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Adolescent and On-Time Fatherhood: Implication for Quality of Parenting Observed During Play with Toddlers

Brittany Cwiertniewicz, Hasti Raveau, Katrina Markowicz, Thomaidha Qipo, Maxwell Lepora, Hagan Risner, & Erika BocknekWayne State University and Merrill Palmer Skillman Institute

On-time fathers provided the most support and highest quality of assistance during the puzzle task; young teen fathers demonstrated the lowest scores, F(3, 286) = 4.03.

Young teen fathers were the most intrusive during interactions with their children, compared to emerging adults and on-time fathers, F(3,286) = 1.93.

*All analyses controlled for residential status of fathers.

The findings reported here are based on research conducted as part of the national Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project funded by the Administration on Children, Youth and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services through Grants 90YF0010 and 90YF0031, Pathways Project I & II: Research into Directions for Family Health and Service Use, to Rachel F. Schiffman, PhD, RN, FAAN, Principal Investigator, Michigan State University. The authors are members of the Early Head Start Research Consortium which consists of representatives from 17 programs participating in the evaluation, 15 local research teams, the evaluation contractors, and ACYF. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Early Head Start Research Consortium, Mathematica Policy Research, or the Department of Health and Human

Services, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. Community Action Agency in Jackson, Michigan, Jackson Community Foundation in Jackson, Michigan, and Applied Developmental Science Graduate Programs and Families and Communities Together, Michigan State University, also provided supplemental funding for this research.

p < .005

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Emerging adult fathers were more likely to spank their children compared to both on-time fathers (p = .005) and older fathers (p =.012), F(3, 236) = 3.75, p < .05.

p < .05

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MeasuresPaternal Age was coded based on the work of Lamb and Elster (1985) in which fathers were categorized as:

Positive Parenting was measured by combining the scores on the paternal quality of assistance and paternal supportiveness during the father-child interaction puzzle task.Negative Parenting was measured by the scores on the paternal intrusiveness during the father-child interaction puzzle task.Physical Punishment was measured through fathers’ reports on the number of times they spanked their child during the previous week at the 36-month visit.

This study analyzed secondary data from the National Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project - Fathering Sub-Study. Families were identified as low-income: 62% lived below the poverty line. The current sample includes fathers and their children from which data was collected at 36 months of age (N = 295).

p < .01

p < .05

Findings indicate that father’s age at the time of the child’s birth is a salient predictor of parenting quality among low-income fathers of young children. We found that teenage fathers demonstrate a lower amount of positive parenting and a greater amount of intrusiveness compared to their older counterparts. In addition, emerging adult fathers resort to spanking more often than on-time and older fathers. Emerging adulthood is typically a transitional period for most individuals, which could bring added stressors and demand more responsibilities, placing parents at risk for harsher parenting styles.

Our findings suggest that the quality of parent-child interaction must be considered in research and clinical interventions in addition to parental involvement. Since paternal age was a predictor of quality of interaction with children, these results point to the importance of reducing negative parenting practices in young fathers. Implications include the need for policy makers to increase methods of providing young fathers greater support and education, especially in the early years of their children’s lives. Early intervention for young fathers, especially those from low socioeconomic backgrounds, will assist in promoting positive parenting skills needed in this crucial developmental time period of their children.

INTRODUCTION

METHODS

METHODS CONTINUE

RESULTS

RESULTS CONTINUE

DISCUSSION

Sample Characteristics

Child Sex - Male 49%Child Ethnicity Caucasian African American Hispanic/Latino Other

62%26%8%4%

Paternal Monthly Income M(SD) $1679 ($1045)Paternal Age 19 years & younger 20 – 24 years 25 – 39 years 40+ years

11%29%52%8%

Young Teen Fathers

19 years & younger

Emerging Adult Fathers

20 – 24 years

On-time Fathers 25 – 30 yearsOlder Fathers 40+ years

Adolescent parenthood is a known risk for negative parenting outcomes, particularly among mothers (Mollborn & Dennis, 2012; Whiteside-Mansell, Pope, & Bradley, 1996). Research indicates that adolescent mothers are less likely to display patterns of positive attitudes and child-sensitivity, and more likely to employ harsher punishment, all which are related to negative developmental outcomes in children (Culp, Applebaum, Osofsky, & Levy, 1988; Hann, Osofsky, Barnard & Leonard, 1994; Osofsky et al., 1993).

Though research indicates that teenage fathers are less likely to be physically present with their children than older fathers, little is known about the quality and style of parent-child interaction among teenage fathers who have young children (Gikiri, 2013). Among low-income populations, father involvement tends to be at its peak during the early years of childhood (Cabrera et al., 2004), which is a particularly important time for healthy child development. Given that maternal age has been identified as a risk factor for poor parenting during early years of a child’s life, it is essential to determine whether similar patterns exist in fatherhood, especially those faced with additional risks, such as low socioeconomic status.

The current study investigates the quality of paternal interaction among low-income fathers with their 36-month-old children.

Hypotheses:•Teen fathers are less likely to display positive parenting behavior than older fathers.•Teen fathers are more likely to display negative parenting behaviors than older fathers.•Teen fathers are more likely to engage in physical punishment with their children than older fathers.

Average Intrusiveness Score at 36 Months during the Puzzle Task*

Average Positive Parenting Score at 36 Months during the Puzzle Task*

Group Differences in Frequency of Physical Punishment at 36 Months*

Limitations of this study include examining parenting practices in only one type of setting, being limited to low-income families, and not taking into account other important factors (e.g., quality of mother-father relationship, father’s own childhood upbringing, father’s quality of social support). Overall, this study contributes to psychological knowledge regarding paternal interactions with young children among low-income populations and provides an essential route for further research to note possible risk factors for less than ideal parenting practices in fathers with young children.