Bsc 250-Exam 3 Notes

8/10/2019 Bsc 250-Exam 3 Notes

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Chapter 23: Respiratory System

Read pp. 820 852

Learning Outcomes:

1. !p"ain the #unctions o# the respiratory system.

2. $escri%e the structure and #unction o# each o# the #o""o&ing: nasa" ca'ity(pharyn!( "aryn!( epig"ottis( trachea( %ronchi( %ronchio"es( "ungs( a"'eo"us(p"eura

3. $e)ne 'enti"ation.

*. !p"ain ho& changes in a"'eo"ar 'o"ume cause air to mo'e into and out o#the "ungs.

5. +ame t&o things that ma,e the "ungs recoi".

-. $escri%e the a"'eo"ar pressure changes and air mo'ements associated&ith inspiration and e!piration.

. $e)ne tida" 'o"ume( inspiratory reser'e 'o"ume( e!piratory reser'e'o"ume( 'ita" capacity( and residua" 'o"ume.

8. /ccording to $a"tons "a&( &hat is the partia" pressure o# a gas

. /ccording to enrys "a&( ho& does the partia" pressure and so"u%i"ity o# agas a4ect its concentration in a "iuid

10. $escri%e the mo'ement o# o!ygen and car%on dio!ide across therespiratory mem%rane and tissue capi""aries.

11. $escri%e ho& o!ygen is transported in the %"ood.

12. $escri%e ho& car%on dio!ide is transported in the %"ood.

13. !p"ain ho& p( car%on dio!ide "e'e"s( and o!ygen "e'e"s a4ectrespiratory rate.

Respiration:

the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the cells of the body and the

atmosphere

included four processes:

1. ventilation: movement of air into and out of the lungs

2. external respiration: gas exchange between air in lungs and blood3. the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide int the blood

4. internal respiration: gas exchange between blood and tissues

6unctions:

Regulation of blood pH: supply body with oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide

roduction of chemical mediators


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!oice production

"lfaction: smell

rotection

/natomy o# the Respiratory System

upper respiratory tract: includes the external nose# nasal cavity# pharynx# and associatedstructures

lower respiratory tract: includes the larynx# trachea# bronchi# and lungs

+ose

1. external nose: visible structure that forms a prominent feature of the face

2. nasal cavity: extends form the nares to the choanae$ entrance to respiratorysystem

a. lined by mucus membrane

b. nares: %nostrils& external openings of the nasal cavity

c. choanae: openings into the pharynx

d. has five functions

i. passageway for air

ii. cleans air

iii. humidifies and warms air

iv. contains olfactory organs

v. helps determine voice sound

7haryn!

1. 'ommon opening for respiratory and digestive system

2. leads to larynx and esophagus

3. divided into three regions

a. nasopharynx: extends from internal nares to uvula$ auditory tubes open into thisarea$ lined with mucous membrane

b. oropharynx: extends from uvula to epiglottis

c. laryngopharynx: extend from tip of epiglottis to opening sof the larynx and

esophagus Laryn!: %voice box&

1. attached to hyoid bone superiorly and continuous with trachea

2. three important functions:

a. provide open passageway for air movement


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b. prevents swallowed materials from entering the lower respiratory tract andregulates the passage of air into and out of the lower respiratory tract(act asswitching channel to route air and food

c. voice production

d. traps debris in air

3. )ramewor*:

consists of + cartilage connected by muscle and ligaments ,- paired small and 3are unpaired large

unpaired cartilages:

a. thyroid cartilage: /dam0s apple# largest of the unpaired

b. cricoid cartilage: anchors larynx to trachea# forms base of larynx on which othercartilages rest# most inferior

c. epiglottic: flap that covers the glottis during swallowing

three pairs of small cartilage that forms walls of larynx paired cartilages:

a. arytenoid cartilage:

b. corniculate cartilage:

c. cuneiform cartilage:

wo pairs of horiontal mucousal folds stretch across larynx

a. vocal or true vocal cords: produce sound$ inferior folds

b. vestibular or false vocal cords: superior folds

a. prevents obects form entering larynx

rachea: %windpipe&

membranous tube attached to larynx

reinforced by 1(25 '(shaped cartilage

provide airway

branch to form primary bronchi

9ronchi:tracheobronchial tree: the trachea divides to form main bronchi# which in turn divide toform smaller and smaller bronchi# leading eventually to many small tubes and sacs

1. trachea divides into left and right primary bronchi

2. insert into lungs

3. smaller branches are called bronchioles ,lac* cartilage


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4. branch to form smaller and smaller tubes

Lungs

occupy entire thoracic cavity

p"eura

each lung is located in a pleural cavity

pleural cavity is lined with parietal pleura

,pleura: serous membrane of the pleural cavity

visceral pleura covers each lung

pleural fluid fills cavity and provides lubrication

right lung has 3 lobes and left lung has 2 lobes

primary %ronchidivide into smaller secondary bronchi which in turn divide ,23orders of branching

smaller branches are called %ronchio"es

smallest division include thetermina" %ronchio"eswhich branch to form

respiratory bronchioles ,attached to alveoli

/"'eo"i: air sacs

small# air(filled chambers where gas exchange between the air and blood ta*esplace

walls of alveoli composed of a single layer of s6uamous epithelium

elastic fibers are wrapped around the alveolus for support ,supported by elastinfibers

allow alveoli to expand and recoil

alveoli are densely covered by pulmonary capillaries

type 77 pneumocytes: cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant# which ma*es it easier

for alveoli to expand during inspiration# and helps reduce surface tension of the alveoliand prevents them from collapsing

phagocytes ingest dust and microorganisms that may reach alveoli ,remove

debris

Respiratory em%rane

formed by the alveolar wall and capillary wall

where gas exchange between air and blood ta*es place

very thin layer(8to facilitate the diffusion of gases


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9oy"e!

: gas pressure

*: constant for a given temp.

!: volume of the container

R9;;?R9 7; 7@!9R;9AB R""R7"@/A " !"A?C9

as volume increases(pressure decreases

as volume decreases(pressure increases

'hange volume through contraction and relaxation of muscles of the thoraciccavity: diaphragm and external intercostals

change the volume of the pleural cavity to determine direction of air flow

contractions of the diaphragm increases the volume of the pleural cavities

)7. 23.14:

Respiratory Cyc"e:inspiration D expiration

inspiration=inha"ation:

(muscles of thorax ,diaphram and intercostals contract

(thoracic volume increases causing the lungs to expand

(intrapulmonary pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure(air moves into the lungs

e!piration=e!ha"ation:

(muscles relax

(thoracic volume decreases causing lung volume to decrease

(intrapulmonary pressure increase above atmospheric pressure

(air moves out of lungs

a"'eo"ar pressure changes during inspiration and e!piration1. the end of expiration: the intra(alveolar pressure E,alvF is e6ual to barometric

air pressure E,


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3. the end of inspiration: intra(alveolar pressure is e6ual to varometric air pressureand there is no air movement

4. during expiration: decreased thoracic volume results in decreased alveolarvolume and increased intra(alveolar pressure. intra(alveolar pressure is greater thanbarometric air pressure# and air moves out of the lungs

Respiratory >o"umes

respiratory cycle: inspiration D expiration

spirometry: the process of measuring volumes of air that move into and out of the resp.system

spirometer: device used to measure pulmonary volumes

6our 7u"monary >o"umes:

1. idal !olume: ,! volume of air moved into and out of respiratory tract in onerespiratory cycle$ during eupnea ,6uiet breathing

2. 9xpiratory Reserve !olume: ,9R! maximum volume of air forced out ofrespiratory tract after a normal exhalation

3. 7nspiratory Reserve !olume: ,7R! maximum volume of air forceably inhaledafter a normal inspiration

4. Residual !olume: ,R! volume of air in lungs after forced exhalation

Respiratory Capacities

ulmonary capacities: sum of two or more pulmonary volumes

6our 7u"monary Capacities:1. 7nspiratory capacity: the tidal volume D the inspiratory reserve volume

2. functional residual capacity: expiratory reserve volume D the residual volume

3. !ital 'apacity: ,!' maximum volume of air that can be moved into and out ofthe lungs in one respiratory cycle$ !'=!D9R!D7R!

4. otal Aung 'apacity:? >C @ R>

the sum of the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes plus the tidal volumeand the residual volume

Respiratory Rate: number of breaths per minute

Respiratory Cinute !olume: volume of air moved each minute$ ! x respiratoryrate

Aas e!change in the %ody

determined by pressure differences


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'"2 moves from tissues(8pulmonary capillaries(8alveoli

1. I transported as free '"2 within plasma

2. 23I bound to hemoglobin ,globin chain

3. 5I transported as bicarbonate ion

4ect o# O2( p( and CO2 on emog"o%in and O!ygen transport

e4ect o# 7O2

a relatively small change in blood "2 results in a relatively large change inhemoglobin saturation

as tissues use more oxygen# hemoglobin releases more oxygen to those tissues

e4ect o# p


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4ect o# CO2 on Respiratory Rate

even a small increase in '"2 in the blood stream triggers a large increase in therate and depth of ventilation

hypocapnia: lower than normal level of '"2 in bloodstream$ results in periods

when resp. movements are reduced or do not occur at all hypercapnia: a greater than normal level of '"2 in bloodstream

4ect o# O2 on Respiratory Rate

hypoxia: a decrease in oxygen below its normal values

a relatively small change in blood "2 results in a relatively large change inhemoglobin saturation


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Chapter 1: 9"ood

Learning Outcomes:

1. List and descri%e the #unctions o# %"ood.

2. List the components o# %"ood.

3. $escri%e the composition o# p"asma. List and descri%e the #unctions o# thethree common groups o# p"asma proteins.

*. List and descri%e the three common types o# #ormed e"ements.

5. $escri%e the origin and production o# the #ormed e"ements.

-. $escri%e the structure and #unction o# hemog"o%in.

. $iscuss the "i#e history o# a red %"ood ce"".

8. $iscuss the %rea,do&n and processing o# hemog"o%in.

. List and descri%e the 5 common types o# &hite %"ood ce""s.

10. $escri%e the #unction o# p"ate"ets. $iscuss the process o# hemostasis.


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globular

9NR/'9AA?A/R

a. albumins:

a. most abundant ,MI of plasma proteins

b. transport proteins(important in regulating the movement ofwater between the tissues and the blood

c. maintaining colloid osmotic pressure

d. also binds and transports other molecules in blood

b. globulins:

a. 3MI of plasma protein

b. transport proteins

c. immunoglobulins(provide protection against microorganisms

c. fibrinogens:a. 4I of plasma proteins

b. give rise to fibrin necessary for clotting ,responsible for theformation of blood clotts

;erum:

ground substance

li6uid solution

plasma without the clotting factors

6ormed e"ements: blood cells and cell fragments that consists of

erythrocytes:

red blood cells ,R


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Hemopoiesis occurs in the red bone marrow# primarily in the axial s*eleton#girdles and proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur

/ll formed elements arise from the same type of stem cell:hemocyto%"ast

Hemocytoblast: a single population of stem cells that give rise to all formed

elements of the blood divide by mitosis

di4erentiate into:

myeloid stem cell: give rise to Rdrop of blood

anucleated

cannot move on their own(they are passively moved by forces that cause theblood to circulate

simple cells

3 of the total cell volume

accounts for R


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4 subunits: each consists of a g"o%in chain and a hemegroup ,ion(containinggroup

carbon dioxide binds to the g"o%inchain ,carbaminohemoglobin

oxygen binds to hemegroup

oxyhemoglobin: when hemoglobin is exposed to oxygen and one oxygenmolecule becomes associated with each heme group

deoxygemoglobin: hemoglobin containing no oxygen

carboxyhemoglobin: a compound formed when carbon monoxide ,'" binds toiron of hemoglobin and prevents oxygen transport$ leads to what is *nown ascarbon monoxide poisoning

rythropoiesis

decreased oxygen(8*idneys release erythropoietin into blood stream(

8erythropoietin stimulated blood cell production in bone marrow(8increased oxygenlevel and restored homeostasis

9rythropoiesis and destruction of R


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4.. dying cells are usually recognied and engulfed by macrophages that will brea*down the R


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ex: the infection that enters your body

antibody:

proteins that attach to bacteria and activate mechanisms that destroy bacteria

binds specifically to antigen

ex: protein that destroys antigen

the body produces antibodies against antigens not present in R


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antibodies against the Rh antigen do not develop unless an Rh(negative person isexposed to Rh(positive blood

hemolytic disease of the newborn ,HG@:

occurs when mother is Rh(negative and fetus is Rh(positive

when fetal blood lea*s through the placenta and mixes with the motherLs blood# themother becomes sensitive to the antigen and produces antibodies that cross theplacenta and cause agglutination and hemolysis of fetal R


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2. have visible stained granules

3. have lobed nuclei

4. phagocytes: can engulf pathogens# cell debris# other material

. types of granulocytes include

neutrophils

a. 5(5(I of circulating K


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2. two types of agranulocytes:

lymphocytes

25 ( 35I of K


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4. one type of progenitor cell will give rise to each of the following: neutrophil#eosinophil# basophil or monocyte

. monocyte is the only cell type that does not fully mature in the bone marrow

-. lymphoid stem cell gives rise to lymphocytes through the process of"ymphopoiesisMactually occurs in the lymphoid tissue

7"ate"ets Fhrom%ocytesG

/. cytoplasmic fragments of mega*aryocytes


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C/P"R A/B9R: platelets

platelet plug: an accumulation of platelets that can seal small brea*s in blood

vessels

steps o# p"ate"et p"ug #ormation:

1. platelet adhesion:a. platelets stic* to cells ,collagen exposed by the blood vessel damage at theinury site

b. mediated through 'on Hi""e%rand #actor B'H6:

i. a protein produced and secreted by blood vessel endothelial cells

ii. forms a bridge between exposed collagen of the blood vessel wall andplatelets by binding to platelet surface receptors and collagen

2. platelet aggregation: more and more platelets arrive at inury site and beginstic*ing together to form the platelet plug

3. platelets release chemical signals that attract other platelets as well as causeincrease vascular contraction# blood coagulation# and endothelial repair

3. Coagu"ation phase

C/P"R A/B9R: plasma protein

a. Fcomp"e! series o# steps that "ead to the con'ersion o# circu"ating)%rinogen to )%rinG

%. blood clot: networ* of protein fibers called)%rin

a. fibrin forms networ* that covers platelet plug and traps blood cells andplatelets: blood clot

c. clot retraction: platelets contract to reduce the sie of the clot

a. condensation of a clot into a denser# compact structure$ caused by theelastic nature of fibrin

,A/9A9 A? D )7


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hrom%osis: clotting in an unbro*en blood vessel

may form when:

1. platelets encounter damaged or diseased areas on the walls of blood vessels or theheart

2. there is a rough surface on vessel wall3. blood flows too slowly

emophy"ia: lac* the ability to form blood clotts

Chapter 22 Lymphatic System

Read pp. 8N3

Learning Outcomes:1. List the parts o# the "ymphatic system and descri%e the main #unctions o#the "ymphatic system.

2. $escri%e the characteristics o# a "ymphatic 'esse" that a""o& su%stancesto enter the 'esse" easi"y.

3. Hhat areas o# the %ody are drained %y the right "ymphatic duct and thethoracic duct

*. $escri%e the "ocation and #unction o# /L.

5. $escri%e the "ocation and #unction o# the tonsi"s.

-. Hhat are the #unctions o# the "ymph nodes( sp"een( and thymus. $istinguish %et&een innate and adapti'e immunity.

8. List the three main components o# innate immunity.

. List t&o mechanica" mechanisms that pre'ent entry o# microorganismsinto the %ody.

10. $escri%e the #unctions o# comp"ement( inter#erons( and other chemica"mediators o# immunity.

11. $escri%e the #unctions o# the 'arious ce""s o# immunity.

12. $escri%e inammation and #e'er.

Lymphatic System: consists of lymphatic vessels# lymph# lymphoid organs

6unctions

1. production# maintenance and distribution of lymphocytes

2. return of fluid and solutes from peripheral tissue to blood


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3. distribution of hormones# nutrients and waste products from their tissue of originto general circulation

4. "ipid a%sorption:

. de#ense:

Components o# the Lymphatic SystemLymphatics:

lymph vessels

carry lymph from peripheral tissue to venous system

differ from blood capillaries in that lymphatics originate in blind poc*ets# have alarger diameter# and have thinner walls

endothelial cells of walls are not tightly bound# but do overlap$ allows fluids toenter but not leave

lacteals: are lymphatic capillaries in small intestines that absorb lipids

present in almost all tissues and organs

two large collecting lymph vessels: thoracic ductand right "ymphatic duct

thoracic duct: largest lymphatic vessel$ drains lymph from the right side of thebody inferior to the thorax and the entire left side of the body

right lymphatic duct: drain the right side of the head# upper(right limb# andright thorax

Lymphoid nodu"es

loose connective tissue pac*ed tightly with lymphocytes

located beneath the epithelial lining of respiratory# digestive and urinary tracts

larger nodules include the eyer0s patch of the intestines and the tonsils of the

respiratory tract

Lymphoid organs:

separated from surrounding tissue by a fibrous connective tissue capsule

Aymph nodes:

function to filter lymph before it enters bloodstream# contains macrophages and

lymphocytes

thymus located behind sternum

functionally most important during early years of life

decreases in sie after puberty

secretes hormones that cause lymphocytes to mature

spleen


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largest lymphoid organ

located along lateral border of the stomach

functions to remove abnormal blood cells$ stores recycled iron

involved in the activation of lymphocytes

Dmmunity: the bodyLs ability to resist damage from foreign substances or internalthreats

7nnate immunity ,non(specific immunity responds in a similar fashion with each

threat# no specificity

present at birth ,born with it

response is always the same

ex: fever

/daptive immunity ,specific immunity body recognies and destroys threat# butimproves with each bout

improvement in response with each infection

< and cells

Components o# Dnnate Dmmunity

Cechanical mechanisms ,physical barriers: deny access into the body$ includes*in# mucous membranes# linings of tracts

physical barriers

deny access into body

include:

1. s*in

2. mucous membrane

3. epithelial ling of tracts

4. acids in stomach

Chemica" ediators

'omplement: group of serum proteins that stimulates phagocytosis andinflammation

interact with antibodies to destroy pathogens

bore holes

all purpose

7nterferon: proteins that prevent viral replication


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%interfere& with viral infections

virally infected cells secrete interferons

%save(yourself& signals

pyrogens: chemicals released by neutrophils# monocytes# and other cells# that

stimulate fever production

causes fever

different chemicals that reset the bodyLs %thermostat&

leu*otrienes: group of lipids# produced primarily by mast cells and basophils# thatcause prolonged smooth muscle contraction# increase vascular permeability# andattract neutrophils and eosinophils

increase inflammation

resrict air passageways

attract other K


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due to increased vasodilation and permeability of blood vessels

damage tissue and defense cells release chemical signals that increase blood flow

to inury site and increase permeability of vessels at inury site and therefore cause theinflammation

local inflammation: systematic inflammation:

Bsc 250-Exam 3 Notes

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