to the top of the slab. Types: Rectangular, L-shaped, inverted-T

Advantages: High compressive strength and resistance to fire and weatherDisadvantages: Shrinkage causes crack development.

5.1 Beams and columns Overall Analysis5.1.2 TypesSteel Types: S shape, W shape, C shape, structural tubing Wide-flange(W) shapes are commonly used because they are efficient for carrying both bending and shear loads in the plane of the web. Advantages: Flexible, durable, stable, lightweight Disadvantages: Expensive labour cost

A framed connection is a shear-resisting steel connection made by welding or bolting the web of a beam to the supporting column

or girder with two angels or a single tab plate.WoodTypes: Natural timber, laminated and engineered Advantages: Economical option, reduce energy cost, highly durable, aestheticalDisadvantages: Tendency to split, heavy, susceptible to rot and attacks by termites

A variety of metal attachments are manufactured for wood-to-wood, wood-to-metal and wood-to-masonry connections. Depending on the magnitude of the loads being resisted or transferred, the connections may be nailed or bolted.

CompositeComposite beams are constructed from more than one material to increase stiffness or strength (or to reduce cost). Steel and wood are coated to form beam with adequate strength.Steel and reinforced concrete are most commonly used. Advantages: Support strong vertical loadsDisadvantages: High labour cost

5.0 Superstructure

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5.1.3 Installation

Simple beam Rest on support on both ends, with the ends free to rotate and having no moment resistance.Cantilever beam  Projecting beam Projecting beam or other rigid structural member supported at only one fixed end. Used in balconies and bay windows.  Overhanging beamSimple beam extending beyond one supports. Double overhanging beamSimple beam extending beyond both its support. Fixed-end beamBoth ends restrained against translation and rotation. Suspended span beamSimple beam supported by the overhangs of two adjoining with pinned construction joints at points of zero moment.Pouring concrete beams

1. Fixed rods of steel to tensile machinery. Arrange rods in 2 layers of equal numbers.

2. Build formwork around steel rods, ensuring rods run through the centre of the beam. 3. Pour concrete into formwork, ensuring all steel is covered.

4. Allow concrete to cure for a few days and remove the formwork.

Concrete formwork for columns and walls may be custom-built for a specific job, but prefabricated,

reusable panels are used whenever possible. The framework and bracing must be able to maintain the position and shape

of the forms until the concrete sets.

5.1.4 Connections

Refer to the American Institute of Steel Construction’s (AISC’s) Manual of Steel Construction for steel section properties and dimensions, allowable load tables for beams and columns, and requirements for bolted and welded connections. In addition to strength and degree of rigidity, connections should be evaluated for economy of fabrication and erection, and for visual appearance if the structure is exposed to view.The strength of a connection depends on the sizes of the members and the connecting tees, angles, or plates, as well as the configuration of bolts or welds used. The AISC defines three types of steel framing that govern the sizes of members and the methods for their connections: moment connections, shear connections, and semi-rigid connections.

Shear connectionsSimple frame connections made

to resist only shear.

Semi-rigid connectionsSemi-rigid connections assume beam and girder connections possess a limited but known moment resisting capacity.

Rigid connectionsRigid frames where connections are

able to hold their original angle under loading by developing a specified resisting

moment.

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5.1.5 ColumnsColumns are vertical load bearing members of the structure frame which transmits beam loads down to foundations. Columns can be made of reinforced concrete or steel. 

Tied ColumnsIndividual rebar ties are used to wrap completely around the vertical bars in  a confined core. Lateral reinforcement  restrains the vertical reinforcement and strengthens the column against buckling.

Spiral ColumnsSingle reber wrapped around the vertical

bar in a spiral. They are stronger than tied

columns but more labour intensive.

Whenever possible, vary required steel reinforcement rather than column size; when necessary, vary only one dimension of a column at a time.

Pouring concrete columns1. Size of columns to be marked.2. Place the reinforcement in the formwork.3. Then pour concrete in formwork, ensure all rebar is covered.4. Concrete is let to dry and cure. 5. Remove the formwork.

5.1.6 Joints

Steel columnA variety of proprietary post bases is available. Post bases can also be fabricated to satisfy specific design conditions.

Wood postA steel base plate is necessary to

distribute the column load over an area wide enough that the

allowable stresses in theconcrete are not exceeded.

Precast Concrete ColumnColumn base plate secured to column

Splice bars welded to steel angles. Steel bottom plate secured to column section with anchor bolts.

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5.2 Walls Walls are the vertical constructions of a building that enclose, separate, and protect its interior spaces. They may be load-bearing structures of homogeneous or composite construction designed to support imposed loads from floors and roofs, or consist of a framework of columns and beams with nonstructural panels attached to or filling in between them. In addition to supporting vertical loads, exterior wall constructions must be able to withstand horizontal wind loading and serve as shear walls and transfer lateral wind and seismic forces to the ground foundation.

5.2 Wall Overall Analysis

Walls

Single Walls

StructuralBearing walls Concrete

Walls Masonry Walls

Non structuralEnvelope

Glass Walls Metal Walls Plastic walls Timber WallsComposite walls

CLASSIFICATION OF WALL SYSTEM

Single Walls Systemsingle wall – single layer Also called a system because this layer “ concrete” contain other several layers “concrete layer, thermal insulation, water proof layer “.

Composite walls system composite walls that contain several layers of single walls to achieve the concept of integration.

Exterior walls Serve as a protective shield against the weather for the interior spaces of a building; their construction should control the passage of heat, infiltrating air, sound, moisture, and water vapor.

Advantages: Durable and resistant to the weathering effects of sun, wind, and rain.

The interior walls Acts as wall or partitions, which subdivide the space within a building, may be either structural or non-load bearing.

Advantages: Provide acoustical separation, accommodate the distribution and outlets of mechanical and electrical services.

Openings for doors and windows must be constructed so that any vertical loads from above are distributed around the openings and not transferred to the door and window units themselves. Their size and location are determined by the requirements for natural light, ventilation, view, and physical access, as well as the constraints of the structural system and modular wall materials.

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5.2.1 Types of masonry wall systems 1. Running bond, Commonly used for cavity and veneer walls, is composed of overlapping stretchers.2. Common bond Has a course of headers between every five or six courses of stretchers; also known as American bond.3. Stack bond Has successive courses of stretchers with all head joints aligned vertically. Because units do not overlap, horizontal joint reinforcement is required @ 16" (405) o.c. in unreinforced walls.4. Flemish bond Has alternating headers and stretchers in each course, each header being centered above and below a stretcher. Flare headers with darker ends are often exposed in patterned brickwork.5. Flemish cross bond A modified Flemish bond in which courses of alternate headers and stretchers alternate with stretching courses.6. Flemish diagonal bond A form of Flemish cross bond in which the courses are offset to form a diamond pattern.7. Garden-wall bondUsed for lightly loaded boundary walls, has a sequence of a header and three stretchers in each course, with each header being centered over a header in alternate courses.8. English bondHas alternate courses of headers and stretchers in which the headers are centered on stretchers and the joints between stretchers line up vertically in all courses.

5.2.2 Extra structural support to openings of the wall or corner

Masonry Cavity Wall Typical 2” to 3” cavity Metal ties used to

bind wythes together

Reinforced masonry walls use steel reinforcing bars placed in thickened joints or cavities with a fluid grout mix of Portland cement, aggregate, and water for greater strength in carrying vertical loads and increased resistance to buckling and lateral forces. It is essential that a strong bond develop between the reinforcing steel, grout, and masonry units.

Reinforcing steel bars are fully embedded in portland cement grout

For horizontal joint reinforcement, a metal “ring” was place onto the bricks.

Horizontal bond beamAll cells containing reinforcement are filled solidly with grout• Cells are aligned vertically

to form a clear, continuous vertical space.

• Reinforcement continues down to a reinforced concrete footing.

Horizontal joint reinforcement

Fulbed mortar at end walls and cross webs from grouted cells; Cleanouts was provided at bottom course of cells to be grouted; before grouting, it need to be inspect and seal.

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Reinforced grouted masonry should conform to the requirements for plain grouted masonry.

Metal wall ties between reinforcement and masonry for fine grout” cover with coarse grout.

REINFORCED GROUTED MASONRY

Raked joint is made by removing mortar to a given depth with a square-edged tool before hardening.Raked joints are for interior use only.

Mortar joints vary in thickness, but typically 10cm thick.

Tooled joints are mortar joints compressed and shaped with any tool other than a trowel. Tooling compresses the mortar and forces it tightly against the brick surfaces, providing maximum protection against water penetration in areas subject to high winds or heavy rains.

Troweled joints are finished by striking off excess mortar with a trowel. In troweled joints, the mortar is cut or struck off with a trowel. The most effective of these is the weathered joint because it sheds water.

MO

NTA

R JO

INT

Reinforced Brick Lintels

Steel Angle Lintels6’’(150) minimum bearing

Reinforcing steel fully embedded in Portland cement grout

Four to seven courses high

Lintel may be visually articulated with a soldier course.

Flashing

Interior angle

Exterior angle

Concrete Masonry Lintels

Precast Concrete Lintels

Bearing on solid or grouted masonry

Lintel or bond beam block with Portland cement grout fill and reinforcing steel.

Precast reinforced concrete lintels may be used to span openings in both bricks and concrete masonry walls.

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5.2.3 On-site wall-brick wall analysis

The walls as seen in the double-storeys townhouse, Kota Puteri, Rawang, Selangor are brick walls, which also known as masonry walls.

The brick used are burnt clay bricks and sand lime bricks. The type of masonry binding used is running bond.

Burnt clay bricks were used to make walls in between two houses. The reason behind choosing burnt clay bricks is the properties of burnt clay bricks have good fire resistance and low heat conduction.

Therefore it can minimize damages and prevent damages spread from one house to another when fire disaster occurs. Also burnt clay bricks are more durable and suitable for structural support.

While sand lime bricks were used for other facing of the building’s walls because it has properties of smooth finish and surface for detailed and wider range of face treatments, also offers excellent strength as a load bearing member and it is cheaper compared to burnt clay bricks. But it does not have good fire resistance compare to burnt clay bricks.

As saw in the picture, the brick used for the walls that are facing outside are sand lime brick.So it provides good smooth face and gave convenient for after-treatment such as painting on the wall, or doing any beatification on the wall.

However the only problem is that sand lime brick is not fire resistance and thus it is easier to decay and need more repairing work constantly compared to burnt red brick.

As shown in the picture, the brick used for the walls between the houses are burnt red bricks. Although it does not give good appealing, smooth surface, but it is great resistance towards heat and fire.

It also have stronger compression force and structurally more stable and strong compared to sand lime brick.

So burnt clay brick is a good materials for building structural that support walls along with the columns and structural slaps.

Running bond, Commonly used for cavity and veneer walls, is composed of overlapping stretchers.

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3. Lay the Header Course. Be sure to understand how the bricks must be stacked. When stacking, every now and then hold a level against the joints to see that the bricks line up vertically. For common bond (shown here), a header course needs two 3/4 bricks and two 1/4 bricks, known as closures, at each corner. Excess mortar was scraped away as you go. Every so often, the joints were checked to see if they need to be struck.

4. Build a Lead. Continue building the corner or the end of the wall, which is called a lead. A stack seven or eight bricks high was made. As going, a level was used to check that if the corner was plumbed and the courses level. A story pole was used to check joint thickness. Sliding of the bricks to adjust their position is prohibited, unless the bricks were laid within the past two minutes.

5. String a Line Between Leads. Leads were built at the other end of the wall in the same way and it was check with the story pole and level. The leads were laid in-between bricks for the bottom course of both wythes, using the pencil lines as guides. Hook mason’s blocks and stretch a mason’s line from one lead to the other at the center of a joint. The line should be taut and about 1⁄8 inch from the bricks.

6. Fill in Between the Leads. For each course, move the line blocks up one joint and use the line as a guide for the height and for the outer edge of the wall. Don’t let bricks touch the line. The last brick in the middle of a course, called the closure brick, is buttered at both ends. Butter it generously and slip it in straight down. Avoid sliding it. You may need to use a striking tool to force more mortar into one joint.

 7. Strike the Joints. Every 20 minutes or so, depending on weather conditions, test the joints by pressing with your thumb. If a thumbprint holds its shape, it’s time to strike. With a brick jointer, smooth all horizontal joints, then smooth the verticals so water will drain properly. If a bit of mortar oozes out from the jointing tool, leave it or it will smear

8. Brush and Clean. Excess mortar was brushed off once it has started to harden and appears crumbly. If the mortar smears, stop and wait a few minutes longer. Any smears may be able to wipe away with a damp sponge, but be careful not to get the joints very wet or will weaken them. Alternatively, wait a day and then clean with a mild muriatic acid solution.

5.2.4 Construction Technique of building masonry wallBefore starting to lay the bricks, all the materials needed must be prepared and make a story pole so can quickly measure bricks for the correct height. Lay a number of bricks with 3⁄8-inch spaces between them, on edge on a flat surface. Then lay a length of 1-by-2 or 1-by-4 next to the bricks and marks were drew indicating the centers of each mortar joint. Alternatively, purchase a ready-made story pole. A standard model has marks every 8 inches to indicate three courses of common brick plus the mortar joints.

1. Lay a Dry Run. Chalk lines were snapped on the footing indicating the outline of the wall. Bricks were placed on the footing in a dry run, with 3⁄8-inch dowels between them to represent the joints. Make sure to understand how the bricks will be laid out at the corner. The brick might need to be cut into half or two. With a pencil, the footing for the centers of each joint was marked.2. Lay the First Bricks.

The dry-laid bricks were removed. Starting at a corner or at the end of a wall, a line of mortar was thrown for the first three bricks. The first brick was set and placed. One end of the other bricks were buttered and set. The bricks were pushed into place and see that the centers of the joints are at the pencil marks. A level was used to check that if the bricks formed an even surface in both directions. Excess mortar was scraped away. Repeat for the second layer and lay bricks for the start of an adjoining wall if started at a corner.

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5.3 Ceiling5.3.1 Introduction

The ceiling surface is an important functional component of a room. It helps to control the diffusion of light and sound about the room and may play a role in preventing the passage of sound vertically between the rooms above and below, and horizontally between rooms on either side of a partition. It is often designed to resist the passage of fire and must it be appropriately noncombustible. Frequently, it is called upon to assist in the distribution of conditioned air, artificial light, and electrical energy.

In many buildings, it must accommodate sprinkler heads for fire suppression and loudspeakers for intercommunication systems. And its color, texture, pattern, and shape are prominent in the overall visual impression of the room.

A ceiling can be a simple, level plane, a series of sloping planes that give a sense of the roof above, a luminous surface, a richly coffered ornamental ceiling, or even a frescoed plaster vault such as Michelangelo’s famous ceiling in the Sistine Chapel in Rome; the possibilities are endless.

5.3.2 Types of Ceiling

Exposed structural and mechanical componentsIn many buildings, it makes sense to omit finished ceiling surfaces altogether and simply expose the structural and mechanical components of the floor or roof above. In industrial and agricultural buildings, where appearance is not of prime importance, this approach offers the advantages of economy and ease of access for maintenance. Many types of floor and roof structures are inherently attractive if left exposed, such as heavy timber beams and decking, concrete waffle slabs and steel trusses. Other types of structures such as concrete flat plates and precast concrete planks, have little visual interest but their undersurfaces can be painted and left exposed as finished ceilings in apartment buildings and hotels, which have little need for mechanical services at the ceiling. This saves money and reduces the overall height. In some buildings the mechanical and structural elements at the ceiling, if carefully designed, installed and painted can create a powerful aesthetic of their own. Exposing structural and mechanical components rather than covering them with a finished ceiling does not always save money. Mechanical and structural work is not normally done in a precise, attractive fashion because it is not usually expected to be visual and it is less expensive for workers to take only as much care in installation as is required for satisfactory functional performance. To achieve perfectly straight, neatly sealed ductwork that is free of dents, steel decks without rust and weld spatter, square, well organized runs of electrical conduit and plumbing, the drawings and specifications for the project must tell exactly the results that are expected and a higher labor cost must be anticipated.

1. Suspended linear metal ceilingsA suspended linear metal ceiling is made of long elements that are formed from sheet aluminum attached to a special type of concealed grid. 2. Suspended fire resistance rated ceilingsSuspended ceilings that are part of a fire resistance rated floor ceiling or roof ceiling assembly made be made of gypsum board, plaster or lay in panel and grid systems that are especially designed to have the necessary resistance to the passage of fire.Penetrations in such membrane ceilings must be detailed so as to maintain the required degree of fire resistance throughout the ceiling.

1. Tightly attached ceilingsCeilings of any material may be attached tightly to wood joists, wood rafters, steel joists or concrete slabs. Special finishing arrangements must be worked out for any beams and girders that protrude through the plain of the ceiling and for ducts, conduits, pipes and sprinkler heads that fall below the ceiling.

2. Suspended ceilingsSuspended ceilings speaks to a ceiling which is suspended on wires some distance below the floor or roof structure that hangs level and flat despite varying sizes of girders, beams, joists, slabs above and even under a roof structure that slopes down toward roof drains. Ducts, pipes and conduit can run freely in the plenum space between the ceiling and the structure above. Lighting fixtures, sprinkler heads, loudspeakers and fire detection devices may be recessed into the ceiling. Such a ceiling can also, at additional cost, serve as membrane fire protection for the floor or roof structure above, eliminating the need for fussy individual fireproofing of steel joists or imparting a higher fire resistance rating to wood or precast concrete structures. 2

2

5.3.3 Jointless CeilingThese forms of suspended ceilings provide a continuous and jointless surface with the internal appearance of a conventional ceiling. They may be selected to fulfil fire resistance requirements or to provide a robust form of suspended ceiling.

The 2 common ways of construction are a plasterboard or expended metal lathing soffit with hand applied plaster finish or a sprayed applied rendering with a cement base

 

 

5.3.4 Skim CoatingSkim coating is a texturing technique used to make a wall smooth. Drywalls use this technique to hide an imperfect taping job, to give the wall a plaster-like appearance and in situations when only the smoothest surface will do. Skim coating is the only way to achieve a level 5 drywall finish, which a number of trade associations, including the Painting and Decorating Contractors of America, recommend for areas of bright or critical lighting.

Advantages of Jointless Ceiling

1. Durable

2. Sound brooding

3. Easy to use just add water

4. Good surface preparation and primer for painting

5. Excellent adhesions to porous substrates

6.Sand easily to a smooth finish

 

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5.3.5 Installation

How Ceiling Is Constructed

Step 1:

Setting the Perimeter

Step 2:

Setting the Perimeter

Step 3:

Setting the Perimeter

Step 5:

Installing the Runners

Step 4:

Setting the Perimeter

Step 6:

Installing the Runners

Step 7:

Installing the Runners

Step 8:

Installing the Runners

Step 9:

Installing the Runners

Step 10:

Installing the Runners

Step 11:

Installing the Runners

Step 12:

Adding Fixtures

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Installation

How Ceiling Is Constructed

Step 13:

Adding Fixtures

Step 14:

Ductwork and Diffusers

Step 15:

Ductwork and Diffusers

Step 16:

Ductwork and Diffusers

Step 17:

Finishing Up

Step 18:

Finishing Up

Step 19:

Finishing Up

Step 20:

Finishing Up

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5.4 Staircase Overall Analysis

Staircase is a construction design which basically connects a large or certain distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distance called steps. Stairs provide means for moving from one level and another therefore important links in the overall circulation scheme of a building. Whether punctuating a two-story volume or rising through a narrow shaft, a atairway takes up a significant amount of space. The landings of a stairway should be logically integrated with the structural system to avoid overly complicated framing condition.Safety and ease of travel are, in the end, the most important considerations in the design and placement of stairs.

There are different types of stairs, for instance; straight - run stair, quarter - turn stair, half - turn stair, winding stair, circular stair and spiral stair. In addition, to constrcut a staircase, a proper construction of its stairway width, landings, handrails, tread,risers, and nosings which are the requirement of constructing a staircase

Quarter – Turn Stair

Several different constrcution professionals may contribute to the design and layout of a stairway. An architect design the stairway to comply with building codes, fit the particular space of the building, and have an aesthetically pleasing design. Often a carpenter is called upon to lay out and build the stairway. The carpenter is responsible for working out construction details that are not specifically covered on the prints.

In some instances, a cabinetmaker or millworker takes field measurements at the job site. From these measurements, the stairway is designed, laid out, and temporarily assembled in a shop. The stairway is then disssembled and sent to the job sute where it is reassembled and installed by carpenters.

5.4 Staircase5.4.1 Introduction

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5.4.2 Staircase Terminology

The terminology used in stairway building describes the stairways and components, as well as design factors and methods of construction. Some sommon terms used in stairway design and constrcution are lading, flight, step, line of travel, riser,tread, nosing, stringer, unit rise, total rise, and total run.

A landing is a horizontal platform seperating two flights of stairs. A flight us an unbroken and continuous series of steps from one floor to another or from one floor to a landing. A step is a unit consisting of tread and one riser. A landing must be as wide as the stairway being straved and at least 36’’ in length. Distance between landing should not exceed 12’-0’’ vertically.

A riser is the vertical board between treads. In certain stairways, such as open stairways, there are no risers. A tread is the horizontal walking surface of a step. The width of a tread is measured from the face of the riser to the outside edge of the nosing,

The nosing is the portion of tread that projects beyond the riser face. A stringer is the structural support of a stairway that is fabricated to receive the risers and treads. It carries the main load of the stairway can be either open or closed.

The unit rise is the height of each riser and is calculated by diving the total rise by the number of riser in a stairway. Unit riser is measured vertically from the top tread to the top of adjecent tread.

The unit run is the width of each tread. The unit run is calculated by dividing the total run by the number of treads in a stairway. Measured horizonatlly from the face of the adjecent riser. The total riser is the vertical distance(height) of a stairway from finished floor below to the finished floor above.

Stairwell Header

Cut out Stringer

Unit Run

Unit Rise

Unit Run

Unit Rise plus finish floor thickness minus tread thicknessFinish Floor Line

Stringer

Cleat

Tread

Nosing

Riser

Tread

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Timber Stair

5.4.3 Material types

A wood stair is constructed of the following elements:

Carriages or rough stringer are the preincipal inclinaed

Beams supporting the trades and risers of flight stairs.

Tread are the footways that span the distance between The supporting carriages.

Carriages may be attached to their supporting beam, header, or wall framing with metal hangers or a ledger.

Kick plate anchors and absorbs the thurts Figure 4 : Timber stair

Steel Stair

Steeal beam support

Steel channel stringer

Concrete filled steel tread

Building codes require the handrail to extend beyond the top and the bottom and return to the wall.

Steel tube or channel support

Figure 4.1 Details of Steel Stairs

Steel pan landing with concrte fill

Steel channel support from landing may be hung with threaded rads from the floor obstructure above, or linear directly on masonry.

Figure 4.2: Closed – Riser with Full StringerFigure 4.3: Handrail of Steel Stair 2

8

Concrete Stair

A concrete stair is designed as an inclined, one-way reinforced slab with steps formed on its upper surface. If the stair is constructed after the floor beam wall supports, it acts as a simple beam. If tt is cast with the beam slab support . Its designed as a continuous beam. Concrete strair requires careful analysis of load,span,and support conditiond.1-1/2’’(38) minimum concrete wall4’’(100) minimum mansonry wallsStair slab thickness; rule of thumb: span/26Span is equal to the horizontal distance between the slab support.

Figure 5 Concrete Stair Constuction

1-1/2’’(38) maxmum nosing

½’’(13) maximum radius

¾’’(19) Radius typical

Figure 5.1 Concrete Stairs Details

Figure 5.2 Open Riser / Partial Open Riser Stair

Figure 5.3 Double storey Townhouse, Kota Puteri, Rawang

Open Riser Timber Stair

An open stairway that is exposed on one or both sides.

Partial -Open Riser Concrete StairA partial open stairway is a stairway that has full wall on one side and shortern wall on the other side.

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5.4.4 Installation

Step 1  

Calculating the Rise,Run and Dimensions of stairsThe maximum riser height for residential stairway is 7 ¾’’, measured vertically between the leading edges of adjacent trades. Between the largest and smallest riser heights within a given flight of stairs should not more than 3/8’’. The minimum tread depth for the residential stairway is 10’’.

Measured horizontally from the front of the nosings of adjacent treads.

Measure from the height of one floor to another. Divide the height with 7 ‘’ to get the number of steps. Measure the horizontal distance if the staircase will span and measure the width of staircase from the left and right.

Step 2

Determine the Foundation’s Dimention

Step 3

Constructing the Form

Using framing lumber to build the form.

Removing the side of the form according to the

tread and riser calculation.

Step 4

Preparing Concrete and Pouring Mortar

Producing well mixed mortar with a portable cement mixer. Star at the bottom and pour at a time. Make sure the mortar are spread evently.

Using a spade to remove the tapped air bubbles.

Step 5

Drying Process

Spraying the stairs wih curing compound and cover it with burlap. Then remove the lumber.

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5.4.5 Stair plan

Quarter – Turn Stair

A quarter – turn or L – shaped stair makes a right handed- angled turn in the path of travel. The two flights connected by an intervening landing may be equal or unequal, depending on the desired proporion of thestairway opening. Also called L stair.

Quarterspace landing A square landing connecting two flights of a stair. Also, quarterpace landing.

LandingA platform between flights of stairs or the floor at the foot or head of a flight of stairs

Walking LineA line 18 in(457mm) in from the centerline of handrail, along which the run of a winder is the same as a flier. Also called line of travel.

Figure 3: Quarter- Turn stair

Figure 3.2 Plan

Figure 3.1: Quarter – Turn Details

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5.4.6 Installation II Tread and Nosings

1. Applying construction adhesiveLay three beads of adhesive on the tread. Don’t put any on the space that will be covered by the nosing. 

2. Positioning the tread assembly.Press the glued tread assembly into place on the tread, with the tongue of the full plank facing out. Wipe off any glue that squeezes onto the top of the plank with a damp rag. 

3. Covering the riserMeasure the height and width of the riser space. Cut a plank to fit, cutting off the tongue in the process. Apply adhesive to the back of the cut plank. Angle the plank into place, fitting the cut side under the tread overhang of the step above. Press the riser into place. 

5.4.7 Skirting

4. Completing the stairsCut a tread edge piece and fit it onto the exposed tread edge. 

5. Filling the screw holes. Prepare the putty according to the manufacturer’s directions. A scrap of plank makes a smooth mixing surface. With a plastic putty knife, smoothly fill the screw holes in each nosing. Then carefully remove the tape. After about 20 minutes, even out the putty with a cloth dampened with water or acetone. Putty is usually impossible to remove once it’s dry, so work carefully and clean up right away. 

The first step when installing the mitered skirt is to determine the size of the skirt necessary for the application. The fundamental measurements include the length and the width.

You must make sure to select a piece of material that is long enough to cover the total run of the staircase. The width should be at least 9-1/2-inches wide

Lay the skirt along the top of the stringer parallel with the stringer resting on the points.

Measure the width of the skirt on the plumb.

Measure up from the floor at the bottom of the stringer. Take this distance, less 1-inch, and scribe a line level with the floor at this point  

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5.4.8 Finishes

1. Spreading tile adhesive on stairs.Start tiling the stairs from top. Consequently, if the concrete floor is too dry, you should sprinkle a couple drips of water, as to make sure the tile adhesive with the floor.

2. After spreading the tile adhesive on the floor by using straight side, comb it with the notched side. Spreading adhesive on a larger surface than the footprint of tiles. Spread adhesive 2’’ over the footprint of the ceramic tiles.

3. Spreading the bed of adhesive on the stairs. Essential elements; the surface must be leveled and the adhesive layer must be on the whole surface

4. Installing the tile stair nosing.

5. Tap them gently by using a rubber hammer. By this way, you lock the tiles into position make them level.

6. Installing the tile nosing, make sure ceramic tiles on the tread of the next stair. Installing the stair raisers, using a L – square, as to make sure they are plumb.

Double storey Townhouse, Kota Puteri, Rawang

33

5.4.9 Standard Requirements

Tread and rise

Proper stairway design and construction ensure a safe stairway. Some general safety practices for stairway design and construction include the flowing;

All the risers and treads should be equal in a flight.

All stairs providing access to and within buildings should be designed to be accessible by most persons with reduced mobility.

A minimum of these risers per flight is recommended to prevent tripping and may be required by the building code.

Uniform riser and tread dimensions are required. Open riser are not permitted.

11’’(280) min

4’’(100) min; 7’’(180)max

.

Landings

At least as wide as the stairway they serve and have minimum length equal to the stair width, measured in the direction of travel.

Landing serving straight-run stairs need not be longer than 48’’(1200)

Stairway Width

Consult building code for details. 44’’(1120)minimum width; 36’’(915) minmum for stairways serving an occupant load of 49 or less.

Handrails

Project a minimum of 4-1/2’’(115) into the required width; stringers and trim projects a maximum of 1-1/2’’(38).

Required on both sides. 34’’ to 38’’(865 to 965) hright above the leading edge of stair treads or nosings.

It should extend at least 12’’(305) horizontallybeyond the top riser of stair glight and extend the slope of the stair run for a horizontal distance of at least one tread depth beyond the last riser of nosing of the flight.

Figure 7 Stairs

34

5.5 Railings5.5.1 Types

Guard rail used on site

Guard RailGuard railings are also known as safety railing or barrier installed along horizontal surfaces such as balconies, decks or porch.

Stair RailSafety railings are located on open sides of a stairway. These stair rails provide a safe grasping surface which reduces fall injuries and act as a safety barrier in open areas that may otherwise one to fall off one side of the stairs.

Advantages/Disadvantages of Horizontal Railings over Vertical Balusters

Advantages:• Cheaper: -Horizontal blusters cost less than vertical ones -Lesser materials required -Fewer connections, reduce fasteners and hardware needed• Easier to install : -Less labour intensive• Versatile : -Allow for any material to be used -Flexibility in design -Vertical railings incompatible with materials such as cable of fiberglass• Higher Privacy : -Horizontal railings interrupt vision

Disadvantages:• Safety issues : -Climbing hazard for horizontal railings -Ladder-like structure presents climbing opportunity for children• High maintenance (for outdoor and indoor guardrails) -Longer lengths for material for horizontal rails -Replacement of entire length should rail be damaged or worn out -Vertical rails cheaper to replace since they are shorter -More effort/time to replace horizontal railings• Shorter durability (for outdoor railings) -Horizontal railings more prone to damage by water and sun -Water doesn’t run off as quickly -Deteriorates faster -Rails may wrap, crack, rot, corrode, ruse faster than vertical rails

Stair rail and guard rail with horizontal balusters

Stair rail with vertical balusters

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5.5.2 Construction Technique

Stair rails construction methods

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5

Step 6

Once the framework for the staircase is set and once the concrete bricks are laid to form the concrete railings alongside the staircase .

L-shaped steel bars are placed at the corners at the end of each stair rail to ensure a perpendicular edge once the edge is plastered.

Cement is then used to cover the top bricks to ensure a smooth sloping surface for the railing to be placed on.

In this case there is a slight indentation at the top of the “concrete rail” to provide a better grip for the home owner .

An L-shaped PVC is used as a framework to define where the concrete should be casted.

Concrete railing is plastered. Timber handrail is secured to the top of the cemented concrete blocks with some form of adhesive.

Railing construction on site

Standard Method (Timber/Metal)

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Determine height of starting newels handrail attached to post balustrades after a pre-determined length.

Install landing newel on riser.

Vertical intersections should be marked to attach the railings on posts and balustrades.

Bottom railing drilled to fix balusters.

Outdoor Guard Rails1.Materials are obtained pre-fabricated from factory2.Balusters and posts are welded together3.Top handrail is most often of the same material with the posts and balusters which is either steel or iron4.Usually finished with multiples coats paint to increase weather resistance and tolerance5.These guard rails are usually used for outdoor balconies or for air conditioning casements

36

5.5.3 Safety Issues

Guard Rails

•Guard rails are necessary to protect open sides of stairways•Guard rails should be at least 36” (915mm)•Guard rails may have the same heights as stair handrails•Guard rails should be able to withstand a concentrated load applied to the top hand railsRegardless of horizontal or vertical balustrade arrangement

Stair Rails

•34” to 38” height above the leading edge of the stair treads or nosing•Handrails should be continuous without any obstructions•Handrails should be free of sharp or abrasive elements and have a circular-like-cross-sectionTo ensure adequate grasp ability•1-1/2’’ (38mm) minimum clearance between hand rail and wall

Stair rail

Illustrate the depression in each handrail that would enhance graspability and how a handrail with inadequate graspability is not desired

A stair rail/s can be installed on the wall at the same height as the

existing banisterIf stair rails cannot be

attached to the wall with wall brackets then

vertical stair rail supports can be used Newel rails can

be fitted to newel posts

37

5.6 Floor System Overall Analysis5.6.1 IntroductionFloor system which is consider as a type of horizontal planes are important as it supports people, furnishings, and movable equipment. Floor systems must transfer their loads horizontally across space to either beams and columns or to loadbearing walls.Floor system are made up of a series of linear beams and joist overlaid with a plane of sheathing or decking, or consist of a nearly homogenous slab of reinforced concrete.

5.6.2 Floor TypesConcrete• Precast concrete planks may be supported by beams or loadbearing walls.Advantages: Durability, Stiffness, damp resistanceDisadvantages: Defects hard to rectify

Rely on the ground beneath them for their support

Uses a composite of concrete and structural steel to support the design load

Formed from a minimum of 150mm thick reinforced concrete

Act as a monolithic unit with foundation

Resting on a bed of 150mm minimum thick hard core

100mm slab thickness

Does not carry superstructure loads Entire slab area support the superstructure loads

SuperstructureSlab

Isolation joint

Independent Foundation

Ground-supported Slab Structurally-reinforced Slab

5.6.3 Types of Concrete Ground Slab

Wood• Wood beams support structural planking or decking.• Beams may be supported by girders, posts, orloadbearing walls.• Underside of floor structure may be left exposed; anapplied ceiling is optional.• Subflooring, underlayment, and applied ceilingfinishes have relatively short spans.Advantages: cost less, faster constructionDisadvantages: cost more

Steel• Steel beams support steel deckingor precast concrete planks.• Beam framing is typically an integral part of a steel skeleton frame system.• Steel decking have relatively short spans.Advantages: Fire resistance, AestheticsDisadvantages: steel beams carry their own weight only.

38

5.6.4 Concrete Slab Overall AnalysisConcrete slabs are similar to beams in the way they span horizontally between supports and may be simply supported, continuously supported or cantilevered. Slabs are constructed of reinforced concrete poured into formwork on-site or into trenches excavated into the ground. Concrete slabs are usually 150 to 300 mm deep. Slabs transmit the applied floor or roof loads to their supports. Slabs may be divided into ground slab and floor slab.

Ground-supported Slab

Structurally-reinforced Slab One-Way

SystemTwo Way System

One-way Ribbed Slab

One-Way Slab

Two-way Flat Plate

Two-way Flat Slab

Two-way

Waffle Slab

Two-way

Waffle Slab & Beam

Concrete Ground Slab Reinforced Concrete Floor System

Slab

39

5.6.5 Slab used on site – Ground Slab (Structurally-reinforced slab)

Process of construction1. Prepare the ground

2. Fix the formwork

3. Install service pipe

4. Install reinforcement bar

5. Place and compact concrete

6. Cure the concrete slab

Section of Solid Floor on level siteBedding of internal floor tiles1. Provide a level surface with sufficient strength to support the impose loads of people and furniture.2. Exclude the passage of water and water vapour to the interior of the building.3. Provide resistance to unacceptable heat loss through the floor.4. Provide the correct type of surface to receive the chosen finish.

Damp-proof course (dpc) or damp-proof membrane (dpm) is to provide an impermeable barrier to the passage of moisture.1. Resist moisture penetration from below (rising damp).2. Resist moisture penetration from above.3. Resist moisture penetration from horizontal entry.

40

5.6.6 Reinforce Concrete Floor System

Reinforced Concrete Floor System is divided into one way system and two way system.

One-way System Two-way System

One way slab is supported on two opposite side only thus structural action is only at one direction. Total load is carried in the direction perpendicular to the supporting beam. If a slab is supported on all the four sides but the ratio of longer span (l) to shorten span (b)  is greater than 2, then the slab will be considered as one way slab. 

Two way slabs are the slabs that are supported on four sides and the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2. In two way slabs, load will be carried in both the directions. So, main reinforcement is provided in both directions for two way slabs. 

One Way Slab Two Way Flat Plate

One Way Ribbed Slab Two Way Flat Slab with Drop Panels

Two-way Joist Slab (Waffle)

One way slab is supported by beams in only 2 sides. Two way slab is supported by beams in all four sides.

The ratio of longer span panel (L) to shorter span panel (B) is equal or greater than 2. Thus, L/B >= 2

The ratio of longer span panel (L) to shorter span panel (B) is less than 2. Thus, L/B < 2.

Main reinforcement is provided in only one direction for one way slabs.

Main reinforcement is provided in both the direction for two way slabs. 4

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Two way flat plate

A flat plate is a one or two-way system usually supported directly on columns or loadbearing walls. It is one of the most common forms of construction of floors in buildings. The principal feature of the flat plate floor is a uniform or near-uniform thickness with a flat soffit which requires only simple formwork and is easy to construct. The floor allows great flexibility for locating horizontal services above a suspended ceiling or in a bulkhead.

Tensile Reinforcement 6” to 12” (150 to 305) typical slab depth rule of thumb for slab depth: span/36

Column capital may be used in place of or in conjunction witha drop panel for increased shear resistance.

Suitable for relatively heavy loads and spans from20' to 40' (6 to 12 m)

Slab used on site- Floor Slab (Two Way Flat Plate)Floor Slab construction steps & techniqueStep 1: The substructure and ground floor such as foundations, stumps, and ground floor beam) and columns in between ground floor and first floor have been cast.Step 2: Props are erected to promote lodgers, which support the formworks of beams.Step 3: Beams are supported by lodgers.Step 4: Plywood make up the formwork for beams.Step 5: Props erected for slab frameworks.Step 6: Beams are supported by lodgers.Step 7: Plywood decking.Step 8: Reinforcement cages for beams are placed.Step 9: ConcretingStep 10: Concrete hardened, frameworks are dismantled and concrete achieve sufficient strength.

Vacuum dewateringUse to shorten the time delay between tamping the concrete and power floating the surface. This strategy is suitable for slabs up to 300mm thick and should be applied about 3 minutes for every 25mm depth of concrete which allow power floating to take place within 20 to 30 minutes of tamping operation. The applied vacuum forces out the surplus water by compressing the slab and causes a reduction in slab depth of approximately 2% therefore packing strips should be placed on the side forms before tamping to allow for sufficient surcharge of concrete.

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Reinforced concrete is a combination of traditional cement concrete with reinforcements (Steel bar). This combination is made to utilize the compressive strength of concrete and tensile strength of steel simultaneously.In reinforced concrete, the components works together to resist many types of loading. Concrete resists compression and steel reinforcement resists tension forces.The floor whose topping consists of cement concrete is called cement concrete floor or conglomerate floor. These floors consist of 2.5 cm to 5cm thick concrete layer laid over 10 cm thick base concrete and 10 cm thick clean sand over ground whose compaction and consolidation is done.

Advantages of concrete floors:1. They are hard & durable2. Provide a smooth & non-absorbent surface3. Fire resistant4. Provide more sanitary surface as they can be cleaned & washed easily.5. Economical as they require negligible maintenance cost6. Can be finished with a pleasing appearance.

Disadvantages of concrete floors:1. Tensile strength to compressive strength ratio2. Shrinkage3. High form coast4. Larger column section5. Uncertainty of final strength

Materials Used on Site

Advantages of quartzite tile1.Easy maintenance• floor should be swept regularly if you have a

spill or stain.

2. Design flexibility• comes in varying sizes • choices colour choices available • most versatile and designer friendly • can be installed in nearly any application• can be installed over most subfloors with the

proper underlayment.

3. Cost effective• one of the most cost effective surfaces on the

market• does not require refinishing, resurfacing, re-

glazing, or re-coating.• ceramic tile and natural stone can increase

the value of your home, helping you recoup the initial cost invested in the product.

4. Good for allergy and asthma sufferers• Easy to clean and allergen free.

Cement concrete floor

Quartzite is a very hard metamorphic rock that originated as sandstone. Through a process of high heating and pressurization, sandstone is transformed into Quartzite which is an extremely hard and durable natural stone. Quartzite tiles often have a wondrous sparkling texture as individual quartz pieces recrystallize in high heat. Its incredible strength makes it ideal for flooring applications. Quartzite tiles are easy to maintain and are an environmentally conscious flooring option.

5.6.7 Materials on site

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6.0 ROOFRoof is the covering on the uppermost part of a building or shelter which provides protection from animals and weather, notably rain or snow, but also heat, wind and sunlight. The word also denotes the framing or structure which supports that covering.

6.1 Roof Types:For the roof types, for the top floor is composed of pitched steel roof trusses and reinforced concrete flat roof act as a shelter for the car park.

6.1.1 Reinforced Concrete Flat Roof

i) Roof platform which is horizontal or inclined up to 10degrees (to prevent ponding)Ii ) Surrounded by fascia/parapet wall

Method of construction:

Step 1: Reinforced concrete roof is constructed from reinforced concrete with reinforcement in both directions. Step 2: Main reinforcement spans in direction of main roof span. Step 3: After that, it's the distribution of reinforcement spans across the main reinforcement. Step 4: The Main bar is bent at ends to provide key to obtain maximum connection between reinforcement bar and concrete.Step 5: Loading width of wall/column is 100mm. Flat roof slab thickness is 150mm minimum.Flat Roof Finishes:

i)Flat roof is finished after the required gradient <10 degrees is obtain through c&s screening.ii)Used aggregate which is low heat-conductor instead of sand.

Components and function:

i) Waterproof membrane with a protective covering - prevent water reaching the roof structure and the room below.ii) Thermal insulation – ensures thermal comfort is maintained inside the building and often provides support for the waterproofing membrane (warm roof).iii) Roof deck - provides a base for the waterproof membrane or the insulation.iv) Vapor control layer - helps reduce the risk of condensation.v) Ceiling - plasterboard.vi) Outlets and gutters.

6.1.2 Pitched roof: Modified Queen Post

A modified queen post truss can be used in bay barns or something that requires an even longer span than what a queen post truss can handle. These trusses have added members that provide compression and tension support over the longer span of the truss.

Materials: SteelFunction: i) Provide an adequate barrier to the penetration of the elements. ii) Maintain the internal environment by providing an adequate resistance to heat loss.

Roof is in a very exposed situation and must therefore be designed and constructed in such a manner as to: i) Safely resist all imposed loadings such as snow and wind. ii) Be capable of accommodating thermal and moisture movements. iii) Be durable so as to give a satisfactory performance and reduce maintenance to a minimum.

Waterproofing layer

Insulation Vapour Control LayerConcrete & Screed Deck

Ceiling

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6.1.2.1 Steel Roof Trusses

Method of construction: Step 1: Lift trusses into position, ensuring the webs of the trusses face the hip end wall.

Step 2: Stand the first station truncated truss in its set-out position and, fix two #12-14x20mm hex head tek screws through the fixing bracket at each heel connection into the side of the top plates.

Step 3: Temporarily brace the truss plumb and straight.

Step 4: Repeat Steps 3 and 4 when installing the second, third and fourth station truncated trusses and temporarily brace.

Step 5: Continue positioning trusses as per the procedures in, Section 3.9 Common Roof Block Construction.

Step 6: Install the crown end rafter by lining up the fixing bracket with the outside of the top plate at the centre of the hip end wall. Screw through the fixing bracket with two #12-14x20mm hex head tek screws. Keeping the crown end rafter square to the hip end wall, screw it to the top chord of each truncated truss with one #12- 14x20mm at each intersection. Ensure the top chords of all truncated trusses are straight and plumb.

Step 7: Prior to fixing all jack rafters it is recommended to construct the external corner of the roof. To form the roof structure at the eave line, and to assist in the fitting of the fascia use the Steel Frame Solutions hip corner. The hip corner fixes to the top plates at external corners with two #12-14x20mm hex head tek screws and to the top of the first truncated truss as per a standard jack rafter.

Step 8: Mark out the positions of the jack rafters on the hip end wall, ensure the design spacing is maintained. Fix the jack rafters to the hip end wall by lining up the fixing bracket with the outside of the top plate.Screw through the fixing bracket with two #12-14x20mm hex head tek screws. Keeping the jack rafter square to the hip end wall, screw it to the top chord of each truncated truss with one #12-14x20mm at each intersection. Ensure the top chords of all truncated trusses are straight and plumb. Continue to install all jack rafters until the hip end is complete.

Step 9: For sheet roofing fix a Topspan 40 roof batten each side of the line formed from the intersection of the jack rafters and the chords of the truncated trusses to finish the hip roof line. Use two #12-14x20mm hex head tek screws at each intersection. For tile roofing use the hip rafter section and fix it directly to the intersection of the jack rafters and the chords of the truncated trusses. Use two #12-14x20mm hex head tek screws at each intersection.

Steel truss system is lightweight, quick and easy to use and ensures straight roof lines for the life of the building. They are triangulated plane frames which carry purlins to which the roof coverings can be fixed. Steel is stronger than timber and will not spread fire over its surface and for these reasons it is often preferred to timber for medium and long span roofs. The rafters are restrained from spreading by being connected securely at their feet by a tie member. Struts and ties are provided within the basic triangle to give adequate bracing. Angle sections are usually employed for steel truss members since they are economic and accept both tensile and compressive stresses. The members of a steel roof truss are connected together with bolts or by welding to shaped plates called gussets. Steel trusses are usually placed at 3„000 to 4„500 centre which gives an economic purlin size.

Full Height Truss

Apex Truss

3rd Truncated Truss

2nd Truncated Truss

1st Truncated Truss

Hip Corner

Crown and Jack Rafter

Jack Rafters

Simple bend these rafters to slit desired position and fix

Fix using hex head tek screws where hip corner sits on frame support structure. These creeper rafters will be pre-notched and supplied loose for on-site fitting.

The body(CENTRE) of the hip corner will be built and fixed together by steel frame solutions

Fix using hex head tek screw to top chord hip corner intersection

Hip corner construction

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6.2 Fascia

The fascia board is the long, straight board that runs along the lower edge of the roof. The fascia is fixed directly to the roof trusses and usually does all the work of supporting the bottom row of tiles and carrying all the guttering. This is no mean feat, especially when it is raining hard. In a downpour the roof of a 3-bed semi could be washing several gallons of water per second into its gutters.

6.2.1 Fascia Capping:

Fascia cap is applied onto the fascia board for aesthetic and protection usage.

6.4 Roof Covers

Clay Roof Tile from Thailand

6.4.1 Installation:

Single Lap Tiling

6.3 Ridge Capping

A ridge cap vent is often used to help ventilate the home, which can lead to improved energy efficiency and greater levels of comfort for occupants. To add a ridge cap vent, a hole must be cut along the entire length of the ridge to create air flow. A plastic or metal vent is nailed over the ridge to cover this hole, and is then covered with shingles or a separate ridge gap to create the desired appearance.Ridge cap vents are baffled to allow hot air to escape without letting water enter the home. They feature an inverted “U" shape that fits over the ridge while sitting slightly above the surface of the roof. Because water can't travel uphill, moisture is not able to penetrate the home through these vents. This baffled structure also helps to keep out dirt and leaves, and minimizes the impact of wind gusts. Some ridge cap vents may use a mesh screen to keep bugs and other pests from entering the home.

Single Lap Tiling is used for the installation of roof covers. The single lap of one tile over another provides the weather tightness as opposed to the two layers of tiles used in double lap tiling. The single lap tiles produced in clay and concrete have a tongue and groove joint along their side edges and in some patterns on all four edges which forms a series of interlocking joints and therefore these tiles are called single lap interlocking tiles. Generally there will be an overall reduction in the weight of the roof covering when compared with double lap tiling but the batten size is larger than that used for plain tiles and as a minimum every tile in alternate courses should be twice nailed, although a good specification will require every tile to be twice nailed. The gauge or batten spacing for single lap tiling is found by subtracting the end lap from the length of the tile.

6.5 Roof underlaysRoof Underlays

Sometimes called sarking or roofing felt provides the barrier to the entry of snow, wind and rain blown between the tiles or slates. It also prevents the entry of water from capillary action.

Bitumen fibre based felts - supplied in rolls 1m wide and up to 25m long. Breather or vapour permeable underlay - typically produced from HDPE fibre or extruded polypropylene fibre, bonded by heat and pressure.

Materials permeable to water vapour are preferred as these do not need to be perforated to ventilate the roof space. Underlay of this is installed taut across the rafters with counter battens support to the tile battens. Where counter battens are not used, underlay should sag slightly between rafters to allow rain penetration to flow under tile battens.

Gauge

Plain tile slip or dentils bedded in troughs of profiled tiles

Half round ridge tile

Interlocking single lap tiles each nailed or clipped to battens

gaugeRidge detail

Rafters

underlay

ridge

50 x 24 Timber Batten

Typical Details

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6.6 Pitched Roof : Insulation Above Rafters

A cavity closer is also required to function as a cavity barrier to prevent fire spread, it should provide at least 30 minutes fire resistance.

A breather membrane is an alternative to conventional bituminous felt as an under-tiling layer. It has the benefit of restricting liquid water penetration whilst allowing water vapour transfer from within the roof space. This permits air circulation without perforating the under-tiling layer.

6.7 Roof Ventilation

Roof ventilation provision of eaves ventilation alone should allow adequate air circulation in most situations. However, in some climatic conditions and where the air movement is not directly at right angles to the building, moist air can be trapped in the roof apex. Therefore, supplementary ridge ventilation is recommended.

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7.0 Door Overall7.1 IntroductionDoors and doorways provide access from the outside into the interior of a building as well as passage between interior spaces. Exterior doors should provide weathertight seals when closed and maintain the approximate thermal insulation value of the exterior walls they penetrate. Interior doors should offer the desired degree of visual and acoustical privacy.

7.2 Type of DoorMost common used of timber door:

Boarded Door Flush Door Panelled Door

Panelled Door• Comprising a timber frame, a solid panel and a glass panel.• Objectives of used: To obtain skeleton framework in which the tendency to

shrinkage is reduced.To provide a pleasant appearance.

• The basic framework consist of:Stile at each side of the door (at least 10 cm wide)Horizontal top railBottom rail (15 cm wide) Intermediate railsA lock rail for housing the door lock (15 cm wide)“Mullions” or “muntin” (vertical member)

Flush DoorFlush doors are usually perfectly flat on both sides. Solid planks are rarely used for flush door. Flush doors are made up with solid or hollow cores, with two or more piles of veneer glued to the cores.

• Have flat front and back surfaces made of materials such as:PlywoodHardboardLaminated plastics

• Provides a clean surface and extensively used these days.• The commonly used forms of construction for flush doors: Solid coreSkeleton core Cellular core

Types of flush door Flush door used on site

Boarded DoorDifferent forms of boarded door:• Ledged and Battened Door• Battered, Ledged and Braced Door• Framed, Battened, Ledged and

Braced Door

Ledged and Battened Door• Simplest form of boarded door construction• The ledges (bottom, middle and top) are horizontal timber

rails which hold together the boards• Only used for such purpose as temporary buildings or sheds• The door is hung on a pair of steel “T” hinges, which are

screwed to the top and bottom ledges.

Panelled door

Ledged and battened door 48

7.3 Sub-framing

The sub-frame is installed at the early stage of construction. The installation of the main frame will only commence after the completion of other internal trades.

Sub-frame is usually fabricated with a smaller width (about 10mm) than the main frame to allow adjustment for any misalignment.

There are two methods of installing the sub-frame:1. Before wall erection 2. After wall erectionInstalling the sub-frame after wall erection is preferred as no studding of door sub-frame is needed.

The advantages of sub-frame system are:1. Prevent damages to the main frame and save cost and time from undesirable abortive works2. No staining of door frame by cement mortar and paint.3. The main frame is less likely to be subjected to warpage or shrinkage due to differential movement, tension or change in moisture content and temperature during plastering or grouting work.

Sub-frame installed at the site

Installing Door Sub-frame

1. Confirm door location against the approved house drawing. Verify that the dimensions of the opening are specified in the drawing.

2. Align the door frame of sub-frame against the setting outlines, 1m datum line and level pegs.

3. Secure the frame temporarily using timber wedges. Adjust the position of the wedges to obtain the required vertical and horizontal alignment.

4. After verifying the alignment of the frame, fasten the frame in position using approved wall plugs or galvanised straps. (timber bracing can be used to support and maintain the squareness of the frame)

5. Group the gap between the wall and door frame. (timber strip should be used to provide s firm backing during grouting to enhance the compactness of the grout.)

Remarks: (a) Do not remove any props/bracing and wedges until grouting and plastering are fully cured. (b) Door frame traditional system should be protected to minimize physical damages. 4

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7.4 Main Frame

Installing Door Main Frame

1. Verify the dimension of the sub-framing. (Carry out site measurement to confirm the required dimensions of the door frame before proceeding to actual fabrication of the frame.)

2. Where possible, the completed set of main frame, architrave and door panel should be delivered directly to the unit where the door is to be installed. (Check to ensure that the frame, panel and architrave are of the correct type, size and quality. Provision of openings for the installation of ironmongery such as hinges and lockset should be pre-cut in the factory to minimize site cutting.)

3. Assemble the pre-cut main frame using finishes nails or screws if the frame is not pre-assembled in the factory. (It is recommended that the main frame be assembled in the factory for better quality assurance.)

4. Apply approved bonding agent evenly over the sub-frame and main frame. (It is recommended that silicon be applied on the bottom edges of the frame for better water resistance.)

5. Installed the main frame onto the sub-frame. (Timber wedges could be used to temporarily secure the main frame. Check that the main frame is properly aligned horizontally and vertically. If necessary, door panel template could be used to check the squareness and size of opening.

6. Secure the main frame onto the sub-frame using wave nails. (Wave nails are preferred as they provide better securing of the main frame onto the sub-frame.)

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7.5 Door Panel and Ironmongery

Installing door panel and ironmongery

1. Select the correct door panel as per approved house drawing. (Check the dimensions of the door panel against the opening. Check visually for any surface damage before installation.)

2. Install the door panel. (Recess or opening for the installation of hinges should be pre-cut in the factory prior to delivery to project site.) (Ensure proper alignment and verify the under-cut dimensions before fastening the hinges.)

3. Install the lockset. (Check and ensure the correct type of lockset is used.) (After fixing the ironmongeries, a simple functional test should be conducted by closing and opening the door. The ironmonger should operate smoothly.)

Type of Ironmongery

1. Door handle, latch and lock In most cases, door handle, latch and lock work as a set operate in conjunction with one another. The type of latch and lock used for a door depends mainly on the degree of security required. Internal door normally required only a latch fitted with suitable handle.

2. Cylindrical lockThis is the mostly used for internal door. It is relatively cheaper and easy to install.

Cylindrical lock used on site

3. LatchThis is the normally used for added security for external doors.

4. HingesThe mostly commonly used hinges for external doors are butt hinges. For large doors such as width of door more than 1.2m, pivoted hinges are quite commonly used.

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7.6 Architraves

Installing architraves

Check and ensure the right type of architrave is used. (Check for any blemishes or cracks on the architraves. Remove any unwanted material or stains around the architrave area.)

Step 1

Step 2

Step3

Apply bonding agent to the under-side of the architrave according to manufacturer’s recommendation. (Ensure that the gap between the wall finishes and frame is concealed before slotting the architrave on the mainframe.

Install the architrave. (Ensure the mitre-joints are flat and square. Nails used to secure the architrave should be fastened at inconspicuous location. The nail holes should be patched up with matching wood filler. The patched areas should then be sanded down after the curing of the wood filler. 5

2

8.0 Windows

8.2 Materials used on siteMaterials used for window frame is Aluminium, While the type of glass in use is Float Glass.

Advantages1. Slim Profile2. Durable3. Narrow sight lines4. Low Maintenance

Light yet strong. The narrowness of the frame places the focus on the glass and subsequently, the view it offers. Sealed, mechanically joined corners stay square and true over years of use. Compared with vinyl, fiberglass and wood frames, aluminum conducts heat and cold the least well. To reduce heat flow, Thermally Improved Aluminum windows are equipped with thermal breaks to separate the interior and exterior surfaces and improve energy efficiency.

Finish - untreated aluminium is prone to surface oxidation. Matt is applied to prevent oxidation.

Thermal insulation - poor insulation and high conductivity. But they can be considerably enhanced by a thermal infilling of closed cell foam.

Condensation - a high strength 2-part polyurethane resin thermal break between internal and external profiles inhibits cold bridging. This reduces the opportunity for condensation to form on the surface. The indicative U-values given on the preceding page are based on a thermal break of 4mm. If this is increased to 16mm, the values can be reduced by up to 0.2 W/m2 K.

8.2.2 Float Glass

Float glass gets its name from the modern process used to create large, thin, flat panels from molten glass. The molten glass is passed onto a pool of molten tin. This process produces a very smooth piece of glass with a highly consistent thickness. Float glass is manufactured using a melt process whereby recycled glass, silica sand, lime, potash and soda are melted in a furnace and floated onto a bed of molten tin. The molten mass solidifies slowly while flowing over the bed of molten tin, after which it is annealed to remove stresses induced during the cooling process. Annealing also allows the glass to reach a more stable state resulting in a higher density and higher refractive index.

Advantages1. High degree of light transmission2. Ability to be produced in a range of colour3. Ability to be produced in a range of opacities4. Good chemical inertness5. Attacked by hydrofluoric (HF) acid Building industryFloat glass is used for smaller windows in domestic housing. Larger windows are made from toughened glasses. Glass is used for windows for aesthetic and functional reasons, allowing the occupants to see out and at the same time allowing light in.

8.1 IntroductionWindow is an opening in the wall of a building that allows ventilation and sound to enter. Modern windows are usually glazed or covered in some other transparent or translucent material. Windows are held in place by frames.

Aluminium Window Frame

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8.3 Types of windows usedConsist of three types of windows which are used in the site, Fixed Window, Side Hung Casement Window and Adjustable Louvers Window.

8.3.1 Adjustable louvres windows with security bar

- Comprises horizontal glass panes, which are either fixed at an angle, or adjustable to control the amount of light and ventilation through the window.- Designed mainly for admitting light and allowing for natural ventilation.- 100% Ventilation

8.3.2 Fixed Windows

- Has a fixed glazed sash - Designed mainly for providing view, admitting light and for aesthetics purposes - Usually used in conjunction with other types- 0% Ventilation

8.3.3 Side Hung Casement Windows:

- Sash opens on hinges, pivots or friction stays - Allows airflow through almost the entire area of the window opening - Designed mainly for providing view, admitting light, allowing for natural ventilation and for aesthetics purposes - 100% Ventilation

Coupe HorizontaleHorizontal cross section

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8.4 INSTALLATION OF WINDOWS

8.4.1 Sub-frameThis system has a sub-frame that is cast in or anchored onto the wall structure. The main window frame is subsequently mounted onto the sub-frame at a later stage when all other trades have completed their works.

8.5 Glazing

Some of the windows used single glazing system while the other are double glazing system depending on the location, light penetration and related factors.

Glazing is the act of fixing glass into a frame or surround in domestic work this is usually achieved by locating the glass in a rebate and securing it with putty or beading and should be carried out in accordance with the recommendations contained in BS 6262: Glazing for buildings.

Metal Surrounds - metal casement putty if metal surround is to be painted if surround is not to be painted a non-setting compound should be used.

8.5.1 Double Glazing

Double glazing can be used to reduce the rate of heat loss through windows and glazed doors or it can be employed to reduce the sound transmission through windows. In the context of thermal insulation this is achieved by having a small air or argon gas filled space within the range of 6 to 20mm between the two layers of glass. The sealed double glazing unit will also prevent internal misting by condensation. If metal frames are used these should have a thermal break incorporated in their design. All opening sashes in a double glazing system should be fitted with adequate weather seals to reduce the rate of heat loss through the opening clearance gap.

In the context of sound insulation three factors affect the performance of double glazing. Firstly good installation to ensure airtightness, secondly the weight of glass used and thirdly the size of air space between the layers of glass. The heavier the glass used the better the sound insulation and the air space needs to be within the range of 50 to 300mm. Absorbent lining to the reveals within the air space will also improve the sound insulation properties of the system.

Effects of Glazing

8.5.2 Type of Glazing System used: Structural Gasket

Structural Gasket: Usually performed of synthetic rubber to secure glass pane in a window frame. Glass pane must be supported on at least two side by the gasket.

Advantages• Generally has better weather tightness performance• Can be used for precast or cast in-situ wall systems which do not require plastering• Allows greater flexibility in the sequencing of works of other trades; the sub-frame is installed first so that wet trades around the window can be completed before subsequent installation of the main frame and• The outer frames are installed after all wet trades around the windows are completed and hence, are subject to lower risk of physical damages

1&2: Position of sub-frame

4. Sealing of anchor/bolt heads and joints between external wall and sub-frame

5. Protection of sub-frame 6. Preparation for installation of main frame

7. Installation of main frame

3.Fixing of Sub-frame

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Throughout this project, we’ve come to the conclusion that in the construction industry, organization and proper planning of work is needed. The architects and contractors also have to abide by the Malaysia Building by Law book to ensure that the respective buildings are following the guidelines.

We were consider very lucky to visit the site which is located in Kota Puteri, Rawang, Selangor which approached a good organization and planning. There are 198 units’ double stories townhouse who are planned to be constructed, each lot cost about Rm320,000.00*. This price is even affordable for those teenagers who just graduated from college, who was still searching for a job in the town and suitable living environment with lower cost. Besides the another advantage is that the site is located at a strategic location with easy access through LATAR highway, GUTHRIE Highway, NKVE Highway and Shah Alam-Batu Arang Highway. It is easy to reach to any organizational structure and facilities. Besides, it was surrounded by a mature neighborhood so the whole area will be lively.

However, there is also two major flaws in this project. Firstly, the site is about 40km away from Kuala Lumpur Centre which is inconvenient for occupants who need to work in the city and they need to get up earlier so they will not stuck in a traffic jam. Secondly is that the site is far away from LRT station and they need to walk or drive for a distance to reach there.

The types of beam used in the building is reinforced concrete beam / column. While for the wall is masonry wall consist of sand lime bricks and burnt clay bricks; for the staircase type is Quarter – Turn Stair, also known as L- stair. As for the railing type is guard rail. While for the slab types, structurally-reinforced slab was used for ground floor and two way flat plate slab made with concrete for second floor. For the roof types, for the top floor is composed of pitched steel roof trusses and reinforced concrete flat roof. As for the door type is parallel timber flush door. While for the window, materials used for window frame is Aluminum, while the type of glass in use is Float Glass.

Summary of the site Reflection of the project

In a nutshell, having a great opportunity to visit the construction site has given us a whole new different experience as a degree student. By visiting the construction site, definitely everyone has gained and broaden their knowledge on how an actual building construction looks like. Moreover, architecture students get the chance to understand how most of the things work on a real construction site other than visualizing them on lecture notes or relevant books. Moreover, we are able to observe the things in the aspect of theory and is able to differentiate the practical aspect with the theory aspect such as how the construction techniques and technology was used on site.

In addition, we are able to visualize the construction site technicalities which will genuinely bring benefits to our future as an architect. Furthermore, throughout this site visit we have understood the basic process of a construction and how an organization planning is planned on a construction site. Besides that, we have seen buildings materials and are able to identify different types of simple building materials as well as the technology being applied on a site. Throughout this assignment, we were taught about the factor affecting the site such as the cost of construction as well as temporary works such as accommodation for workers and storage for building material on site. By accomplishing this report, teamwork is required in a group of 8. We have to tolerate when comes to a situation where members having disagreement on certain things. There is a need of communication between members during discussion and process of producing the report using information collected on site.

In conclusion, this project and construction site vising are beneficial to us as we get to see the practical aspect of construction site

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Citation

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