Brown Influenza

7212019 Brown Influenza

httpslidepdfcomreaderfullbrown-influenza 110

983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo

As the theme of this publication begs a philologicalquestion it seems logical to begin with a considerationof the meaning derivation and usage of the term lsquoin-fluencersquo It is subject to a number of definitions with-in most major dictionaries (such as the Oxford English

Dictionary) which can include the following983089 An emanation from the stars or an inflow of wa-

ter fluid or immaterial things These phenom-ena have often been credited with exerting aneffect on the destiny of humanity and its meta-

physical and biological humours Similar principles of attraction and repulsion and of lsquomagneticrsquoinfluence can also be extended to principles ofelectrical induction

983090 (vb) To cause to flow in to infuse or instil983091 The exercising of power or of the ability to

manipulate those in positions of authority or power

983092 The inflowing into a person or thing of any con-ceptual power or principle

983093 The exertion of action by person or thing of which the operation is unseen or perceptible onlyin its effects

983094 The ability to affect or produce effect983095 The capacity to produce effects by insensible

means without employing material force or for-mal authority This might take the form of anascendancy of person or social group the exer-tion of moral power ascendancy sway controlor authority not formally or overtly expressed

What then are the origins of the term and what

do we know of its early use Did the concept of inf lu-ence in fact enjoy any currency during the MiddleAges The derivation of the word is from the Latininfluere to flow in In classical sources its meaning isapplied literally to the flowing in of rivers and the seabut also to the streaming in of persons wealth andgifts It could also apply in a more abstract sense tothe sinking in or infiltration of words and ideas

Medieval Latin has it as influentia Spanish and Por-tuguese as influencia and Italian as influenza1 It alsocorresponds to influxus and was used throughout theMiddle Ages in the context of influxus stellarum orastral inf luence occurring as early as the fourth cen-tury in Firmicus and in sources such as Pico di Mi-randolarsquos Astrologos iii983093 Chaucer embraces The con-cept in the early 983089983091983096983088s in Troilus iii l 983094983089983096 lsquoOinfluences of thuise hevenes hye rsquo and Lydgatearound 983089983092983091983088 in his Compleint of the Black Knight 983094983091983088 writes lsquoO Goddesse immortall hellip let the streamesof thine inf luence Descend downrsquo Likewise Caxtonin 983089983092983096983091 writes in Cato Evb lsquoThe synne whyche Ihave doon ageynst myn owne wylle and by the inf lu-ence of the planette on which I am bornersquo

The origins of this concept of an external agencydirecting human action and will is probably as old ashumankind It is found in the Bible in Job 983091983096983091983089

which in the Geneva version of 983089983093983094983088 is translated aslsquoCanst thou restraine the sweete influences of the

Pleiadesrsquo a motif echoed by Milton in 983089983094983094983095 in his Paradise Lost vii983091983095983093 when he writes lsquoThe Pleiadesbefore him dancrsquod Shedding sweet influencersquo Thetransmission of this mode of visualization to themodern world was assured by Shakespearersquos lsquostar-crossed loversrsquo This concept goes some way towardsaccounting for the complex interrelationship betweenastronomy and astrology that pervades medieval lifeand art and which is to be found prefacing many adevotional and scientific book in the form of the per-

petual link between time the land the lives of those who inhabit and labour upon it and the inf luences

of the stars symbolised by the Kalendar with its ac-companying zodiac symbols and labours of themonths The figures depicting these iconographies inthe Sherborne Missal (British Library Add MS983095983092983090983091983094) for example have donned fifteenth-centuryEnglish dress but they are Roman to the core2

Perhaps the most striking representation of theconcept of influxus stellarum is the zodiac man such

An Early Outbreak of lsquoInfluenzarsquoAspects of Influence Medieval and Modern

Michelle P Brown



2 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150

as the figure who graces the guild book of the barber-surgeons of York (British Library Egerton MS 983090983093983095983090)Having to wait for your trepanning operation untilthe influences of the stars were propitious could haveleft you in little doubt of the presence of forces great-

er than yourself no less than the sense that the mys-terious conjunction of influences of the Treasury theNational Health Service and the Hospital Trustscan shape our destinies today

Something of the same etymological nature asastral influence could be applied to the exercise of

personal power by human beings as attested inLydgatersquos Lyfe of St Alban of 983089983092983091983097 (983089983093983091983092) Aii in whichhe writes lsquoI stande in hope his inf luence shall shyneMy tremblying penne by grace to enlumynersquo and inShakespearersquos Two Gentlemen of Verona IIIi983089983096983091 lsquoIfI be not by her faire influence Fosterrsquod illuminrsquodcherishrsquod kept aliversquo

As thinking in the realms of both physics andmetaphysics grew more widespread so the principleof influxus physicus physical influence developeddenoting the exertion of action of which the opera-tion is unseen or perceptible only in its effects by one

person or thing upon another Shakespearersquos lsquogibingspirit Whose influence is begot of that loose grace

Which shallow laughing hearers give to foolesrsquo ( Lo983158ersquos Labourrsquos Lost Vii983096983094983097) In 983089983094983088983091 Francis Bacon sum-marised its rationalisation within the modern world

as lsquoThe wisdom of conversation hellip hath hellip an influ-ence also into business and governmentrsquo (The Ad-vancement of Learning IIxxiii para 983091)3 The conceptof lsquohow to make friends and inf luence peoplersquo still sobeloved of sociologists psychologists and lobbyiststoday had emerged blinking at its own dazzling

power into the light of linguistic dayOverarching all of this during the Middle Ages

was the concept of the inflowing or infusion into a person or thing of divine spiritual moral or imma-terial power or principle mdash influentia divina a con-cept encountered in the Bible Wisdom 983095983090983093 lsquoShe is

the breath of the power of God and a pure inf luenceflowing from the glory of the Almightyrsquo This con-cept is encountered increasingly from the thirteenthcentury and was expounded by Aquinas around983089983090983094983088 as influentia causae a scholastic enshrinementof the principle of cause and effect introduced tonorthern Europe by its implicit pervasion of the writ-ings of Bede (and perpetuated in many lsquomodernrsquo

theories such as Marxist dialectics) This was essen-tially a Christianisation of the Platonic idea of alsquoprime moverrsquo described by Thomas Aylesbury in asermon of 983089983094983090983092 as lsquothe unknowne God whose influ-ence to all his Creatures was made known by the

Poetrsquo4 The role of literature and art in conveying themystery of the invisible force that binds all thingstogether across time and space has always been a fun-damental one lsquoInfluencersquo has long been one of itscognomens

A final colloquial gloss might be added here Byat least 983089983093983088983092 in Italian usage influenza was being usedto denote an outbreak or epidemic affecting many

people in the same time and place Subsequently applied in a less sinister context than that of the plaguesthat then beset Europe the concept of fashionemerged As Mrs A M Bennett (Juvenile Indiscre-tions 983089983095983096983094 I983089983093983091) wrote in 983089983095983096983093 lsquoMr Downes was cer-tainly smitten with Lavinia Orthodox but not withthe matrimonial influenzarsquo5

There is therefore a considerable degree of lsquohis-toricalrsquo validity to the retention of the term lsquoinflu-encersquo as denoting a wide variety of aspects of medievalthought and potentially of their manifestation inart What then of its use in the study of the periodThe papers in this volume alone would signal a levelof unease in its modes of application There is a sensein which the somewhat nebulous imprecision im-

plicit in the very intangibility of the concept occa-sions suspicion in those intent both upon theorisingand lsquoreal art historyrsquo (if there may be deemed to besuch a counterpart to what has become known as lsquorealliteraturersquo) This has in turn provoked an apologiafrom some critics

To summarise the two extremes and considersome of the issues raised let us look briefly at thecontrasting stances of Michael Baxandall in his lsquoEx-cursus against influencersquo a passage in his Patterns of

Intention On the Historical Explanation of Pictures (published by Yale University Press in 983089983097983096983093) and Ha-

rold Bloomrsquos The Anxiety of Influence A Theory of Poetry first published in 983089983097983095983091 but reissued as a secondedition by Oxford University Press in 983089983097983097983095 with animportant new authorial preface6

Baxandall lays his cards on the table by opening hisattack on the use of the term with the phrase lsquoMen-tion just now of Ceacutezanne brings me to a stumbling-



983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo

block or scandal mdash the notion of artistic ldquoinfluencerdquoof one painter ldquoinfluencingrdquo another mdash which I mustspend a couple of pages trying to kick just enough outof my road to pass onrsquo7 For Baxandall lsquoinfluencersquo isa lsquocurse of art criticismrsquo primarily because it implies

that the active element is the precursor which influ-ences the passive follower For him it is the second

party who if anything inf luences the former by en-gaging with or appropriating from his work Hedescribes the use of the word as lsquoshifty To say that Xinfluenced Y in some matter is to beg the question ofcause without quite appearing to do sorsquo Here we haveit the crux of any debate concerning the nature anduse of lsquoinf luencersquo takes us immediately into the realmof philosophy and personal creed Is there any suchthing as a lsquoprime moverrsquo a momentum to history andCreationcreativity mdash an influxus stellarum or in-

fluxus physicus mdash or is there only ultimately the in-dividual an island or continent imbued with the

power of drift which selects its own course and des-tiny No wonder the term is controversial

In their own ways both Baxandall the denigratorof lsquoinfluencersquo and Bloom its champion (in terms ofboth its positive and negative impact) come down infavour of self-determinism Baxandall is preoccupied

with the lsquopicturersquo and the lsquoartistrsquo both of which areimbued with a distinct persona Bloom concernshimself with Shakespeare as poet-supreme the inven-

tor of modern man flirting with Borgesrsquos contentionthat lsquoShakespeare is at once everyone and no onersquo 8 Ishall not dwell on Bloomrsquos theory of the anxiety ofinfluence Suffice it to say that his essential premiseis that there is a fundamental human fear of lack oforiginality especially within the context of modernculture and criticism In his view lsquoresenters of ca-nonical literature are nothing more or less than de-niers of Shakespeare They are not social revolution-aries or even cultural rebels They are sufferers of theanxieties of Shakespearersquos influencersquo9 Thus it wasthat Wallace Stevens refuted all suggestion that he

owed anything to his reading of poetic precursorsand Jackson Pollock denied any influence upon his work of former art or that of all bar a few of his con-temporaries Baxandall summarises his own form oflsquoinferential criticismrsquo as lsquohow we describe the paint-errsquos aims how we consider for critical purposes hisrelation to his culture how we deal with his relationto other painters and whether we can accommodate

within our account the element of process of progres-sive self-revision involved in painting a picturersquo10 Heis concerned with lsquothe cause-inferring strain inherentin our thinking about pictures as about other thingsrsquobut he has no time for influence To illustrate his

process he uses a case study of the Forth Bridge tosketch a basic pattern of explanation and then ques-tions lsquowhat in the interest of a picture this explana-tion most fails to accommodatersquo11 His caveat in re-spect of what differentiates a major work ofengineering from a painting might I would suggestbe as usefully applied to the distinction between a

painting and illumination in a bookBaxandallrsquos way of viewing lsquoartrsquo may not be capa-

ble of direct transfer to the complex medium of themedieval book I must confess that for me the pic-ture or rather the artefact mdash in our case the illumi-nated manuscript mdash is a bridge which offers an in-terface between past and present the interaction of

which can inform the future We are not just ques-tioning what the artist was shaped by or what he orshe shaped we are questioning what motivates us

What are the constraints the enduring shared expe-riences the cumulative wisdom the distinct and in-dividual elements How do the shared and the indi-

vidual aspects inform and rely upon one another Artand literature are good indicators for assessing suchquestions mdash isolating artist and viewer writer and

reader (especially in illuminated manuscripts wherethe inter-relationship between text and image is par-amount) whilst setting both within their context ina temporal continuum

Whilst I myself would subscribe to the view thathistory is not only about the past mdash it is as muchabout the present and why we do what we do sayingas much about our perceptions needs and aspirationsas it can ever hope to tell us about those of other peo-

ples and periods mdash I do suspect that what Baxandallis in danger of doing is sacrificing the continuum tothe present moment rather than respecting their

complex counterpoise Even so he is unable to dis-tance himself completely from a discussion of lsquoautho-rial intentionrsquo of which he is suspicious as a species oflsquoliterary hermeneuticsrsquo labelling his own position aslsquoone of naiumlve but sceptical intentionalismrsquo12

Baxandall compares the action of one artist uponanother to a game of pool in which the cue-ball thathits another is not X but Y impelled by the cue of



4 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150

intention Yrsquos purposeful movement repositions Xand each end up in a new relation to the other balls

What he omits to note is that the moment at whichY moves is but a stage in the on-going game and thathe has himself formerly been positioned mdash he is not

automatically the cue-ball Art history is if you likea pool game without a cue-ball unless that ballshould after al l prove to be lsquoinf luencersquo In pursuit ofhis analogy Baxandall posits that Picasso was notinfluenced by Ceacutezanne but that his decision to referto Ceacutezanne as well as to other art such as Africansculpture in fact shaped our perception of CeacutezanneThis relies upon the assumption of the existence ofseminal artists who create free from constraint butempowered by choice This assumes rather disin-genuously that the modern lsquoartistrsquo is free of the con-straints of patronage and commercial imperativeThis is certainly seldom the case in respect of medi-eval book production in which we are rarely dealing

with lsquothe artistrsquo but with teams of lsquo jobbingrsquo crafts-men and women (whether motivated by faith orfinance or both) whose choices were informed by thedelicate counterpoint between traditio and inno983158a-tio between instigator maker and user Even whenthe lsquoartistrsquo is also the primary conceptualiser of a

project as in the case of those medieval lsquodesk-top publishersrsquo Giraldus Cambrensis Matthew Paris andChristine de Pizan their role as artist is subordinate

to that of author Baxandall anticipates this somewhat when he writes lsquothere are cultures mdash most ob- viously various medieval cultures mdash in which adher-ence to existing types and styles is very well thoughtof But then in both cases there are questions to beasked about the institutional and ideological frame-

works in which these things were so there are causesof Y referring to X part of his Charge or Brief mdash oneof these causes might of course be influence espe-cially as understood during the Middle Agesrsquo13 Iron-ically Baxandall is forced back upon the etymologi-cal root of influence when he discusses lsquointentional

fluxrsquo and when he asserts that lsquofor an incident to beserendipitous there must be serendipity criteria andthese constitute an intentionrsquo14 This is coming dan-gerously close to the medieval concept of astral flux

Perhaps after all Baxandallrsquos biggest problem with lsquoinf luencersquo is that it limits vocabulary He pre-fers the diversification and specification of phrasessuch as draw on appropriate from adapt misunder-

stand assimilate copy absorb master and transformBut these other terms are not without their problemsand baggage No self-respecting art historian wouldfor example refer to the Harley (see pl 983092) Eadwineor Paris Psalters as lsquocopiesrsquo of the Utrecht Psalter15

These are not reprographic responses For Baxandalllsquoto think in terms of inf luence blunts thought by im-

poverishing the means of differentiationrsquo16 This canbe so but inf luence also has its own specific applica-tions as we have seen When used in a nebulous fash-ion its very lack of specificity can be valuable espe-cially when considering a period such as the MiddleAges from which so little of the artistic voice andevidence of individual context survives save that ex-tracted from the work itself and even then rates ofsurvival mean that the lacunae surrounding any one

work have to be as resonant as the survivor itself Insuch a situation to specify intent and relationshipmay be to overconfine and to distort

I should like now briefly to explore some of the per-spectives of lsquoinf luencersquo and its application medievaland modern with specific reference to four works ofInsular and Anglo-Saxon art the Lindisfarne Gos-

pels (British Library Cotton MS Nero Div see pl 983089)17 the Vespasian Psalter (British Library CottonMS Vespasian Ai see pl 983090)18 the Harley Aratea(British Library Harley MS 983090983093983088983094 see pl 983091) and the

Harley Psalter (British Library Harley MS 983094983088983091 see pl 983092) 19

Let us start by testing Baxandallrsquos CeacutezannePi-casso model with reference to the Harley Psaltermade at Christ Church Canterbury in the early elev-enth century If that volume equals Picasso does itsmodel the Utrecht Psalter made in the Carolingiandiocese of Hautvilliers around 983096983091983088 equal CeacutezanneDo later responses to Utrecht namely the Eadwineand Paris Psalters only understand it by means of theHarley Psalterrsquos reaction to it The answer is categor-ically negative The debate concerning the respective

places in the family tree occupied by the Utrecht Psal-ter and its Romanesque relatives the Eadwine andParis Psalters largely disregards the role of its Anglo-Saxon cousin the Harley Psalter If the three latermanuscripts did not had not existed the UtrechtPsalter would still stand as a great landmark of book

production However its significance has undoubt-edly been enhanced by its subsequent influence



983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo

which is partly dictated by its own nature and partlyby its availability as an exemplar

The Carolingian Utrecht Psalter has lent itsname for modern art historians to a whole phase oflater Anglo-Saxon art mdash the Utrecht style And yet

it is supremely representative of a style of outlinedrawing characterised by its animated agitated andalmost sketchy style that was in vogue more than 983089983093983088

years earlier in an alien polity Why this harking backto an earlier imperialism as opposed to looking acrossto nascent contemporary Ottonian styles Was theaesthetic attraction of this refined and rather mini-malist style a key factor in its success within a culturethat for centuries had valued calligraphic penworkand that had picked up on outline drawing lsquofirst timearoundrsquo in works associated with the earlier Churchreformer Dunstan as expressed admittedly in a morestable less mannered form in his lsquoClassbookrsquo20 Wasthe reputation of an earlier scriptorium (Reims) orof a particular book (the Utrecht Psalter) paramountor was the generality of association with the Carol-ingian reno983158atio enough to ensure the success of theUtrecht Psalter as a covetable model Was the choiceof this regional style in any sense a reaction againstthe espousal of a luxurious colourful fully paintedand gilded form of book painting known as thelsquoWinchesterrsquo style with its debt to works from Char-lemagnersquos court school Was the personal reputation

and auctoritas of Archbishop Ebbo a factor in theselection by his later counterpart at Canterbury of a work associated with the dignity and independenceof the archiepiscopate We can postulate but we can-not know We do know however that the lsquonon-cop-iesrsquo the reactions to the Utrecht Psalter have in onesense made it more than itself as has the chance fac-tor of its survival along with its later lsquoderivativesrsquoNonetheless Utrecht was already an artistic mile-stone in its own right and it is that which ultimatelyguaranteed its desirability as a model Its own suc-cessful response to the influences of late antique and

early Christian art and to the intellectual soil ofCarolingia in which those ideas took root and blos-somed in distinctive local fashion rendered it in turna successful agent of influence I would not wish tobe less nebulous than that in this respect

The Harley Psalter represents the response of a patron the archbishop of Canterbury (probably depicted in its opening initial) and the Christ Church

scriptorium to a particular styleethos and a particu-lar book The furore that erupted in the scriptoriumas artists and scribes some of them no doubt one andthe same grappled with the challenges posed by oneof the most demanding and sustained examples of the

integration of text and image to have been made todate can be imagined The problems of converting acomplex mise-en-page to accommodate a differenttextual rescension (the Romanum as used in Canter-bury as opposed to the Gallicanum as used in Caro-lingia) a different lsquofont sizersquo (English Caroline mi-nuscule rather than Carolingian antiquarian rusticcapitals) and different theological points of emphasis

within the picture poems that are its i llustrationstaught the scriptorium all there was to know aboutbook production at that time You can almost hearthe outcry and dilemma of the artist-scribe EaduiBasan as he veered between the allegiances of hisdual art as first artists and then scribes seized theinitiative in the layout process in order to accommo-date the needs of their own craft Herein perchancemay lie a large part of the secret of the Utrecht Psal-terrsquos success mdash it had a tremendous amount to teach

peopleThe Utrecht Psalter and the Utrecht style had

already provoked a more individual response fromanother Anglo-Saxon artist who was responsible forilluminating several extant books notably the Harley

Aratea the Ramsey Psalter and the Boulogne Gos- pels in the late tenth century21 This was an artistand perhaps also a scribe if the evidence of the closerelationship between script and decoration in theRamsey Psalter is to be heeded who travelled and

who absorbed lsquoinf luencesrsquo as he went The RamseyPsalter is thought from liturgical evidence to havebeen made at Winchester (or less likely Ramsey)The Boulogne Gospels were made at St Bertin andthe Aratea was written by scribes at Fleury but both

were illustrated by our English artist the former in acuriously flat mixed technique of fully painted and

outline drawing and the latter in a refined eleganttinted drawing technique that is highly redolent ofthe ninth-century Carolingian lsquoReimsrsquo style with itsfine broken-line penwork This artist was well awareof influxus stellarum and may well have felt himselfto be within the pull of the lsquomoist starrsquo (the moon) inreflecting both indigenous traditions and those ofthe golden age of an earlier empire It has been sug-



6 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150

gested that his mobility may imply that he was a lay-man but there is little evidence for such at this period(although it is certainly not impossible) and it is morelikely that he travelled as part of the retinue of a

prince of the Church or that like his fellow country-

man Eadui Basan his skill as an artist andor scribeled to his being pulled out of the cloister and thescriptorium to ply his art at the behest of high-rank-ing clerical or secular powers (in Eaduirsquos case KingCnut and his queen Emma)22 A contemporary ofEaduirsquos in early eleventh-century Canterbury AelfricBata complains in a verse about scribes who insteadof observing the discipline of the cloister and teach-ing are out on the road earning fame and no doubtmoney Are we witnessing the origins of lsquothe artistrsquoor is there a recollection here of the earlier Insulartradition of the hero-scribe such as St Columba andEadfrith23 If the Aratea artist developed his appre-ciation of what must by this time have been a ratherantiquarian Reimsian style whilst working in scrip-toria within Frankia as well as consulting otherCarolingian works such as the great ninth-centuryAratea British Library Harley MS 983094983092983095 which wasin England by this time might he have played a partin spreading word of its covetable masterwork theUtrecht Psalter which was then secured as an exem-

plar by the English primate It is difficult to say which inf luences may be at work here but hard to

avoid the use of the concept of influence in someformRetreating into the comparative safety of the twi-

light of the Insular world mdash the Dark Ages in whichthe only darkness is the cloud of our own unknowingmdash I should like to turn attention for a few momentsto the Vespasian Psalter This is generally accepted asa Kentish work of the early eighth century madearound the 983095983090983088sndash983091983088s at about the time that I wouldsuggest its Northumbrian counterpart the Lindis-farne Gospels was completed It is usually ascribedfollowing the work of David Wright in his commen-

tary to the Early English Manuscripts in Facsimile volume to Canterbury its provenance pointing to its probable presence upon the high altar at St Augus-tinersquos in the fourteenth century (as indicated by Tho-mas of Elmham)24 But provenance evidence can bedeceptive St Augustinersquos absorbed Minster-in-Than-etrsquos property and books in much the same way as thecommunity of St Cuthbert acquired those of Monk-

wearmouth-Jarrow when they were gifted with Ches-ter-le-Street as their new caput (by way of thanks forengineering the deposition of a hostile Viking leaderin favour of a more amenable Dane Guthred mdash butthat is another story)25 Magnet theory is always dan-

gerous especially when studying a period for whichthe evidence is so fragmentary At the time that theVespasian Psalter was made the nuns of Minster-in-Thanet in Kent situated near to the place where StAugustinersquos mission had made landfall upon Englishsoil are known to have been making books 26 Theremarkable correspondence that survives from the983095983091983088s between their abbess Eadburh and her friendBoniface engaged in the perilous work of conversionin the Germanic mission fields indicates that a nunsrsquoscriptorium was considered his book supply route ofchoice That this included the highest grades of pro-duction of sacred text is indicated by his behest thatEadburh produce for him books written in a largeformal bookhand (as his eyesight was not what itused to be) and a copy of the Epistles written in goldto impress the natives27 Books were powerful sym-bols and their prestigious appearance could do muchto ensure the welcome accorded to their bearers andthe Word they carried I do think that it has still tobe seriously considered that the Vespasian Psalter

with its imposing uncial script modelled on that practised in the Rome of Gregory the Great its mon-

umental imagery mdash with King David depicted as acontemporary Anglo-Saxon warlord playing theequivalent of the lyre found in the Sutton Hoo shipburial mdash and its lavish use of gold leaf might havebeen made by women at Thanet28 Rosamond McKit-terick has done much to demonstrate that books foruse in the principal churches of Merovingian Gaul

were often supplied by nuns and I have explored thecontext of early Anglo-Saxon womenrsquos books furtherfrom Cuthswith of Inkberrow to the women of earlyninth-century Mercia who made and owned prayer-books such as the Book of Nunnaminster (probably

passed on the distaff side to Alfred the Greatrsquos wifeEalhswith)29 Former scholarly resistance to such possibilities calls to mind the influence of male-dom-inated nineteenth- to twentieth-century philologyexposed and explored adeptly by Christine Fell by

which the term lsquolocborersquo encountered in the earlyseventh-century Anglo-Saxon law code of KingEthelberht of Kent (Ethelberht 983095983091) had perforce to



983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo

carry connotations of sexuality a woman who in-curred greater penalties at law for a misdemeanourbecause she was lsquolock-bearingrsquo was thought to be a

virgin because of her long hair Fell demonstratedthat lsquolock-bearingrsquo actually referred to the fact that

women ran many of the early English estates and thattheir role as chatelaines keepers of the store-keysmade a breach of trust more reprehensible30

The David image in the Vespasian Psalter (see pl983090) displays the lsquoinfluencersquo of a number of culturalstrands in visual form The rounded figure style re-calls Italo-Byzantine frescoes the architectural ar-cade likewise evokes buildings constructed more ro-manum (lsquoin Roman fashionrsquo) but the arch is filled

with a frozen static version of Celtic Ultimate LaTegravene spriralwork ornament and its vestigial basesand capitals with independent lsquoheraldicrsquo Germanicbeasts of Southumbrian style and the blank cornersof the page are filled with exotic sprigs of Byzantineblossom The signals of a perceived multiculturalismare present but the rhetoric is not sustained Thescript that faces the image is inscribed in a monumen-tal version of uncial modelled consciously upon thatfavoured by the missionary pope Gregory and hisinjunction to Serenus of Marseilles lsquoIn images theilliterate readrsquo gives licence to the Insular imagina-tion to experiment with the ultimate expression ofmutual validation of word and image mdash the histori-

ated initial in which an image elucidating or expand-ing upon the text is actually contained within thebody of the letter part of the words it illustrates31 This is the earliest extant occurrence of its use in

Western artA different but complementary response to Gre-

goryrsquos premise can be seen in the Lindisfarne GospelsHis influence in relation to the didactic role of im-ages is balanced with that of the ongoing debateamongst peoples of the Word concerning the dangersof idolatry a topic that still greatly exercised Charle-magne and his churchmen The maker of the Lindis-

farne Gospels approaches his figural images theevangelist portraits as symbolic figurae mdash schematicrepresentations embedded within the intertextualityof exegesis32 When St John fixes the viewer with his

penetrating gaze he symbolises not only the Evange-list in his human form but the non-synoptic revela-tory nature of this particular Gospel evoked by theidentifying symbol of the eagle who flies directly to

the throne of God for inspiration and who representsthe Christ of the Second Coming The compositionof the enthroned frontal figure who unlike his coun-terparts is not depicted as a scribe but who gesturestowards heaven and the book of life that he holds is

designed to recall the Maiestas mdash this is simultane-ously the Evangelist his embodiment of an aspect ofChristrsquos persona and Christ himself enthroned atthe Last Judgement

This oblique symbolic approach to the depictionof the divine pervades the volume In the Canon Ta-bles the sacred numbers themselves embody the

Word the ministry of Christ and are approachedthrough arcades recalling the chancel and the en-trance to the Holy of Holies here formed not of cold

porphyry as in their Mediterranean precursors butof a living mass of Creation33 The cross-carpet pagesmay be intended to allude to the prayer-mats which

were a feature not only of worship in the ChristianOrient and Islam but that were used in northern Eu-rope at this time preparing the entry onto the holyground of Scripture but they are also intentional rep-resentations of the crux gemmata the jewelled cross

which symbolised the Christ of the Second Comingmdash a metalwork cross depicted as a textile on the vel-lum page34 Finally when the words introducing eachGospel explode across the page in a riot of decoration(see pl 983089) they become themselves iconic representa-

tions of the divine mdash the Word made flesh or ratherthe Word made word in a burgeoning of sacred cal-ligraphy of a sort made more familiar within the artsof Islam35

I have suggested that the masterly synthesising ofthese various cultural influences mdash I know not whatto call them more conveniently mdash occurred as part ofa conceptualised agenda of reconciliation and ecu-menism in which clerics such as Eadfrith the probableartist-scribe and planner of the Lindisfarne GospelsBede and Adomnaacuten of Iona collaborated during thefirst quarter of the eighth century There is it would

appear a measure of conscious cultural appropriationin the use of sign and symbol at play here As the pre-liminary drawings and their authorial alterations in-dicate it was significant that in Lindisfarnersquos displayscripts (see pl 983089) Roman capitals Greek letter-formsand runic stylistic features should be combined mdash theInsular world was proclaiming itself heir to the cul-tures of the past and signalling its own distinctive



8 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150

contribution rather as in their genealogy the kings ofNorthumbria traced their descent through historicalfigures to the pagan deity Woden himself made hu-man and his descent traced from Adam Likewise onthe eighth-century Northumbrian whalebone casket

known as the Franks Casket mdash a visual essay in goodgovernance that may even have contained a royal ge-nealogy mdash Romulus and Remus appear suckled bythe she-wolf Titus sacks Jerusalem and Weyland theSmith is juxtaposed with the Adoration of the Magi36 Thus the Insular tradition is set within a cultural con-tinuum The role of influence in all this is difficult toassess but it is perhaps reasonable to say that the influ-ence of for example Coptic art can be detected inInsular art and liturgy It is less apparent to resurrectBaxandallrsquos model how Insular culture has in turninfluenced that of Coptic Egypt

The maker of the Lindisfarne Gospels copied hismain text from a sixth-century gospelbook from Na-

ples which was also copied at Monkwearmouth-Jar-row and may have come to Lindisfarne as it were oninter-library loan (or more likely in the form of aMonkwearmouth-Jarrow copy) perhaps via the agen-cy of Bede who was commissioned by Bishop Ead-frith of Lindisfarne to rewrite the Life of St Cuthbertto reflect current agendas37 Other copies of the Ne-apolitan exemplar have survived notably British Li-brary Royal MS 983089Bvii and the St Petersburg Gos-

pels (St Petersburg National Library of Russia MSF v 983089 983096) and these demonstrate that the model wasnot illuminated and that it lacked Canon Tables

which in Lindisfarne are supplied with reference toanother Italian probably Capuan exemplar The re-markable programme of decoration in the Lindis-farne Gospels was its makerrsquos own although thegroundwork for some of its developments had beenlaid in earlier Insular works such as the Book of Dur-row and in other media In order to achieve the flex-ibility of layout necessary to achieve this intricatesynthetic programme the artist-scribe seems to have

pioneered a number of technical innovations to judge from the surviving record including the use oflead-point (some 983091983088983088 years before it entered into moregeneral use) and the forerunner of the light-box theback-drawings indicating that he employed back-lighting in a fashion later described by the fifteenth-century Florentine craftsman Cennino Cennini38 Here we have come dangerously close to innovation

This may have been acceptable in the technical andartistic fields but inno983158atio certainly had to be han-dled extremely carefully where text was concernedThe retention in the Lindisfarne Gospels of the pref-aces concerning lections for certain feast days the

saints celebrated indicating the Neapolitan origins ofthe textual exemplar suggest that the pedigree of themodel was important mdash that its origins imbued it

with auctoritas in the same way that the EchternachGospels preserved an earlier colophon linking its textultimately back to St Jerome himself

One feature that was thus appreciated within thisfluidity was authority in terms of a respect to be ac-corded to key figures within the Christian tradition(be they the early Church Fathers or fathers of Chris-tianity within the Insular milieu such as Columbaand Augustine of Canterbury) Jerome himself was

well aware of the emerging medieval creative tensionbetween traditio and inno983158atio and was at pains to

justify and document his own editorial processes asoutlined in the No983158um opus open letter to PopeDamasus Bede was equally sensitive to such needsespecially as like Jerome he attracted significantcontroversy and criticism for presuming to make anactive contribution to textual transmission and criti-cism His letter or lsquoapologiarsquo to Bishop Acca of Hex-ham concerning his commentary on Luke is a mov-ing plea for understanding on the part of a scholar

who is evidently hurt and somewhat bemused by themisunderstanding by others of his purpose and of hisown heightened perception and comprehension ofthe tradition within which he is actively working39 In his Institutiones Cassiodorus an inf luential figurein Insular monasticism wrote that in those whotranslate expand or humbly copy Scripture the Spir-it continues to work as in the biblical authors who

were first inspired to write them40 Perhaps onlythose who had devoted their lives to becoming si-multaneously a living ark of Scripture and a vesselcapable of emptying itself completely in order to be

filled with the Spirit could fully sympathise with his vision and working methods41 then as now Bede was part of a living tradition in which the inspirationaccorded others needed to be valued and duly ac-knowledged while also forming a symbiotic relation-ship with the inspiration of the contemporary writerThe popular epithet of lsquothe father of English historyrsquoaccorded to Bede pays tribute to aspects of his meth-



983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo

odology that have informed the discipline of history writing One of these is the recognition of the needto verify assess and record sources whether primaryor secondary mdash a significant contribution to the de-

velopment of footnoting and bibliography This is a

reflex of what Bloom would call lsquotropingrsquo mdash the cu-mulative elaboration upon and contribution to atheme or genre Whether or not Bede would concurin the suggestion that he suffered from lsquothe anxietyof influencersquo is another matter

Influence in its guise as the process of affectingthought and action by means of an indirect author-ity could certainly be said to be an element in themedieval balancing act between traditio and inno983158a-tio Its often invisible tendrils permeated the medieval

world-view and on balance it may continue if used wisely to serve a useful role in the terminologicalquiver of the art historian

NOTES

1 See for example A Latin Dictionary Founded on Andrewsrsquo Edit ion of Freundrsquos Latin Dictionary ed and rev C T Lewis and C Short Oxford983089983096983095983097 and R E Latham Revised Medieval Latin Word-List from British

and Irish Sources London 9830899830979830949830932 J M Backhouse The Sherborne Missal London 983089983097983097983097 K Scott LaterGothic Manuscripts 983089983091983097983088ndash983089983092983097983088 A Survey of Manuscripts Illuminated inthe British Isles VI London 983089983097983097983094 no 983097 British LibraryM P BrownThe Sherborne Missal on Turning the Pages CD-Rom London 9830909830889830889830893 The Advancement of Learning [Francis Bacon] ed M Kiernan Oxford9830909830889830889830884 Thomas Aylesbury Paganisme and Papisme paral lel rsquo d and set forth in

a sermon at the Temple Church London 9830899830949830909830925 A M Bennet Juvenile Indiscret ions Dublin 9830899830959830969830946 M Baxandall Patterns of Intention On the Histori cal Explanat ion of

Pictures London and New Haven 983089983097983096983093 esp lsquoExcursus against influencersquoat pp 983093983096ndash983094983089 H Bloom The Anxiety of Influence A Theory of PoetryOxford and New York 983089983097983095983091 983090nd edn Oxford 9830899830979830979830957 Baxandall (as in n 983094) p 9830939830968 Bloom (as in n 983094) p xlvi9 Ibid p xix10 Baxandall (as in n 983094) pp v and vi11 Ibid p v12 Ibid p vii13 Ibid pp 983093983097ndash98309498308814 Ibid p 98309498309515 The Utrecht Psalter in Medieval Art Picturing the Psalms of David edK Van der Horst W Noel and W C M Wuumltefeld MS rsquot Goy and Lon-don 98308998309798309798309416 Baxandall (as in n 983094) p 98309398309717 See M P Brown The Lindisfarne Gospels Society Spirituality and theScribe London and Toronto 983090983088983088983091 a monograph to accompany the fac-simile The Lindisfarne Gospels Lucerne 983090983088983088983091 see also J J G Alexander

Insular Manuscripts 983094 th to the 983097th Century A Survey of Manuscripts Il-luminated in the British Isles I London 983089983097983095983096 no 98309718 D H Wright The Vespasian Psalter Early English Manuscripts inFacsimile 983089983092 Copenhagen 983089983097983094983095 see also Alexander (as in n 983089983095) no 98309098309719 W G Noel The Harley Psalter Cambridge 983089983097983097983094 see also E Temple

Anglo- Saxon Manuscripts 983097983088983088ndash983089983088983094983094 A Survey of Manuscripts Illumi-nated in the British Isles II London and Oxford 983089983097983095983094 nos 983092983090 and 983094983092

20 The Dunstan Classbook is Oxford Bodleian Library MS Auct F983092983091983090see Temple (as in n 983089983097) no 98308998308921 British Library Harley MS 983090983093983088983094 Harley MS 983090983097983088983092 and Boulogne Bib-liothegraveque municipale MS 983089983089 see Temple (as in n 983089983097) nos 983092983090 983092983089 and98309298309222 On the patronage of Cnut and Emma see T A Heslop lsquoThe Produc-tion of De Luxe Manuscripts and the Patronage of King Cnut and 983121ueenEmmarsquo Anglo-Saxon England XIX 983089983097983097983088 pp 983089983093983089ndash98309798309323 On this aspect of the role of the scribe in the early Middle Ages seeBrown (as in n 983089983095) pp 983091983097983095ndash98309298308898308824 Wright (as in n 983089983096)25 Brown Lindisfarne Gospels (as in n 983089983095) pp 983096983094ndash98309698309526 M P Brown lsquoFemale Book-Ownership and Production in Anglo-Saxon England The Evidence of the Ninth-Century Prayerbooksrsquo in

Lexis and Texts in Early English Papers in Honour of Jane Roberts ed CKay and L Sylvester Amsterdam 983090983088983088983089 pp 983092983093ndash98309498309527 D Whitelock Engli sh Histor ical Docume nts I London 983089983097983095983097 no98308998309598309028 Brown lsquoFemale Book-Ownership and Productionrsquo (as in n 983090983094)29 R McKitterick lsquoNunsrsquo Scriptoria in England and Francia in the EighthCenturyrsquo Francia XIX 983089 983089983097983096983097 pp 983089983097ndash983091983092 Brown lsquoFemale Book-Owner-ship and Productionrsquo (as in n 983090983094) pp 983092983093ndash98309498309530 C Fell Women in Anglo-Saxon England and the Impact of 983089983088983094983094 Lon-don 983089983097983096983092 pp 983094983088ndash98309498308931 Brown Lindisfarne Gospels (as in n 983089983095) p 983095983095 see D Ayerst and A ST Fisher Records of Chris tianity II Oxford 983089983097983095983095 pp 983089983088983089ndash983088983090 andC Chazelle lsquoPictures Books and the Ill iterate Pope Gregory Irsquos Lettersto Serenus of Marseillesrsquo Word and Image VI983090 983089983097983097983088 pp 983089983091983096ndash98309398309132 On this a nd the following discussion of the Lindisfarne Gospels and

its artistic imagery see Brown Lindisfarne Gospels (as in n 983089983095) pp 983090983095983090ndash98309198309798309233 Ibid pp 983091983088983088ndash98308898309334 Ibid pp 983091983089983090ndash98309198308935 Ibid pp 983090983095983092 and 983091983091983089ndash98309298309336 British Museum MampLA 983089983096983094983095 983089ndash983090983088 983089 see The Making of England

Anglo-Saxo n Art and Culture AD 983094983088983088ndash983097983088983088 ed L Webster and J MBackhouse London 983089983097983097983089 no 98309598308837 Bedersquos lsquoLife of St Cuthbertrsquo (prose version) ed and tr D H Farmer inThe Age of Bede Harmondsworth 983089983097983096983091 for a discussion of Eadfrith rsquos com-



10 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150

mission and its implications for the making of the Lindisfarne Gospelssee Brown Lindisfarne Gospels (as in n 983089983095) pp 983089983088 983091983097ndash983092983089 983093983091ndash983093983093 and 98309498309338 Brown Lindisfarne Gospels (as in n 983089983095) pp 983090983089983091ndash983090983094 and 983090983097983088ndash98309798309739 For Bedersquos letter to Acca see Bede Lives of the Abbots of Wearmouth

and Jarrowed D H Farmer in The Age of Bede rev edn Harmondsworth 98308998309798309698309140 Brown (as in n 983089983095) pp 983091983097983095ndash983097983097 Bede Exposi tio in Lucam Corpus

Christianorum Series Latina 983089983090983088 ed D Hurst Turnhout 983089983097983094983088 prol983097983091ndash983089983089983093 M Stansbury lsquoEarly Medieval Biblical Commentaries Their

Writers and Readersrsquo in Fruumlmittelalterliche Studien Jahrbuch des Insti-tuts fuumlr Fruumlhmittelalterforschung der Universitaumlt Muumlnster 983091983091 ed KHauck Berlin and New York 983089983097983097983097 pp 983093983088ndash983096983090 (983095983090) Cassiodorus De In-

stitutione Divinarum Lit terarum ch 983091983088 see Magni Aurelii CassiodoriVariarum Libri XII Corpus Christianorum Series Latina 983097983094 ed AFridh Turnhout 98308998309798309598309141 Brown Lindisfarne Gospels (as in n 983089983095) pp 983091983097983095ndash983097983097



2 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150

as the figure who graces the guild book of the barber-surgeons of York (British Library Egerton MS 983090983093983095983090)Having to wait for your trepanning operation untilthe influences of the stars were propitious could haveleft you in little doubt of the presence of forces great-

er than yourself no less than the sense that the mys-terious conjunction of influences of the Treasury theNational Health Service and the Hospital Trustscan shape our destinies today

Something of the same etymological nature asastral influence could be applied to the exercise of

personal power by human beings as attested inLydgatersquos Lyfe of St Alban of 983089983092983091983097 (983089983093983091983092) Aii in whichhe writes lsquoI stande in hope his inf luence shall shyneMy tremblying penne by grace to enlumynersquo and inShakespearersquos Two Gentlemen of Verona IIIi983089983096983091 lsquoIfI be not by her faire influence Fosterrsquod illuminrsquodcherishrsquod kept aliversquo

As thinking in the realms of both physics andmetaphysics grew more widespread so the principleof influxus physicus physical influence developeddenoting the exertion of action of which the opera-tion is unseen or perceptible only in its effects by one

person or thing upon another Shakespearersquos lsquogibingspirit Whose influence is begot of that loose grace

Which shallow laughing hearers give to foolesrsquo ( Lo983158ersquos Labourrsquos Lost Vii983096983094983097) In 983089983094983088983091 Francis Bacon sum-marised its rationalisation within the modern world

as lsquoThe wisdom of conversation hellip hath hellip an influ-ence also into business and governmentrsquo (The Ad-vancement of Learning IIxxiii para 983091)3 The conceptof lsquohow to make friends and inf luence peoplersquo still sobeloved of sociologists psychologists and lobbyiststoday had emerged blinking at its own dazzling

power into the light of linguistic dayOverarching all of this during the Middle Ages

was the concept of the inflowing or infusion into a person or thing of divine spiritual moral or imma-terial power or principle mdash influentia divina a con-cept encountered in the Bible Wisdom 983095983090983093 lsquoShe is

the breath of the power of God and a pure inf luenceflowing from the glory of the Almightyrsquo This con-cept is encountered increasingly from the thirteenthcentury and was expounded by Aquinas around983089983090983094983088 as influentia causae a scholastic enshrinementof the principle of cause and effect introduced tonorthern Europe by its implicit pervasion of the writ-ings of Bede (and perpetuated in many lsquomodernrsquo

theories such as Marxist dialectics) This was essen-tially a Christianisation of the Platonic idea of alsquoprime moverrsquo described by Thomas Aylesbury in asermon of 983089983094983090983092 as lsquothe unknowne God whose influ-ence to all his Creatures was made known by the

Poetrsquo4 The role of literature and art in conveying themystery of the invisible force that binds all thingstogether across time and space has always been a fun-damental one lsquoInfluencersquo has long been one of itscognomens

A final colloquial gloss might be added here Byat least 983089983093983088983092 in Italian usage influenza was being usedto denote an outbreak or epidemic affecting many

people in the same time and place Subsequently applied in a less sinister context than that of the plaguesthat then beset Europe the concept of fashionemerged As Mrs A M Bennett (Juvenile Indiscre-tions 983089983095983096983094 I983089983093983091) wrote in 983089983095983096983093 lsquoMr Downes was cer-tainly smitten with Lavinia Orthodox but not withthe matrimonial influenzarsquo5

There is therefore a considerable degree of lsquohis-toricalrsquo validity to the retention of the term lsquoinflu-encersquo as denoting a wide variety of aspects of medievalthought and potentially of their manifestation inart What then of its use in the study of the periodThe papers in this volume alone would signal a levelof unease in its modes of application There is a sensein which the somewhat nebulous imprecision im-

plicit in the very intangibility of the concept occa-sions suspicion in those intent both upon theorisingand lsquoreal art historyrsquo (if there may be deemed to besuch a counterpart to what has become known as lsquorealliteraturersquo) This has in turn provoked an apologiafrom some critics

To summarise the two extremes and considersome of the issues raised let us look briefly at thecontrasting stances of Michael Baxandall in his lsquoEx-cursus against influencersquo a passage in his Patterns of

Intention On the Historical Explanation of Pictures (published by Yale University Press in 983089983097983096983093) and Ha-

rold Bloomrsquos The Anxiety of Influence A Theory of Poetry first published in 983089983097983095983091 but reissued as a secondedition by Oxford University Press in 983089983097983097983095 with animportant new authorial preface6

Baxandall lays his cards on the table by opening hisattack on the use of the term with the phrase lsquoMen-tion just now of Ceacutezanne brings me to a stumbling-



983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo
























4 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150






















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo



















6 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150

















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo























8 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150



















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo






NOTES













10 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150








983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo
























4 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150






















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo



















6 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150

















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo























8 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150



















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo






NOTES













10 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150








4 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150






















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo



















6 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150

















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo























8 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150



















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo






NOTES













10 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150








983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo



















6 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150

















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo























8 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150



















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo






NOTES













10 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150








6 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150

















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo























8 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150



















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo






NOTES













10 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150








983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo























8 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150



















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo






NOTES













10 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150








8 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150



















983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo






NOTES













10 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150








983137983150 983141983137983154983148983161 983151983157983156983138983154983141983137983147 983151983142 lsquo983145983150983142983148983157983141983150983162983137rsquo






NOTES













10 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150








10 983149983145983139983144983141983148983148983141 983152 983138983154983151983159983150






Brown Influenza

Documents

Transcript of Brown Influenza