Broadbalk Continuous Wheat Started in 1843 Started in 1852
Transcript of Broadbalk Continuous Wheat Started in 1843 Started in 1852
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Hoosfield spring barley Started in 1852
Broadbalk Continuous Wheat Started in 1843
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How much of humanity’s “existential dependence” on
synthetic N can be attributed to P?
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“And so the question about the most important invention of the twentieth century—important in the most fundamental existential terms for the largest number of people– elicits almost uniformly a wrong answer, as nothing comes close to the Haber Bosch synthesis of ammonia” Vaclav Smil
University of Manitoba
urea
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40% of humanity 2.4 billion
60% of humanity 5.5 billion
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Saturating and topping up soil P vs. the danger of hitting the
“change point”
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Topping up P
• In order to build up soil P to the critical value for crop production, it may be necessary to accept a lower recovery of added P for a number of years. Once the critical level is achieved in many arable cropping systems, the amount of P required to maintain it is often similar to that removed in the (very high P-use efficiency).
• The optimum soil-P status is reached when the optimum P-application rate equals crop P removal (Sibbesen and Sharpley 1997)
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1115 531
P recovery of fertilizer 584 or 41% (difference) or 79% (balance)
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Syers, Johnston, Curtin 2008
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The “change point”
• An inflection point where P measured in field drainage waters (or in laboratory CaCl2 soil extracts) shows a distinct linear increase with increasing Olsen-P (bicarbonate P).
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Change Point and topping up
• Does the “optimum soil P status” maintain soils anywhere near the change point?
• How easy is the proximity to the two states managed by farmers?
• Do soils below the change point still present a significant eutrophication hazard?
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The dependence of organic agriculture on historic P
fertilization or net transfers of fertilizer P in manure
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0
100
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300
400
500
600
700
1988 1994
1000
tons
app
lied
yr-1
Change in fertilizers applied in Cuba following the break-up of the Soviet Union
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If nutrient returns of P in organic matter (livestock or humanure) were improved, and P losses
were reduced, could endogenous P supplies be used
to top up?
Alternative agroecosystem models
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P inputs kg ha-1 yr-1
________________________________________________
Soil mineral weathering 0.05 - 1.0 (5.0 possible) Atmospheric deposition 0.07 - 1.7 Total 0.12 - 2.7
Other P inputs that may be significant in particular ecosystems include: pollen, volcanic ash, fossil fuel combustion (e.g., fly ash), forest fires, ocean spray
Newman (1995)
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P inputs from weathering Reference or site kg P ha-1 yr-1
Newman--review (1995) 0.05-1 (5 possible) Smil (2000) 1.3 Hopi continuous maize (P in harvest) 2.2 Hayed prairie meadow (Glover) 5.9 Broadbalk continuous wheat, U.K. 3.7 Park Grass perennial meadow 5.3
P export in harvests from fertilized agriculture Crop kg P ha-1 yr-1
cereals 15-35 legumes and root crops 15-25 vegetables and fruits 5-15
Smil 2000
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annual Sept Dec March June
12 mos 21 mos
Annual wheat (on left in each panel) and Perennial wheatgrass
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How different dietary scenarios determine the need for P
fertilizers
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0 100 200 300 400 500kg N per hectare
% o
f gra
in fe
d to
live
stoc
k
U.S. Germany
Vietnam
Ireland
Israel
Mexico
NorwayAustralia
Indonesia
Costa Rica
Egypt
Rep. of Korea The Netherlands
Kuwait
China
Malaysia
FAO and WRI
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0 20 40 60 80
USA
China
India 402510
% of land under grain cultivation that could be freed up if the protein derived from meat were reduced to 40, 25 or 10 percent of daily requirements
% of land under grains
Crews and Peoples (2004)
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0 10 20 30 40
U.S.A.Turkey
SwitzerlandNew Zealand
ItalyGreece
EgyptBelgium
percentage
From Crews and Peoples (2004)
% of land under domestic grain production that could be freed-up if per capita food supply was reduced to 3000 Cal day-1
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Labor
Machinery
Diesel
Gasoline
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Limestone
Seeds
Irrigation
Insecticides
Herbicides
Other
Proportion of total energy cost of different inputs into US corn production
NITROGEN
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N Pay no attention to the element behind the screen
TimCrewsEnvironmentalStudiesProgramPresco7CollegePresco7,Arizona
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P
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ROCK
10-15
Change in storage = 1-6 Tg P/yr
Freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems
combined
1
Atmospheric output
8
Fluvial drainage
Change in storage =
10 – (1 + 8) = 1 to
15 – (1 + 8) = 6
Bennett et al. 2001
weathering
PREINDUSTRIAL GLOBAL TERRESTRIAL P FLUX
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ROCK
18.5
mining
15-20
Change in storage = 10.5-15.5 Tg P/yr
Freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems
combined
1
Atmospheric output
22
Fluvial drainage
Change in storage =
(15 + 18.5) – (1 + 22) = 10.5 to
(20 + 18.5) – (1 + 22) = 15.5
Bennett et al. 2001
weathering
CURRENT GLOBAL TERRESTRIAL P FLUX
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CROP
P FERTILIZER (ORGANIC OR INORGANIC)
SOIL
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% of applied nutrients captured by crops 30-50% of N ~45% of P
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CROP
P FERTILIZER (ORGANIC OR INORGANIC)
SOIL
Clay mineralogy
High sorption capacity: Amorphous alluminosilicates Fe oxides Al oxides
Moderate sorption capacity: Crystalline aluminosilicates Humic compounds
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0
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P applied P removed P balance P lost by 2000
FYM
P fertilizer
Cum
ulat
ive
Kg
P ap
plie
d pe
r ha
by 1
903
Cumulative P additions as Farm Yard Manure (FYM) or P fertilizer by 1903 And P removal in wheat, potato and barley harvests to present at Exhaustion Land Plots—Rothamsted Research, U.K. (Blake et al. 2003)
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-20
0
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40
60
80
100
120
% o
f tot
al P
app
lied
FYM P fertilizer
Blake et al. 2003
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CROP
P FERTILIZER (ORGANIC OR INORGANIC)
SOIL
P-enriched organic and inorganic particles
Water and wind erosion
wetland
river
lake
estuary
Coastal marine
Leaching of Dissolved Po or Pi
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CROP
P FERTILIZER (ORGANIC OR INORGANIC)
SOIL
P-enriched organic and inorganic particles
Water and wind erosion
wetland
river
lake
estuary
Coastal marine
Leaching of Dissolved Po or Pi
FACTORS AFFECTING P LOSS TO WATER AND WIND Tillage practices Slope SOM content Soil texture Duration of time without vegetative cover Intensity of rainfall events
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Sharpley et al. 1995
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CROP
P FERTILIZER (ORGANIC OR INORGANIC)
Ag SOIL storage ~8 Tg/yr
P-enriched organic and inorganic particles
Water and wind erosion
Wetland/riparian
river
lake
estuary
Coastal marine
Leaching of Dissolved Po or Pi
Freshwater Sediment Storage 3.1 Tg/yr
22
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River
22
Continental Shelf Estuarine/Deltaic
6.9
1.3
0.95
Fish 0.3
Global ocean P fluxes—(Tg/yr)
Pelagic deep ocean (Howarth et al. 1995)
Atmospheric
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River
22
Continental Shelf Estuarine/Deltaic
6.9
1.3
0.95
Fish 0.3
Global ocean P fluxes—(Tg/yr)
Imbalances in the budget reflect the uncertainty and are most likely due to underestimating burial, with riverine input being the second largest uncertainty.
(Howarth et al. 1995) Pelagic deep ocean
Atmospheric
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CROP
P FERTILIZER (ORGANIC OR INORGANIC)
SOIL 10-90 % of applied P might be taken Up by the crop
Average ~45%
MANAGEMENT FACTORS Crop selection Crop deployment in time and space Soil pH management (lime) Alleviation of other crop limiting factors Mycorrhizal colonization (?)
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CROP
P FERTILIZER (ORGANIC OR INORGANIC)
SOIL
Concentrated Animal Production
Rural to urban food shipments
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Beaton et al. 1995
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Optimize the utility of P fertilizers, a scarce, non-renewable, non-substitutable and Highly valuable resource, rather than simply try to find the most effective sinks.
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N
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52 percent of known unexploited global P reserves
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Economic and potentially economic phosphate deposits of the world
FAO 2004
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P inputs kg ha-1 yr-1
________________________________________________
Soil mineral weathering 0.05 - 1.0 (5.0 possible) Atmospheric deposition 0.07 - 1.7 Total 0.12 - 2.7
Other P inputs that may be significant in particular ecosystems include: pollen, volcanic ash, fossil fuel combustion (e.g., fly ash), forest fires, ocean spray
Newman (1995)
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P inputs kg ha-1 yr-1
_______________________________________________
Soil mineral weathering 0.3 Atmospheric deposition net 0 Fertilizer 25 Total 25.3
P outputs kg ha-1 yr-1
________________________________________________________________________ Leaching 0.4 Soil erosion by water 0.5 Soil erosion by wind net 0 Harvested grain 19 Straw 3 Total 22.9
Newman (1997)
P balance for a typical modern wheat farm in Great Britain
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The U.S. supplies between 38-50% of the world P market. Florida alone supplies 75% of U.S. and 25% of the world’s P market.
Kurt Grimm, Dept. Earth and Ocean Sciences at the University of British Columbia predicts the U.S. will be a net importer of P within 30 years
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0
20
40
60
80
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120
0.3 20 160 1400 4100
% o
f nu
trie
nt r
equi
rem
ents
calcium phosphorus potassium nitrogen
Siteage(1000years)
Percentageofsweetpotatonutrientuptake1saCsfiedbyendogenousnutrientsuppliesesCmatedbyVitousek(2004)
1Sweetpotatocropyielding9Mgha‐1(freshyield)grownwithnoferClizerinputsinPapua,NewGuinea(Harteminketal.2000)
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Entisol
Inceptisol
Ultisol Oxisol Alfisol
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Vitousek et al. 1995
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P inputs kg ha-1 yr-1
_______________________________________________
Soil mineral weathering 0.3 Atmospheric deposition net 0 Fertilizer 25 Total 25.3
P outputs kg ha-1 yr-1
________________________________________________________________________ Leaching 0.4 Soil erosion by water 0.5 Soil erosion by wind net 0 Harvested grain 19 Straw 3 Total 22.9
Newman (1997)
P balance for a typical modern wheat farm in Great Britain