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Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism

Volume II:Lives

Editor-in-chiefJonathan A. Silk

EditorsRichard Bowring

Vincent EltschingerMichael Radich

Editorial Advisory BoardLucia Dolce

Berthe JansenJohn Jorgensen

Christian LammertsFrancesco Sferra

LEIDEN | BOSTON

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BEB, vol. II© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2019Also available online – www.brill.com

Contents

PrelimsContributors ............................................................................................................................................................. xiEditors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiiiPrimary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxvBooks Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxviiGeneral Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... xliiIntroduction ............................................................................................................................................................. xliv

Section One:Śākyamuni: South Asia .......................................................................................................................................... 3Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................ 39

Section Two:

South & Southeast Asia:Ajātaśatru .................................................................................................................................................................. 51Āryadeva .................................................................................................................................................................... 60Āryaśūra..................................................................................................................................................................... 70Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha) ....................................................................................................................................... 73Bhāviveka .................................................................................................................................................................. 81Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ...................................................................................................................................... 85Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................ 92Buddhas of the Past: South Asia ......................................................................................................................... 95Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ............................................................................... 109Candragomin ........................................................................................................................................................... 121Candrakīrti ................................................................................................................................................................ 125Ḍākinī ......................................................................................................................................................................... 132Devadatta .................................................................................................................................................................. 141Dharmakīrti .............................................................................................................................................................. 156Dharmapāla .............................................................................................................................................................. 168Dharmottara ............................................................................................................................................................. 173Dignāga ...................................................................................................................................................................... 179Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ................................................................................................................................... 186Gavampati in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................................................... 191Gopadatta ................................................................................................................................................................. 196Guṇaprabha.............................................................................................................................................................. 198Haribhadra ................................................................................................................................................................ 204Haribhaṭṭa ................................................................................................................................................................. 209Harivarman............................................................................................................................................................... 211Harṣa .......................................................................................................................................................................... 214Hayagrīva................................................................................................................................................................... 218Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ...................................................................................................................... 228Jñānagarbha ............................................................................................................................................................. 261Jñānapāda ................................................................................................................................................................. 264

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Jñānaśrīmitra ........................................................................................................................................................... 269Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................ 272Karuṇāmaya ............................................................................................................................................................. 279Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................ 286Kumāralāta ............................................................................................................................................................... 293Mahādeva .................................................................................................................................................................. 298Maitreya..................................................................................................................................................................... 302Mārīcī ......................................................................................................................................................................... 325Mātṛceṭa .................................................................................................................................................................... 332Nāgārjuna .................................................................................................................................................................. 335Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ................................................................................... 348Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia ..................................................................................................... 357Prajñākaragupta ...................................................................................................................................................... 363Ratnākaraśānti ......................................................................................................................................................... 366Ratnakīrti .................................................................................................................................................................. 371Saṅghabhadra .......................................................................................................................................................... 374Śaṅkaranandana ..................................................................................................................................................... 378Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................ 382Śāntarakṣita .............................................................................................................................................................. 383Śāntideva ................................................................................................................................................................... 391Sarasvatī/Benzaiten ................................................................................................................................................ 398Śāriputra .................................................................................................................................................................... 409Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism ............................................................................................................. 420Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................ 437Siddhas ....................................................................................................................................................................... 443Śrīlāta ......................................................................................................................................................................... 452Sthiramati ................................................................................................................................................................. 456Śubhagupta ............................................................................................................................................................... 458Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia ..................................................................................................... 463Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism ..................................................................................... 474Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin .......................................................................................................................................... 479Upagupta ................................................................................................................................................................... 481Vāgīśvarakīrti ........................................................................................................................................................... 490Vasubandhu .............................................................................................................................................................. 492Vināyaka .................................................................................................................................................................... 507Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism ..................................................................................................... 513

East Asia:Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ...................................................................................................................................... 521Arhats in East Asian Buddhism .......................................................................................................................... 529Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) ......................................................................................................................... 540Avalokiteśvara in East Asia ................................................................................................................................... 546Dizang/Jizō ............................................................................................................................................................... 562Jianzhen (Ganjin) ................................................................................................................................................... 571Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................ 576Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions ...................................................................................................... 586Mañjuśrī in East Asia ............................................................................................................................................. 591Maudgalyāyana (Mulian) ...................................................................................................................................... 600Musang (Wuxiang) ................................................................................................................................................. 608Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................ 612Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................ 616

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China:Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................ 623An Shigao .................................................................................................................................................................. 630Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................ 642Daoxuan .................................................................................................................................................................... 648Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................ 653Faxian ......................................................................................................................................................................... 657Fazun .......................................................................................................................................................................... 662Hanshan Deqing ..................................................................................................................................................... 668Hongzhi Zhengjue .................................................................................................................................................. 673Huihong (see Juefan Huihong) Huineng (see Shenxiu) Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan) Jigong .......................................................................................................................................................................... 679Juefan Huihong ....................................................................................................................................................... 684Liang Wudi ................................................................................................................................................................ 689Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................ 700Luo Qing .................................................................................................................................................................... 707Lushan Huiyuan ...................................................................................................................................................... 711Mazu Daoyi ............................................................................................................................................................... 722Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben) Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................ 727Nenghai...................................................................................................................................................................... 735Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................ 741Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................ 748Paramārtha ............................................................................................................................................................... 752Qian Qianyi ............................................................................................................................................................... 759Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................ 764Shenhui (see Shenxiu) Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui ......................................................................................................................... 768Śubhākarasiṃha ...................................................................................................................................................... 777Wumen ...................................................................................................................................................................... 782Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang) Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................ 787Xiao Ziliang ............................................................................................................................................................... 791Yinshun ...................................................................................................................................................................... 795Yixing ......................................................................................................................................................................... 800Yuan Hongdao ......................................................................................................................................................... 806Yuanwu Keqin .......................................................................................................................................................... 810Zhanran ..................................................................................................................................................................... 814Zhi Qian ..................................................................................................................................................................... 818Zhili ............................................................................................................................................................................. 826Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu) Zhiyi ............................................................................................................................................................................ 833Zhongfeng Mingben ............................................................................................................................................... 839Zhuhong .................................................................................................................................................................... 844

Korea:Chinul......................................................................................................................................................................... 853Hyujŏng ..................................................................................................................................................................... 860Ich’adon ..................................................................................................................................................................... 864

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Kihwa ......................................................................................................................................................................... 869Kim Sisŭp .................................................................................................................................................................. 873Kyŏnghŏ ..................................................................................................................................................................... 877Kyunyŏ ....................................................................................................................................................................... 882Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................ 887Musang (see East Asia) Pou .............................................................................................................................................................................. 891Tosŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................... 895Ŭich’ŏn ....................................................................................................................................................................... 900Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................ 903Wŏnch’ŭk .................................................................................................................................................................. 908Wŏnhyo ...................................................................................................................................................................... 913Yi Nŭnghwa .............................................................................................................................................................. 918

Japan:Amaterasu Ōmikami .............................................................................................................................................. 923Annen ......................................................................................................................................................................... 930Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī) Dōgen ......................................................................................................................................................................... 933Dōhan ......................................................................................................................................................................... 941Eisai (see Yōsai) Eison ........................................................................................................................................................................... 944En no Gyōja .............................................................................................................................................................. 951Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................ 956Ennin .......................................................................................................................................................................... 961Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen) Genshin ..................................................................................................................................................................... 967Hachiman ................................................................................................................................................................. 971Hakuin ....................................................................................................................................................................... 976Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................ 980Ikkyū Sōjun ............................................................................................................................................................... 987Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi) Ippen Chishin .......................................................................................................................................................... 991Jakushō ...................................................................................................................................................................... 995Jiun Sonja .................................................................................................................................................................. 998Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang) Jōjin ............................................................................................................................................................................. 1002Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1006Kakuban .................................................................................................................................................................... 1011Keizan Jōkin ............................................................................................................................................................. 1016Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1020Kūkai .......................................................................................................................................................................... 1026Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1036Menzan Zuihō ......................................................................................................................................................... 1041Monkan ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1047Mugai Nyodai ........................................................................................................................................................... 1057Mujaku Dōchū ......................................................................................................................................................... 1062Musō Soseki .............................................................................................................................................................. 1066Myōe ........................................................................................................................................................................... 1071Nichiren ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1076Nōnin .......................................................................................................................................................................... 1088

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ixContents

Raiyu ........................................................................................................................................................................... 1094Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................ 1097Saichō ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1102Saigyō ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1107Shinran....................................................................................................................................................................... 1111Shōtoku Taishi ......................................................................................................................................................... 1117Tenjin ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1122Tenkai ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1128Yōsai/Eisai ................................................................................................................................................................. 1134Zaō .............................................................................................................................................................................. 1139

Tibetan Cultural SphereAtiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................ 1145Ge sar of Gling ......................................................................................................................................................... 1159Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers ............................................................................................. 1165Gtsang smyon Heruka ........................................................................................................................................... 1171Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ................................................................................................................................... 1175Mi la ras pa ................................................................................................................................................................ 1181The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage ....................................................................................... 1191Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................ 1197The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers ................................................................................................................ 1213Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................ 1226Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha ................................................................................................................. 1233Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................ 1239Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors .................................................................................................. 1246Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet ..................................................................................................................... 1254

Appendix To Volume I:Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan ............................................................................................................. 1269Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ 1286Korean Sŏn Literature ............................................................................................................................................ 1294

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BEB, vol. II© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2019Also available online – www.brill.com

Śāntideva

Śāntideva (Tib. Zhi ba’i lha; dated variously c. 690–750/685–763/691–743; Saitō, 1996b, 594; Pezzali, 1982, 38–40; de Jong, 1975, 179–180; Kanakura, 1965, 232–233) was an Indian Buddhist monk and philos-opher, and a talented Sanskrit poet who meditated upon the conduct of a Mahāyāna practitioner. He is known as the author of two related works, the poem Bodhi(sattva)caryāvatāra, “Entering the (Bodhi-sattva’s) Way to Awakening,” and the anthology Śikṣāsamuccaya, “A Compendium of [Buddhist] Teachings.” Tibetan tradition generally places him in the lineage of the *Prāsaṅgika (Thal ’gyur ba) branch of the Mādhyamika school, to which he “made a significant contribution […] by taking the perfections (pāramitā) of the Bodhisattva as the focus for his exposition of the Mahāyāna” (Seyfort Ruegg, 1981, 82). His life, works, and activities in Nālandā are described in detail in several Tibetan hagiographies (Bu ston’s Chos ’byung [1322], ed. Gangs ljongs shes rig gi nying bcud, 1988, 166:17–169:14, trans. Obermiller, 1932, 161–166; Tāranātha’s Rgya gar chos ’byung [1608], ed. Schiefner, 1868, 125–129, trans. Schiefner, 1869, 163–168; Sum pa mkhan po’s Dpag bsam ljon bzang [1748], ed. Das, 1908, 103) as well as Vibhūticandra’s (around 1200? Stearns, 1996) commentary on the Bodhicaryāvatāra, whose initial biographical outline served as a partial basis for Bu ston’s (1290–1364) and Tāranātha’s (1575–1634) accounts.

Vibhūticandra’s Bodhicaryāvatāratātparyapañ-jikā Viśeṣadyotanī (P 5282, sha, 229b6–231b5, ed. and trans. Pezzali, 1982, 27–32; de Jong, 1975, 168–177, together with the Sanskrit text edited by Haraprasād Śāstri, 1917, 52–53) likely provides the earliest extant biography of Śāntideva. According to Vibhūticandra, the person who, once a monk, would be named Śāntideva, was born in the south in Śrīnagara to King Mañjuśrīvarman. At the moment of being crowned as the latter’s successor, Śāntideva ran away, on the advice of his mother, to Bengal, where he sought – and obtained – the consecration of Mañjughoṣa. After a brief stay at a Magadhan king’s court (see below), Śāntideva reached Nālandā, where he was given this name on account of his tranquility (praśānta). Accord-ing to the legend, having listened to the Tripiṭaka,

he used to meditate uninterruptedly upon light while eating (bhu[ñjāna]), sleeping (su[pta]), and walking (ku[ṭiṃ gataḥ]). Thus persisting in the samādhi called bhusuku, he was known as Bhūsuku (Obermiller, 1932, 162, n1128; Pezzali, 1982, 30, 33; de Jong, 1975, 170, 176, §X in the edition; Bhusuku/Bhūsuku is the [nick]name of a later Śāntideva who might have been a representative of the Ārya school of Guhyasamāja exegesis (see Seyfort Ruegg, 1981, 106). Angry at his idleness, his fellow monks decided to try him by inviting him to recite the Law on a lofty lion’s throne. Having easily reached the top of the seat, Śāntideva wondered which of his three works (granthatraya, Tib. gzhung gsum), the Sūtrasamuccaya, the Śikṣāsamuccaya, or the Bodhicaryāvatāra (sic), he should recite on that occasion. Upon reciting stanza 9.35 of the Bodhicaryāvatāra (“When neither existence nor non-existence presents itself before the mind, then, being without any support [to which to attach itself], the [mind] is still,” trans. Seyfort Ruegg, 1981, 83), Mañjuśrī appeared, and just as suddenly disap-peared together with Śāntideva. Inspecting his cell, the previously suspicious monks discovered the three books (pustakatraya), which soon became famous.

According to Bu ston’s Chos ’byung, Śāntideva is known through seven wonderful stories connected to his (1) tutelary deity, (2) activity in Nālandā, (3) victory over the non-Buddhists (*tīrthika) in the east, (4) converting to Buddhism 500 adherents of the non-Buddhist teachings in the west of Magadha, (5) feeding thousands of beggars in that country, (6) helping a king in the east, and (7) defeating a non-Buddhist teacher called Śaṅkaradeva in the south. Stories 1 and 2, as well as parts of story 6, are largely based on Vibhūticandra’s narrative.

According to the first story (Chos ’byung, ed. Gangs ljongs shes rig gi nying bcud, 1988, 166:20–167:3; trans. Obermiller, 1932, 161–162), Śāntideva was born in the southern country of *Saurāṣṭra (Tib. Yul ’khor bzang po) as a son of King *Kalyāṇavarman (Tib. Dge ba’i cho ga). He was called *Śāntivarman (Tib. Zhi ba’i cho ga) and, while still a youth, learned many different sciences. Having learned and obtained the method of conjuring up Mañjuśrī, he

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came to behold the deity’s countenance. After his father’s death, he was to be crowned king; however, in the evening before enthronement, he beheld in a dream Mañjuśrī who, sitting on the throne, said, “[m]y son, this seat belongs to me. I am your well-wishing friend. It is by no means suitable that both you and I sit on this single chair.” Having under-stood the message in his dream, he fled to Nālandā and took orders with *Jayadeva (Tib. Rgyal ba’i lha). Hereafter, he became known by the name of Śāntideva (

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393Śāntideva

Mañjuśrī for his weapon, the king’s courtiers took him for a fraud. Before drawing out the sword on the king’s invitation, Śāntideva warned him that he should shut one of his eyes. The radiance of the sword blinded the king, who only retrieved his eye-sight thanks to Śāntideva. (Note that story 6 expands on Vibhūticandra’s account of Śāntideva becoming a knight named Acalasena at the court of the king of Magadha; in this account, the episode takes place prior to Śāntideva’s ordination in Nālandā; the king’s eye falls to the ground; de Jong, 1975, 169–170; 176). Finally, story 7 (Chos ’byung, ed. Gangs ljongs shes rig gi nying bcud, 1988, 168:16–169:9; trans. Obermiller, 1932, 165) narrates how Śāntideva was able to defeat the non-Buddhist Śaṅkaradeva, who had threatened King Khativihara that he would destroy all Buddhist books and images and force him to convert to Brah-manical practices unless he was able to erase the magic circle of Maheśvara (= Śiva) that he was about to draw in the sky. The local monks declared them-selves incapable of destroying the circle, but a female slave (and hence the lowest of the low) named Kacalahā told the king about the supernatural pow-ers of a religious mendicant she had encountered a few days earlier. Thanks to powers gained from med-itation, Śāntideva called forth a mighty wind which blew the circle away, together with herbs, trees, cit-ies, and all the non-Buddhist teachers.

According to the first two stories, (1) Śāntideva is the name he was given when he was ordained a monk in Nālandā; he had two other names, *Śāntivarman as a youth and Bhusuku as a nick-name given by other monks in Nālandā; (2) he is reported to have composed three works, that is, the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra, the Śikṣāsamuccaya, and the/a Sūtrasamuccaya; (3) concerning the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra, three different versions were transmitted. Of the three, the second story relates that Śāntideva regarded the 1,000-verse recen-sion as authentic, which is followed by Tāranātha’s account. While these accounts are certainly to some extent legendary, and did not seem to be confirmed by the extant textual record, subsequent discoveries altered the picture. In the mid-1980s, a shorter, early version of the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra composed of 702.5 verses was discovered among the Tibetan manuscripts discovered at Dunhuang. This led to a reconsideration of at least these three points regard-ing Śāntideva’s names and works (Saitō, 1986; 1993, 14–22).

First, the name of the author of the early ver-sion of the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra is given not

as Śāntideva, but in the colophons of the Tibetan manuscripts from Dunhuang is found rather as Tibetan Blo gros myi zad pa, which can be recon-structed as *Akṣayamati. Blo gros mi zad pa (the spelling myi is merely an archaic form of mi) was also referred to by →Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna in his commentary on the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra (Bodhisattvacaryāvatārabhāṣya, ed. Mochizuki, 1999, 50:5; P 5872, nyo, 426b2–5, trans. Saitō, 1993, 21) and by Bu ston in the catalogue section of his Chos ’byung (ed. Lokesh Chandra, 1971, ya, 59a2–4; Nishioka, 1981, 53, §609). When the catalogue (dkar chag) to the Derge Tanjur, in its turn, recounts a version of the abovementioned story of the author of the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra reciting his treatise, immediately after mentioning the recitation of 9.35, it continues: “While directly perceiving Ārya-Mañjuśrī in the sky, many people became faithful and exclaimed together: ‘[t]his holy being is Blo gros mi zad pa” (Derge Tanjur dkar chag, shri 79a4; Saitō 1993, 21). Although the question whether or not *Akṣayamati and Śāntideva refer to the same person has yet to be fully examined (Saitō, 1993, 20–22; 2002), it seems safe to call the author of the early version of the Bodhi(sattva)caryāvatāra *Akṣayamati, and to reserve the name Śāntideva for the author of the later enlarged version, composed of 913 stanzas in Sanskrit and Tibetan.

Second, the story according to which Śāntideva composed three works, the  Bodhi(sattva) caryāvatāra, the Śikṣāsamuccaya, and the Sūtrasa-muccaya, has become difficult to accept, since it relies heavily on Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra 5.104–106: “[t]he principles of training are seen in the sūtras. Therefore one should recite the sūtras and one should study the fundamental sins in the Ākāśagarbhasūtra. The Śikṣāsamuccaya should def-initely be looked at again and again, since correct conduct is therein explained in detail. Alternatively, one should first briefly look at the Sūtrasamuccaya with great care, which was composed by the noble Nāgārjuna and is secondary.” It would appear that the story that Śāntideva wrote three works can be traced back to Prajñākaramati’s understanding of verse 106 as: “[a]lternatively, one should first briefly look at the Sūtrasamuccaya and then with great care at the second pair, the Śikṣāsamuccaya and the Sūtrasamuccaya, composed by the noble Nāgārjuna.” (La Vallée Poussin, 1901–1914, 164; Saitō, 2004, 137–138.) That is, Prajñākaramati seems to ascribe the authorship of a Śikṣāsamuccaya and a Sūtrasamuccaya to both Śāntideva and Nāgārjuna.

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However, this interpretation is questionable since so far no trace of any Śikṣāsamuccaya written by Nāgārjuna nor any Sūtrasamuccaya by Śāntideva has been found, neither in Sanskrit literature nor in Tibetan or Chinese translation (Filliozat, 1964). Further, comparison of the early and later ver-sions of the Bodhi(sattva)caryāvatāra has revealed that stanza 105 stressing the importance of the repeated study of Śikṣāsamuccaya is in fact a later interpolation (Ishida, 1988; Saitō, 2004), for which some unknown reviser who highly esteemed the Śikṣāsamuccaya was likely responsible (Saitō, 2004, 140–143). The Dunhuang version indeed runs: “[t]he principles of training are seen in the sūtras. There-fore, one should recite the sūtras and one should at the beginning look at the Ākāśagarbhasūtra. After that, one should also carefully look at the Sūtrasamuccaya composed by the noble Nāgārjuna since it needs looking at with great care.” Not only is verse 105 lacking in this early version, but the parts emphasized are also different from the later and widely circulated recension of the Bodhi(sattva)caryāvatāra. Though problematic, Prajñākaramati’s interpretation that Śāntideva composed the three works has thereafter been transmitted through Vibhūticandra to the “later diffusion” (phyi dar) of Tibetan Buddhism. Therefore, in our present state of knowledge, we may safely attribute both the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra and the Śikṣāsamuccaya to Śāntideva, whether or not he was identical with *Akṣayamati, and the Sūtrasamuccaya to another author, considered by the author of the verse in question to be Nāgārjuna, although modern schol-arship questions this attribution (Saitō, 2004, 2010).

Third, no less unreliable is the story accord-ing to which, among the three versions of the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra, Śāntideva himself regarded the recension in 1,000 verses as authentic. Recent comparative studies of the early and later versions suggest that this story was likely created in order to authorize the later and then accepted version of the Bodhi(sattva)caryāvatāra in 913 verses (Saitō, 1993, 14–18).

The Bodhi(sattva)caryāvatāra consists of didac-tic verses to be recited and remembered by a Mahāyāna practitioner (Kajihara, 1991; on the transmission of the work, see Liland, 2009). The work, one of the classics of Indian Buddhist litera-ture, was first scientifically edited, together with Prajñākaramati’s Pañjikā commentary, by La Vallée Poussin (1901–1914); subsequent editions include that of Shastri (1988). The stanzas alone had been

edited by Minayev as early as 1890. Among the numerous translations of the work, mention can be made of the first English rendering, by Barnett in 1909, and those of La Vallée Poussin (1907), Finot (1920), Schmidt (1923), Kanakura (1965), Matics (1970), Batchelor (1979), Steinkellner (1981), Pez-zali (1982), and Crosby and Skilton (1996), although there are quite a few others as well. It is indeed a favorite of many contemporary Buddhists, espe-cially those influenced by Tibetan traditions, and translations with sometimes extremely extensive commentaries by recent Tibetan teachers have been produced in abundance.

The text mainly deals with the topics of the thought of awakening (bodhicitta), the six per-fections (ṣaṭpāramitā), and transfer of merit (pariṇāmanā). Whereas the Dunhuang version is composed of nine chapters (1–9), the later enlarged “vulgate” consists of ten (I–X):

1. Untitled in the Dunhuang version (I: Bodhi-cittānuśāṃsā “Praise of the Awakening Mind”)

2. Bodhicittaparigraha “Adopting the Awakening Mind” (II: Pāpadeśanā “Confession of Faults,” and III, Bodhicittaparigraha “Adopting the Awakening Mind”)

3. Nairātmya “Selflessness” (IV: Bodhicittā pra-māda “Vigilance regarding the Awakening Mind”)

4. Samprajanyarakṣaṇā “The Guarding of Awareness” (V)

5. Kṣāntipāramitā “Perfection of Forbearance” (VI)6. Vīryapāramitā “Perfection of Vigor” (VII)7. Dhyānapāramitā “Perfection of Meditative

Absorption” (VIII)8. Prajñāpāramitā “Perfection of Understand-

ing” (IX)9. Pariṇāmanā “Dedication” (X); not commented

upon, but referred to by Prajñākaramati (on 1.33)

Considering the work as giving expression to a more devotional if not mystical approach of Madhya-maka and Mahāyāna, as is often done, overlooks the fact that its most significant and by far longest chapter, the ninth, is the one dedicated to insight (prajñā). This chapter “consists essentially in a detailed study of the basic philosophical ideas of the Madhyamaka school. We thus find in it a cri-tique of the pramāṇas [sources of valid cognition]; a discussion of pratītyasamutpāda [dependent origination]; the theory of the two truths together with a demonstration establishing that the practice of the Mahāyānist path is not made redundant

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or unnecessary by the truth of the pāramārthika [absolute truth] level of śūnyatā [emptiness]; and a refutation of the Vijñānavāda [idealism] together with critiques of other schools of Buddhist and non-Buddhist philosophy in India, including the-ism” (Seyfort Ruegg, 1981, 83).

Bu ston, who wrote his own extensive com-mentary on the text (Spyod ’jug gi ’grel pa Zla ba’i ’od zer, TBRC W1904), refers in the narrative por-tion of his History (Gangs ljongs shes rig gi nying bcud, 1988, 169:13–14; trans. Obermiller, 1932, 166) to about one hundred commentaries written on the Bodhi(sattva)caryāvatāra (B[S]CA) in India, of which only eight had been translated in Tibetan. In the catalogue portion of his History, however, he lists 11 commentaries, nine of which can be identi-fied in the Tanjur (Nishioka, 1980–1983, §609–618; Pezzali, 1968, 69–71). Commentaries (and summa-ries) in the Tanjur are as follows:

1. BCA-pañjikā, attributed to Prajñākaramati (D 3872/ P 5273); Skt. ed. La Vallée Poussin, 1901–1914; Shastri, 1988.

2. BSCA-vivṛtipañjikā, anonymous (D 3873/ P 5274); nine chapters.

3. BSCA-saṃskāra, attributed to *Kalyāṇadeva (Dge ba’i lha; D 3874/ P 5275).

4. BSCA-duravabodha(pada)nirṇaya, attributed to Kṛṣṇa(pāda) (D 3875a/ P 5276).

5. BSCA-pañjikā, attributed to Vairocanarakṣita (D 3875b/ P 5277).

6. Prajñāparicchedapañjikā, authored and/or re-vised by Blo ldan shes rab (D 3876/ P 5278), on chapter 9.

7. BSCA-vivṛti, anonymous (D 3877/ P 5279), on chapters 9 and 10.

8. BSCA-ṣaṭtriṃśatpiṇḍārtha, attributed to Dharmapāla/-kīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa (= Suma-tra; D 3878/ P 5280); see Eimer, 1981.

9. BSCA-piṇḍārtha, attributed to Dharmapāla/ -kīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa (= Sumatra; D 3879/ P 5281); see Eimer, 1981.

10. BSCA-tātparyapañjikā Viśeṣadyotanī, attrib-uted to Vibhūticandra (D 3880/ P 5282).

11. BSCA-bhāṣya, by Atiśa/ Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (P 5872); ed. Mochizuki, 1999.

Turning to his other work, composed of 19 chap-ters and structured along 27 basic verses, the Śikṣāsamuccaya (ed. Bendall, 1897–1902; trans. Bendall & Rouse, 1922; Goodman, 2016) cites approximately 130 Mahāyāna-sūtras and is thus an invaluable source for Sanskrit fragments of these

works. (Extensive discussion →BEB I: Sūtra Anthol-ogies, 293–294). The primary themes of the 27 verses are called the “vital points” (marmasthāna) for a Mahāyāna practitioner (Harrison, 2007, 2009). These seven “vital points” consist of body, posses-sions, merit, sacrifice, protection, purification, and increase, and are expressed in the fourth stanza of the Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā: “[t]he sacrifice, for the sake of all living beings, of one’s body, one’s posses-sions, and one’s merit acquired in all three times, and the protection, purification and increase of those [three things, i.e., one’s body, possessions, and merit].” This motif clearly echoes stanza 2.75 of the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra in the early version (3.10 in the later one), which reads: “I sacrifice with-out regret my bodies, my possessions, my merit acquired in all three times, to accomplish good for all living beings.”

The above survey leads to the following chronol-ogy of the three works related to Śāntideva, and their posterity. The Sūtrasamuccaya, ascribed by tra-dition to Nāgārjuna, is almost certainly not by him, nor by Śāntideva, but may have been compiled dur-ing the 5th century. In the 8th century, *Akṣayamati composed a Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra, consisting of nine chapters and 702.5 verses (translated by Dpal brtsegs and others in the early 9th century, cited in the Lhan dkar ma catalogue [Herrmann-Pfandt, 2008, §659, 600 ślokas]). Still in the 8th century, the Śikṣāsamuccaya (translated by Ye shes sde et al. in the early 9th century [Herrmann-Pfandt, 2008, §655, 4,200 ślokas]) was authored by “Śāntideva” in accordance with the motif of *Aksayamati’s Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra 2.75. Influenced by the Śikṣāsamuccaya, the enlarged Bodhi(sattva)caryāvatāra was composed, sometime between the 8th and the 10th centuries, by “Śāntideva,” after omit-ting, supplementing, and changing the contents of *Aksayamati’s early Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra. The Sanskrit text of this enlarged version prob-ably amounted to 10 chapters, and more or less 913 verses. In the late 10th century, Prajñākaramati’s story about the ascription of the three works (Bodhi[sattva]caryāvatāra, Śikṣāsamuccaya, and Sūtrasamuccaya) to “Śāntideva” became influential. Prajñākaramati’s extensive commentary was enti-tled Bodhicaryāvatārapañjikā, and not Bodhisat-tvacaryāvatārapañjikā. Still in the late 10th century, the enlarged Bodhicaryāvatāra was also translated into Chinese by the Indian monk Tian Xizai (天息災), who titled it Puti-xing jing (菩提行經, T. 1662, *Bodhicaryāsūtra) and ascribed it to Nāgārjuna

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(龍樹). The enlarged version of the Bodhi(sattva)caryāvatāra was translated by Rin chen bzang po (958–1055) and others, and revised and completed, in the late 11th to the early 12th century, by Blo ldan shes rab (1059-1109) and his collaborators. In the late 12th century, and following Prajñākaramati’s story about the three works, Vibhūticandra established the biography of Śāntideva, which was placed at the head of his commentary, the Bodhicaryāvatāratāt-paryapañjikā Viśeṣadyotanī. This biography sup-plied the later Tibetan tradition with its basic ideas about Śāntideva’s life and works.

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