Bridging the Digital Divide in Asia - United...

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1137850

Bridging the Digital Divide in Asia

Ravi SharmaIntan Azura Mokhtar

VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1137850

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Bridging the Digital Divide in AsiaChallenges and Solutions

Ravi Sharma, Nanyang Technological University, SingaporeIntan Azura Mokhtar, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Abstract: The UN / ITU joint declaration on moving towards an information society has put in place infrastructure targetsin tele-density and access. And indeed, in much of the Asia Pacific, impressive gains have been made over the past 5 yearsin achieving universality and affordability in telecommunications services, particularly in the mobile sectors of China, Indiaand Indonesia. An enterprise-oriented regulatory regime is one pillar of this growth. Cultivating user communities is theother pillar. Empowering the mass market with information literacy skills is yet another. In this talk, we shall review themajor trends in the prolific growth of telecommunications in the major markets of the region and outline some of the bestpractices that have been adopted by regulators and user communities. Among these, addressing the digital divide betweenhaves and have-nots in the various communities. We then summarize some key challenges for policy makers and privateenterprise in the information society and for strengthening the knowledge economy and directing efficient investments. Finally,we draw some policy framework analyses which aid in the establishment of an infrastructure as well as macro applicationsthat are universal, affordable and relevant, explaining why this is a critical element of any information or knowledge society.

Keywords: Digital Divide, Information Society, Enabling Technologies, Policy Framework, Knowledge Economy

The Digital Divide

IN 1999, THE newly elected Secretary-Generalof the International Telecommunications Union(ITU), Dr Yoshio Utsumi, both startled andchallenged delegates at the Telecom Geneva

Summit with his observation that more than half theworld’s people do not have access to the most basictelecommunications service – making a telephonecall. More specifically, he added in his OpeningAddress[ http://www.itu.int/osg/sg/speeches/1999/17tlc-

open.html ] :

Now that we are accomplishing the goal we set15 years ago, wemust set ourselves a new goal.That goal is: by the early part of the next cen-tury virtually the whole of mankind should bebrought within easy reach of modern means oftelecommunications, including the Internet.Once we have established telephone connec-tions, this goal will not be as difficult to achieveas the first one. Giving everyone access to thewealth of information available online, is notonly a matter of justice, but is vital for thewhole world. The move from an agriculturaleconomy to an industrial economy, has gener-ated enormous wealth, and raised our standardof living throughout the world. The samequantum leap will be experienced in the trans-ition to a global information economy. Every-

one must be given access to the tools of thiseconomy if they are to enjoy its benefits.

By then, it was apparent that the benefits of inform-ation and communication technologies (ICTs) werenot widespread nor universal. In the aftermath of theuproar that followed, several UnitedNations agencies– including UNESCO and the ITU – were proddedinto action. This has resulted in the UN General As-sembly Resolution 56/183 of 21 December 2001endorsing the holding of a World Summit on the In-formation Society (WSIS) [ http://www.itu.int/wsis/] in two phases. The first phase took place in Genevain December 2003 and the second phase will takeplace in Tunis in November 2005. The key objectivesof this summit are to address the (increasing) gapbetween societies and between individuals with re-spect to both access as well as utilization of inform-ation.Concurrently, the Organization for Economic Co-

operation and Development (OECD) studied the is-sue of disparities between countries and withincountries in the access and usage of ICT and sharedits findings with the twin reports “Understanding thedigital divide” [OECD 2001a] and “Bridging the di-gital divide: Issues and policies in OECD countries”[OECD 2001b]. In their definition, “the term digitaldivide refers to the gap between individuals, house-holds, businesses and geographic areas at differentsocio-economic levels with regard both to their op-portunities to access information and communication

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY, KNOWLEDGE AND SOCIETY, VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3, 2005/2006http://www.Technology-Journal.com, ISSN 1832-3669

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technologies and to their use of the Internet for awide variety of activities.” [OECD 2001a, p5].More interestingly, the investigations revealed not

just the issues and challenges, but fundamental re-search questions as well. To quote:

The so-called “digital divide” raises a numberof questions. Where does it occur and why?What are its causes? How is it to be measured?What are the relevant parameters? What is itsextent, that is, how wide is the digital divide?Where is it most critical? What are its effectslikely to be in the short term? In the longerterm? What needs to be done to alleviate it?These questions have only recently been raised,and it is not possible, as yet, to answer all ofthem with any certainty. [op cit]

The concerns of many of the OECD countries weretypically expressed by the Irish Information SocietyCommission. Summarizing the findings of a surveyof over 1400 adults conducted during the year 2000,the Commission concluded that:

The greatest issue to be faced over the comingyear is the digital divide. It is widely acceptedthat information and communications technolo-gies can be used to overcome disadvantage insociety, yet the results of this survey indicatethat the technology itself could be a stimulus tofurther disadvantage unless issues such astraining, education, and access are tackled as amatter of urgency. [OECD 2001b, p 91]

Given the flurry of such global interest, it wouldseem that there would be similar concerns amongresearchers and policy makers in Asia. Surprisingly,despite the reams of public data available [cf. ITUWorld Telecommunications Indicators Database;UNESCO 2003; and the World Development Indic-ators of the World Bank, http://www.world-bank.org/data/onlinedbs/onlinedbases.htm ] no spe-cific investigation has been done that would be usefulfor policy makers in Asia to try and understand and

then bridge any digital divide between countries andwithin countries. It is intuitively obvious that suchinequities, if unaddressed, form an impediment toeconomic and social progress.This paper addresses the two-fold issues of under-

standing the digital divide as it pertains to the Asiancontext (benchmarking with OECD statistics) andthen examining the efficacy of “best practices” forbridging such a divide. It is neither a summary ofwork that has been done to date that defines andquantifies the digital divide [cf. OECD 2001a; Boafoet al., 2003; Dutton 2004]; nor a replication of vari-ous field policies that bridge this divide in order tomeasure their effectiveness [OECD 2001b; Peters2002; Lievesley et al., 2003]. Contained in the nextsection is an overview of key ICT trends in the re-gion. Following this, a so-called 3-pillar model, dis-tilled as best practices from the seminal work suppor-ted by OECD and UNESCO, is formulated for thecontext. The paper then draws from worldwide fieldtrials of pervasive information and knowledge societyapplications. The central theme of information liter-acy as a fundamental means of bridging the digitaldivide is discussed at length, drawing on the workof the information resource community. The paperconcludes with some thoughts addressed to policymakers on how bridging the digital divide is essentialin any intended evolution to a knowledge society.

Information and CommunicationTechnology (ICT) Trends in AsiaThe year 2004 marked a seminal juncture in the his-tory of telecommunications. Worldwide demand forinformation over telecommunications channels al-most eclipsed voice traffic. In other words, the utiliz-ation of Internet protocol (IP) networks which couldcarry “packets” of voice, data, video, sometimes overmobile links was far greater than conventional tele-phony which is basically the transmission of voiceand fax over fixed lines. With that, Asia entered theera of convergence – telecommunications using richmedia of voice, video and data over mobile or fixednetworks.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY, KNOWLEDGE AND SOCIETY, VOLUME 116

Figure 1: Worldwide Digital Mobile Subscriber and Internet Penetration

The charts above, drawn from ITU data, show thejoint emergence of mobile and internet usageworldwide. Industry analysts suggest that this growthof the mobile internet is a precursor to “anytime,anyplace” access to information and communicationwhich can ideally enable the information society.The hunger in Asia for cutting-edge technology hasnever been in doubt. In a 2004 Pyramid Researchadvisory, it was estimated that the number of 3G (3rd

generation mobile which supports mobile internetservices) subscribers in the Asia Pacific will increase8-fold in the next 5 years from the current 21 millionto 162 million in the year 2008. Pyramid claims thatmuch of this will be driven by the switch from voiceand circuits to data and packets — by 2005, 75% ofthe traffic carried in mobile networks will be packetswitched. In addition, industry reports suggest thatdownstream traffic (i.e. from service provider tosubscriber) will exceed upstream traffic by a ratio of2 to 1. The stage is set for content intensive, on-de-mand packet services.What is sobering is the dispar-ity in the quantum and sophistication of use acrossthe region, making the gap between the “haves” and“have-nots” more pronounced.The 2005 Global Information Technology Report

by the World Economic Forum [Lopez-Carlos &Dutta, 2005] presents the results of research evaluat-ing the relative level of ICT development in 104 na-tions across the world. Based on empirical analysisof data collected from leading and internationally

recognized sources such as the World Bank, the In-ternational Telecommunications Union, PyramidResearch, and theWorld Economic Forum’s Execut-ive Opinion Survey, the level of ICT developmentof nations is assessed via the estimation of a Net-worked Readiness Index (NRI). Two observationsare clear: i) eight of the top 10 countries listed in theprevious report still occupy top-ten positions in2004–2005, and ii) the disparity in network readinessbetween the top quartile and the bottom one haswidened. Within the top quartile are Asian countriessuch as Singapore (which emerged as the globalleader), Hong Kong, Japan, Korea and Malaysia. Inthe second and third quartiles were the giants of India(ranked 39), China (41) and Indonesia (51). Muchelse of Asia clearly lags in network readiness. Thisfinding seems to suggest that geographically compactsocieties are easier to bridge digitally. The reportinterestingly also explores the relationship betweenthe Networked Readiness Index and one of the in-dices of competitiveness previously estimated by theWorld Economic Forum – which has long been asubject of significant interest for decision makersand economists. An analysis of the Spearman RankCorrelation coefficient establishes a strong linkbetween the two. In other words, network readiness(a measure of whether the infrastructure exists fordigital applications) is strongly associated with thecompetitiveness of an economy which is in turn akey driver of growth.

17RAVI SHARMA, INTAN AZURA MOKHTAR

Figure 2: Changes in Distribution of Internet Users, Source : ITU Internet Reports [2002]

A cursory analysis of survey data reported in the ITUInternet Reports [2002] suggests that the gap betweenthe digital haves and have-nots is being bridged. Forexample, in the worldwide distribution of Internetusers, there is a clear trend of greater equity both interms of geography and income levels. In 1995, 93%of Internet users were from high income householdsand 68% were from the Americas (most plausibly,the US). By 2001, the gap had narrowed to 73% and37% respectively. This augurs well for the numerouseconomic and political initiatives taken not just inthe developing world but in the European Union aswell. Such examples includeMalaysia’s MultimediaSuper Corridor and the EU’s RACE programmes.However, as the analysis progresses from macro

statistics to themore specific parameters, a somewhatdifferent picture emerges. For example, OECD data[2001a] suggests that in the year 2000, 97% of web-sites and 95% of secure servers (proxy indicators forInternet content and e-commerce transactions respect-ively) were in OECD countries – an overwhelmingdisparity with the rest of the world. A more detailedanalysis of additional public domain data from theITU results in the following tabulation as a basis for

comparison. The data in Table 1 is extracted fromthe ITU World Telecommunications IndicatorsDatabase for the year 2003 [www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/] using the mobile Internet sector asa yardstick for info-communications development.This database is the most complete repository oftelecommunications data compiled by an annualquestionnaire sent to telecommunication authoritiesand operating companies, supplemented by annualreports and statistical yearbooks of telecommunica-tion ministries, regulators, operators and industryassociation and is available from 1960, 1965, and1970-2001. The columns reflect various measuresof the digital economy while the rows show the val-ues of these indicators for the Asian giants of India,China and Indonesia (where over 75% of Asiansreside), the advanced information economies of Ja-pan, Korea and the HongKong Special Administrat-ive Region, the “lower income” country of Laos (aninstance of others so-categorized by the ITU such asAfghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, Mon-golia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Vietnam) and fi-nally the average values for Asia as a whole and theadvanced OECD countries.

Table 1: Analysis of ICT Parameters in Select Asian Geographies

PCs per100

Users per 10KHosts per10K

MarketUsageInfrastructureCountry

2.76632.481.2861.11 (66)36.79 (61)14.95 (63)China0.72174.860.8276.26 (45)45.30 (15)0.72 (160)India1.19377.162.8855.56 (82)39.38 (40)12.39 (70)Indonesia38.224488.561016.4778.00 (44)24.93 (148)58.42 (7)Japan55.146034.2052.3089.68 (14)33.77 (91)65.12 (3)Korea42.204691.66864.4996.10 (3)50.58 (4)58.42 (8)HK SAR0.3533.461.6537.50 (129)28.76 (127)0.26 (180)Lao PDR4.45674.2550.3461.1133.9213.10Asia41.773993.381485.7571.4137.7036.10OECD


The first three columns of Table 1 reflect Internetdevelopment in an economy and also helps predicthowwell that economymight take advantage of ICTin the future, as measured by infrastructure, usageand market structure. Both the raw scores and therankings (in parenthesis) are given. The infrastructurefactor, broken down in the first column, measuresthe development of the key physical elements of themobile and Internet network by taking into accountcurrent data on fixed lines, mobile subscribers, estim-ated Internet users, and PCs as a representation ofthe users and devices on a network. The infrastruc-ture factor also measures the state of Internet devel-opment by using data on international bandwidth,broadband subscribers and availability of leasedlines.The network usage factor, shown in the second

column, attempts to gauge how users are taking ad-vantage of the existing network by looking at sixindicators of usage and cost such as: roaming agree-ments, ISP data as a proxy for Internet usage, securesocket layer (SSL) data as a proxy for secure e-commerce transactions, local prices for a basket ofminutes, and the revenue variablewhich gives inform-ation about quality.The market structure variable, shown in the third

column, attempts to capture the overall ICT marketstructure for the economy as measured by ten indic-ators, each connected to a slightly different facet ofthe market. For example, values were given to aprivatization variable as a benchmark since it usuallysets the trend for the other communication markets;the number of years the incumbent operator has beenprivatized, which is useful information becauseeconomies with a history of being in an industrymarket perform somewhat differently than those innewly deregulated markets; the relationship betweenthe regulator and the incumbent operator - based onthe premise that separate regulators are generallymore able to implement policies and regulate operat-ors in a neutral manner; and other indicators thatdescribe different, but important segments of the ICTmarket such as local telephone service, domesticlong distance calls, international calls, mobile ser-vices, leased lines, and Internet service providers.The three other columns in Table 1 are basic

measurements of the number of Internet hosts forevery 10,000 people in the population as a measureof the available content and applications to the localcommunity, the number of Internet users per 10,000people (as distinct from subscribers) who have thisaccess, and the number of Internet connected Person-al Computers and Workstations (including mobiledevices such as Personal Digital Assistants) per 100people.It is evident from the data shown in Table 1 that

most of Asia lags behind (to varying degrees) the

OECD economies in terms of adequate network in-frastructure as well as Internet enablers. However inthe network usage and market structure measures, itis apparent that the previous lag diminishes to a dif-ference that is statistically insignificant. As if tocorroborate the WEF report, there is evidence thatmuch of Asia is catching up with the West, aided bypolicies and initiatives that promote sophisticatedICT use. Despite of this, it is also clear that not allof Asia is catching up in such a manner and thatdisparities still exist within the region itself.

A 3-Pillar Model for Bridging the DigitalDivideConventional political economic theory suggests thata society evolves to the next stage of growth whensufficient knowledge (including the exploitation oftechnologies) is diffused to its membership. The pushtowards the information society has similarly beenmarked by aggressive interventions by governmentsto equip its citizens with ICT tools, training andcritically useful applications.There is near unanimity on the importance of policyinitiatives in the move towards an information soci-ety. The analysis of Peters and her co-workers atbridges.com [2000], for example argues that thefollowing policy-making factors are essential:i) ICT Infrastructure: Policies that affect basic

ICT infrastructure and its productive use in society,notably telecommunications regulation and internetdeployment.ii) Trust: Policies that affect business, govern-

ment, and consumer trust towards ICT and onlinetransactions, such as security, privacy, intellectualproperty, and consumer protection.iii) Capacity Building: Policies that build the

necessary capacity to use ICT effectively, includingcurriculum, materials, skills training, and the inclu-sion of formal education within the society.iv) Taxation and Trade: These include t axation,

tariffs, trade barriers, and business investment cli-mate.vi) Employment and Labor: These include col-

lective bargaining, and talent attraction and acquis-ition.vii) Technology Diffusion: The distribution of

electronic information services such as e-governmentapplications, telemedicine, e-learning, and e-com-merce.viii) General Government: The role and authority

of the government in the form of government struc-ture (e.g. democracy, transparency, independence ofjudiciary and regulatory authorities), and nationalpolicies.Whilst comprehensive in outlining the fundament-

al support infrastructure for the creation of a know-


ledge economy, the framework is too wide and all-encompassing for the purpose of this paper. OECD[2001a], alternatively, suggests: building a networkinfrastructure; diffusion to individuals and house-holds, inculcating information skills through training;involvement of the private sector (especially thecommunity-rooted small and medium enterprises;flagship public projects to promote exemplars; andmultilateral cooperation for shared best practicesand lessons learnt. Basically a synthesis of thoughtleadership in bridging the digital divide into concrete,actionable items is proposed.Finally, Augusto Lopez Carlos of the World Eco-

nomic Forum and his collaborators [Lopez-Carlos&Dutta, 2005] formulate in their Global InformationTechnology Report, a framework to estimate net-worked readiness which rests on three fundamentalpillars. The first pillar captures aspects of the envir-

onment of a given nation for ICT development, suchas the regulatory regime and the legal framework forICT, the available infrastructure, and other factorscapturing elements of the market for technologicaldevelopment. The second pillar looks at actual levelsof networked readiness of the three main stakehold-ers in the economy: individuals, businesses, andgovernments. Finally, the actual levels of usage ofICT by these three stakeholder-groups are definedas the third pillar. The suggestion is that conduciveregulatory policies, adequate network infrastructureand development of macro applications, while obvi-ously synergistic, do not by themselves lend to theevolution to a knowledge economy.Encapsulating the major themes of the above cited

work, a simple model that will aid the ensuing ana-lysis and discussion of the sections of this paper tofollow is presented below.

Figure 3: A Simple Model for Bridging the Digital Divide

Figure 3 illustrates the underlying foundations orpillars of public policy that are postulated to promotethe evolution to an information society. More spe-cifically, there is considerable evidence that thesefactors, henceforth known as the three pillars, providea “level playing field” that would enable societies(and the citizens within) to have access to ICT andpossess the skills to exploit information, so as tocreate value in the course of their daily activities –be it at home, school or work.ICT infrastructure is an “obvious and essential

foundation” to the information society. Some of thesalient challenges will be addressed in the next sec-tion. Access to information and knowledge is anall-encompassing notion that includes not just theavailability of content and applications but its afford-

ability as well. The issue of usability is also relevant,given that 80% of Internet content is in English, un-derstood by less than 10% of the world’s population[Boafo et al., 2003]; in essence shutting them outfrom utilising such information. Capability andconfidence building likewise covers an entire rangeof initiatives from cyber-law for consumer protectionto information literacy campaigns that facilitate ex-ploitation of ICT for productive gain. Research andanalyses have consistently revealed that the real issueconfronting the digital divide is not just the availab-ility of ICT but the imparting of skills that “makesit possible for people to use technology effectivelyto improve their lives” [Peters et al., 2001]. This pa-per addresses at length, the concept of information


literacy as a means of bridging the digital divide andachieving the information society.

Applications for the Information SocietyThe Information Infrastructure of a knowledge soci-ety has two complementary layers. One is the net-works, systems and devices that enable informationcommunications such as electronic mail, computermessaging and conferencing, online discussiongroups, digital archives and their associated searchfacilities, e-learning, and knowledge sharing. Theother layer would be the suite of applications thatbring users together as a community and hence cre-ates value to the information society. It is an over-simplification to suggest that the fundamental pillarfor the creation of an information society is the Inter-net itself. A key enabler, but by no means an end initself, the Internet is a platform for much of the pre-viously stated services which are but essentialbuilding blocks of an information society.If the end goals of perhaps the most concerted

program currently underway to achieve the informa-tion society are considered, it becomes clear that theInternet is merely a means to an end. The WSIS[2003] Plan of Action offers the following targets tobe achieved by 2015:

1. to connect villages with ICTs and establishcommunity access points;

2. to connect universities, colleges, secondaryschools and primary schools with ICTs;

3. to connect scientific and research centers withICTs;

4. to connect public libraries, cultural centers,museums, post offices and archives with ICTs;

5. to connect health centers and hospitals withICTs;

6. to connect all local and central government de-partments and establish websites and email ad-dresses;

7. to adapt all primary and secondary school cur-ricula to meet the challenges of the informationsociety, and taking into account national circum-stances;

8. to ensure that all of the world’s population haveaccess to television and radio services;

9. to encourage the development of content andto put in place technical conditions in order tofacilitate the presence and use of all world lan-guages on the Internet;

1. to ensure that more than half the world’s inhab-itants have access to ICTs within their reach.

All the above targets refer to the evolution of soci-ety to a level of sophistication where the utilizationof scientific, health, cultural, and educational content

becomes the result of “promoting ICT-basedproducts, networks, services and applications” [opcit, p1]. Hence, it is not the use of the Internet alone,but what society does with such access and facilitiesthat becomes the hallmark of this evolution.Even at the lower architectural layers of an inform-

ation infrastructure, there are underpinning technolo-gies which overshadow this seemingly exclusive at-tention to the development of the Internet. Conceptssuch as convergence and mobility are drivers of thisevolution and pose unique challenges for info-com-munications applications. Some of these technicallayer challenges are identified below.

Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)IP is the critical building block of the Internet, in-tranets, extranets and almost all ICT networks. Theacute shortage of IPv4 addresses presents most partsof Asia with the unique opportunity of leap-frogginginto IPv6. The enhanced address space is not the onlyadvantage but the built-in security, quality of servicesupport and extension headers are new features thatare almost as important.

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)This protocol was specified by the Internet Engineer-ing Task Force in 1999 as one element of the multi-media protocol set that would support a myriad ofinfo-communications services and applications. Thenovelty of SIP relies in its flexible structure. Thebasic protocol can be easily extended without anymajor standardization need. Useful built-in featureis also the support of multiparty sessions which en-ables various group conferencing.

Physical NetworksThis is the major bottle-neck in most parts of Asia -the physical connectivity from homes, offices andschools across the urban-rural divide. Previously,there were voice and data circuits. Now, convergencemeans that the same connection applies to both. Theadvent of wireless networks that often go beyond thecoverage of local area networks is a boon. Wirelessnetworks are easy to install and require just a one-time capital investment of a few thousand dollarsper site with no recurring service charges. The cov-erage can be up to 30 km, the narrower and moreconcentrated the beam (an effect of the antenna), thefurther the distance the bridge can transmit. Mostparts of Asia, including difficult terrains and climaticconditions, may be easily and quickly “wired” thisway.


Mobility Management (MM)Mobility or “any-time, any-place” access to ICT isan unavoidable requirement in most parts of Asiathat can make the difference between success andfailure. Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)and extensions are crucial to access and rapid devel-opment. There are two alternatives, namely WiFiand WiMAX. The 802.11 family of standards areprevalent in most of the installed “hotspots” in itsWiFi mode. Engineers believe that the 802.11 pro-tocol is robust in the face of interference. For ex-ample, a connection speed might degrade, but wouldgenerally not be dropped. The term “WiMAX” actu-ally refers to a consortium of vendors doing their jobto accelerate standards and help get products work-ing. Eventually, this technology could become arural township network alternative to broadbandconnectivity via Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL).There are two basic flavors: 802.16a (now officiallyrenamed “802.16d,” and soon to be called “802.16-2004”) which is primarily for fixed wireless last-mileusage; and 802.16e for mobile (roaming) usage, withstandards approval expected in mid-2005. Althoughthe Internet per se has not been designed for themobile environment, it includes some useful instru-ments to control movement. SIP can be applied tolocate one or more IP addresses where a user canreceive information streams, given only a generic,location-independent address identifying a domain.This type of MM provides personal mobility thatscales across the region which is useful for nomadicpopulations scattered over vast land areas.

Authentication and SecurityThe trust of users must be earned as a confidencebuilding endeavor that will encourage further (andmore prolific) use. IP includes several built-in secur-ity features such as IPSec that are useful to this end.One major on-going research area has been the Au-thentication, Authorisation and Accounting (AAA)concept which includes basic features to check thatonly legal users can access the network. Whilewireless LANs (WLANs) can be extremely useful,they can pose a higher security threat than their wirednetwork counterparts. For instance, while access toan internal LAN usually requires penetration into aphysical building, a wireless LAN can often betapped into from outside the “wired” building, oreven from across the street. Therefore, withoutproper safeguards, unsecured networks can becomethe target of unauthorized and undesirable infiltrationand interception.Most wireless networks have somelevel of encryption available to protect sensitive data.However, encryption should only be considered asa first line of defense. There are many other solutionsfor securing wireless networks such as the RADIUS

(Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service) pro-tocol and PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol),which offer end-to-end encryption.Services Enablers: Agents, Instant Messaging

and Location.There is consensus among researchers about the

need for agent technology in order to provide moreaccessible information services. Intelligent agentscan save a lot of time; they may automate search andalleviate the need for frivolous user interaction. In-stant messaging is already popular with mobile usersand will be more so when combined with e-mail andtelephony. Push-to-talk Over Cellular is an exampleof this. The main ingredient for presence is the loca-tion co-ordinates. Location tracking accuracy willincrease in the future and the current variation ofaround 100meters can shrink to about 5 meters. Thisopens a plethora of converged 3G and WLAN ser-vices which use the location details of a user to pushspecific services.

End-to-end IP Infrastructure forSeamless Info-communicationsThe benefits of being able to switch seamlessly froma WLAN to a wide-area mobile network becomeevident when traveling between the home, workplaceand public areas such as airports or convention ven-ues. Seamless switching from WLAN to the wide-area mobile network makes it possible to maintainthe wireless data connection – for example, sendingand receiving e-mail or downloading a document viaa Virtual Private Network (VPN) - when leaving onelocation and moving to another. A convergedWLAN-3G solution offers operators and users thebest of both worlds. By combining the extensivecoverage of mobile systems with the high accessspeed of WLAN technology, the sum of this newcombined capability is greater than its parts. Thedevelopment bears out some analysts’ view thatWLAN is a complement to 2G and 3G, and willpromote the use of ubiquitous overall data services.

Tangible Business Benefits of New ICTThe economics for reliable, secure mobile data ser-vices is becoming clear. Mobile and wireless net-works cost less to install and are built-up more rap-idly than their fixed line and cable alternatives. Thevalue extends to virtually every important facet ofsociety – homes, workplaces and schools. Mobilehigh-speed data access will not only enhancepeoples’ effectiveness as their tasks are currentlydone, but they will develop new ways of workingand new business processes that yield even greaterproductivity and satisfaction. The lack of an adequatetransportation infrastructure, so often the case inmajor Asian metropoles, can be partially offset by


such info-communications services as Internet con-ferencing, e-learning, e-commerce, and other web-enabled services.

Bandwidth versus Coverage of VariousTechnologiesWhen one considers the cost per byte per meter, itemerges that 3G has a compelling value propositionin metropolitan and country-wide circles as a meansof leap-frogging. Yet Asian consumers would wantthe vast savings attributed to WLAN due to the easeof installation and operations. Hence, it is intuitivethat one will not displace the other as the accessmode to pervasive voice or data services. WiFi hasa natural competitive advantage over 3Gwith respectto service pricing and bandwidth, but a snapshot ofthe global hotspot industry shows that this is not be-ing exploited. Hotspot services are also not stretchingtheir bandwidth advantage over 3G. Many hotspotoperators clog up their networks with connectionsof around 1Mbps or less. With just a few users onone access network, connection speeds can drop tothe bandwidth that will be available on well-provi-sioned 3G networks - around 300Kbps. While hot-spots remain expensive and their coverage patchy,3G’s wide area coverage will give it a competitiveadvantage. However, as the number of WiFi accessdevices increases, the economics of WiFi serviceprovision changes. WiFi service providers in theorywill be able to move from a low volume-high pricepoint position, to a high volume-low price pointstrategy. It should also provide a stimulus for furtherhotspot deployment, producingmore comprehensiveWLAN coverage in Asia.In effect, the above challenges prove that techno-

logy barriers are not major impediments to move onto the information society. The role of technology isto “inform and shape our modes of communication,and also the process of our thinking and our creativ-ity” [Boafo et al., 2003, preface]. In so doing, theycontribute to the development of the knowledgecommunity by providing a key enabler for the access,creation and exchange of knowledge within a com-munity.

Information LiteracyInformation literacy has always been consideredimportant for the development of societies. Fromhistorical times of the great repositories of know-ledge in Alexandria to modern day Internet archives,the access and use of information has been a criticalelement of economic success and social advance-ment. However, the proliferation of information,multiplied by the rapid growth of ICTs and mass

media, and the increasing interconnectivity of globalnetworks, renders information literacy indispensable.In the traditional sense, information literacy tends

to imply a set of library related competencies or whatis popularly known as ‘bibliographic instructionskills’ [Gibson, 2004; Rader, 1990; Rockman, 2003].However, in-depth research into the area has pro-duced several more precise definitions. The conceptof information literacy is actually consistent with theadvent of the information society, typified by swiftdevelopments in technology and the exponentialgrowth of information. The American Library Asso-ciation produced its landmark report in 1989 thatfundamentally describes information literate individu-als “as those who have learned how to learn and thatthey know how information is organised, how to findinformation, and how to use information in such away that others can learn from them” [ALA, 1989,p1]. This report led to an upsurge of interest in theconcept of information literacy and yielded a slewof additional descriptions.Doyle [1992] defines information literacy as the“ability to access, evaluate, and use information froma variety of sources”. She further lists the character-istics that each ability of ‘access’, ‘evaluate’ and‘use’ entails. Bruce [1997] provides a relationalmodel of information literacy, quite distinct to whatDoyle had earlier presented. Bruce maintains thatinformation literacy cannot be adequately definedbut instead ought to be described according to howindividuals interact with the environment. To put itsimply, information literacy to an academic mayrefer to the research process and involve criticalthinking skills, whereas to a taxi driver, it is simplythe ability to determine which routes to take basedon road traffic reports, weather conditions and priorexperiences. In other words, information literacy isseen as an experiential process that meets a contex-tual need.Regardless of the various definitions and descrip-

tions of information literacy, what is clear is its sig-nificant role in the emergence of an information so-ciety and knowledge-based economy. As literacy perse is often seen as a skill that needs to be developedat an early age, it is no surprise that educationalistsand policy-makers have focussed on the introductionof information literacy skills into the formal educa-tion process, be it at the primary, secondary, tertiaryor vocational levels. Several models of informationliteracy have hence been developed for use inschools, institutions of higher learning and theworkplace.

Measures of Information LiteracyIn practice, information literacy has been synonym-ous with information skills, which focus on the intel-


lectual processes of information use. One of the mostwell-known taxonomies of information skills is theBig6, designed and proposed by Eisenberg andBerkowitz [1990]. The six skills proposed include(i) the definition of the information task, (ii) the for-mulation of strategies to search for information, (iii)strategies for the location of and access to informa-tion, (iv) the use of acquired information, (v) thesynthesis of knowledge fromprior and current inform-ation, and (vi) the evaluation of the informationprocess.Kuhlthau [1993] has alternatively presented an

array of skills that focus more on the cognitive pro-cesses of information use. She defined six stages inthe information search process: (i) the initiation orperception of an information need, (ii) the selectionof a topic for further investigation, (iii) the explora-tion of the required information in order to have abetter understanding of the topic, (iv) the formulationof the specific information need, (v) the collectionof relevant information, and (vi) the informationsearch closure.The delineation and characterization of the inform-

ation search process and the information skills in-volved in using information is useful in understand-ing how information is sought, assessed and used.However, Bruce [1997] believed that individualscould not be strictly pigeon-holed into rigid categor-ies in terms of their information search process orskills involved in seeking, selecting and using inform-ation. She theorized that people understand informa-tion literacy differently, based on their prior experi-ences and contexts of experiences. She discoveredseven faces or conceptions of information literacy;which are (i) the information technology conception,(ii) the information sources conception, (iii) the in-formation process conception, (iv) the informationcontrol conception, (v) the knowledge constructionconception, (vi) the knowledge extension conception,and (vii) the wisdom conception. She maintainedthat each could exist independently of or complement-arily to the others, depending on the context of useand experience.

Information Literacy Standards andGuidelinesWhen theAmericanAssociation of School Librarians(AASL) presented its revolutionary document “In-formation Power: Building Partnerships for Learn-ing” in 1998 [AASL, 1998], it quickly became thede facto standard for information literacy competen-cies and indicators in numerous educational institu-tions across the globe. The Association of CollegeandResearch Libraries (ACRL) developed theAASL

guidelines further and produced the “InformationLiteracy Standards for Higher Education” in 2000;thus providing a continuous range of informationliteracy competencies andmeasures from elementarythrough high school, and on to college level [ACRL,2000]. Across the United States, other state-widestandards were also developed and implementedbased on those produced by the AASL and ACRL,such as the Colorado Information Literacy Standards[Colorado State Library & Colorado Department ofEducation, 2002], theWisconsin’sModel AcademicStandards for Information and Technology Literacy[Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1998]and the Alaskan Library / Information LiteracyStandards [Alaska Association of School Librarians,1999].In Australia and New Zealand, the Council of

Australian University Librarians (CAUL) convenedin September 2000 and reviewed the USACRL 2000for fine-tuning and implementation in the region. Asa result, the CAUL “Information Literacy Standards”was developed for use mainly in higher educationalthough it is extensible to other educational levels[CAUL, 2001]. The standards were revised in 2003so as to accommodate the suggestions of academicsand librarians who had used the earlier edition. Thesecond editionwas renamed the “Australian andNewZealand Information Literacy Framework” [ANZIIL,2004].Meanwhile, in the United Kingdom, the Society

of College, National and University Libraries(SCONUL) presented their position paper on “Inform-ation skills in higher education” [SCONUL, 1999].The basis of research for the paper was the relation-ship between “information technology skills” and“information handling skills”. The objective of thetask force of SCONUL was to determine the differ-ence between the two, and the need for informationskills, specifically in the UK higher education sys-tem. The “Seven PillarsModel” was hence proposed,based on seven skill sets that arose from a fundament-al competence in library and information technologyskills. Best practices within the UK higher educationsector and from abroad, and established and pub-lished definitions of information skills were con-sidered and reviewed as input to the development ofthe “Seven Pillars Model”

Information Literacy Competencies andIndicatorsDrawing on the four main standards (AASL, ACRL,CAUL/ANZIIL and SCONUL) presented above, thefollowing table is a synthesis of the competenciesand indicators proposed:-


Table 2: Summarised Competencies and Indicators

IndicatorsCompetencyDefines and articulates the need for informationRecognises the nature and extent of information

needed Identifies a variety of information sourcesUnderstands the purpose, scope and appropriateness of avariety of information sources and resourcesKnows and considers the costs and benefits of obtaining theneeded informationSelects themost appropriate investigativemethods or inform-ation retrieval systems for finding the needed information

Accesses the needed information effectively andefficiently

Constructs and uses well-planned search strategiesRetrieves information using a variety of methodsAssesses the information obtainedEvaluates information and its sources critically

and incorporates selected information into ownknowledge base and value system

Summarises main ideas extracted from the information ob-tainedArticulates and applies initial criteria for evaluating inform-ation and its sourcesValidates understanding and interpretation of informationthrough discourse with other individuals, subject area expertsand practitionersDetermines if the initial query should be revisedUnderstands bias and authority issues when obtaining inform-ation

Strives for excellence in information seeking andknowledge generation

Recognises the differences between accurate and inaccurateinformation, reliable and unreliable informationContinues to seek and revise search strategies and methodsuntil the information need is aptly and accurately metGenerates main ideas to construct new conceptsUses information appropriately and creativelyCompares new information with prior information to determ-ine value-addedness, contradictions and other unique charac-teristicsApplies new and prior information to the planning and con-struction of new knowledge or productReassesses and revises the development process for the newknowledge or productCommunicates the new knowledge or product effectively toothersAdheres to laws, regulations, institutional policies andetiquette related to the access and use of information sources

Understands many of the economic, legal and so-cial issues surrounding the use of information,

Acknowledges the use of information sources in communic-ating new knowledge or product that is generated

and demonstrates ethical and legal access and useof information

Honours and acknowledges the ownership of informationRecognises and respects differing opinions in discussions aswell as print and non-print information sources

Contributes positively to the learning communityand the society, and recognises the importance ofinformation in a society Proactively seeks to understand different perspectives in or-

der to have an informed opinionShares knowledge and collaborates with others to generatenew ideas or products that benefit the learning communityand the society

Creating Knowledge SocietiesThere is considerable agreement among researchersas well as policy-makers [cf. Lopez-Carlos & Dutta,2005; OECD 2001a] that the evolution to an inform-

ation societymust be predicated by the underpinningsof both knowledge and its exploitation. Therefore,among the key solutions to progress are policy initi-atives and development programs that equip the


people with critical capabilities such as informationliteracy. In Asia and the region, much is being donein this direction as is described in the following sub-section.

Information Literacy Initiatives in AsiaIn Singapore, the Ministry of Education (MOE) de-veloped the “Information Literacy Guidelines” in1997 [MOE, 1997]. These guidelines emphasizedthe importance and role of information literacy ineducation and spelt out the various skills and know-ledge that students should possess at specific levelsin the education system (primary, secondary and pre-university or K-12). To augment the developmentof information literacy skills amongst students andto facilitate the inclusion of such skills in the schoolcurricula, the MOE spent approximately US$1.2billion on outfitting schools with the necessarytechnological infrastructure from 1997 to 2002, whenthe government introduced The Masterplan for In-formation Technology in Education in 1997. TheMOE invested a further US$350 million each yeartomaintain and upgrade computer hardware, developeducational software, and continuously train teachersin integrating ICT in their teaching. A second ITMasterplan was unveiled in 2002, whose main aimwas to reinforce the developments and achievementsof the first one, specifically in enhancing creativityin learning and honing information skills. The secondMasterplan was to be implemented from 2002 until2007. On a nation-wide scale, the National Informa-tion Technology Literacy Programme (NITLP),which is a three-year program, was launched in 2001,whose aimwas to train at least 10% of the populationto become adept at using ICT applications. The ob-jectives of the program include helping Singaporeansenhance their employability in the digital environ-ment mainly through learning how to use computersand the Internet effectively, so that their quality oflife can be improved and any digital divide withinthe island nation bridged. As a further impetus toICT skills, the government has also committed toput online almost all public services including thefiling of tax returns, queries and applications for allkinds of permits, and communication with publicofficials [Infocomm Development Authority ofSingapore, 2003]. This initiative is known as PublicServices for the 21st Century or PS21.InMalaysia, the National Information Technology

Agenda (NITA) was created in 1996 calling for aMulti-media Super Corridor (MSC) with the aim ofproviding a framework for a synchronized and incor-porated approach in cultivating three important ele-ments – IT human resource, infostructure and IT-based applications [Prime Minister’s Office, 1999].From 1995 to 1998, theMalaysian government spent

approximately US$1 billion annually towards incent-ives to promote the use of ICT in various sectorsranging fromBanking and Finance to Education andResearch. This amount increased to approximatelyUS$1.5 billion in 2000 [Prime Minister’s Office,2001]. Initiatives such as the ‘Smart Schools’ andthe ‘Computer-Aided Instruction Programme forMathematics and Science’ programs,were implemen-ted in a bid to increase computer literacy and usagein schools. High-bandwidth fibre-optic networkingwas installed in institutions of higher learning to fa-cilitate multimedia applications, distance learningand efficient communications.Japan can arguably claim to be the leading ICT

nation, not just in Asia but globally [Ichimura, 2002].Information literacy is regarded as an “indispensablebasic ability” and the key to achieving the status ofbeing an advanced and efficient nation. Libraries arebelieved to be the main force in providing informa-tion literacy education to users. The Japanese Min-istry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT) has implemented the ‘Distinct-ive University Education Support Program’ or ‘GoodPractice’ since 2003, with the aim of diversifyinguniversity-level education in a bid to provide a broad-based curriculum for future graduates [MEXT, 2004].Among improvements made to the curriculum areeducational initiatives to cultivate morality andpublic-spiritedness, science literacy education, andinformation literacy education.In China, the Ministry of Education put forward

its 21st century plan which promulgated the use ofcomputers, research and design of computer soft-ware, and the necessary computer training for bothteachers and students [Ma & Hu, 2002]. By 2000,one-third of all primary, junior and senior secondaryschools in China had offered ICT courses in theircurricula. To augment this development, the Depart-ment of Basic Education in theMinistry of Educationproposed the tasks and goals of the ICT educationthat would span a decade until 2010. Among thegoals was the outfitting of ICT infrastructure inschools followed by the training of students to beinformation literate so that they would be able to“collect and analyze information, as well as commu-nicate and express it” [op cit]. Although the nationalsystem is rather rigid in terms of information avail-ability and access, the government has made a con-certed effort to make such information public, whilstthe growth in computer usage and information infra-structure has been encouraging [Tang, 2004].In India, the main focus of the Department of

Education (part of theMinistry of Human ResourcesDevelopment) of the Indian government was on thegeneral literacy of its masses. The National LiteracyMission (NLM) that was launched in 1988 aimed toequip every child and adult with the basic ability to


read and write, with the goal of attaining a sustain-able 75% literacy by 2005 [Department of Education,2004]. The attainment of this goal is facilitatedthrough effective and expansive media and commu-nication infrastructure and networks, and throughpost-literacy initiatives and continuing educationprogrammes. ICT infrastructure and initiatives andinformation literacy programs are subsumed underits ‘Total Literacy Campaign and ‘Post-literacy Pro-gram’ that is collectively known as the ‘One LiteracyProject’. The NLM and ‘One Literacy Project’ areongoing concurrently in numerous states across thenation of over one billion people, according to theneeds of the respective communities.

Prescriptive Measures for EffectiveInformation Literacy and ICT ProgramsIn a nutshell, the various information literacy andtechnology initiatives in Asia are a step in the rightdirection towards developing into the informationsociety. However, it is imperative for nationwideprojects to be implemented to the masses to ensureits expansive effectiveness. The first level of imple-mentation is in equipping the masses with basic liter-acy – the ability to read and write. The second levelof implementation is in supplying the necessary in-formation infrastructure and support such as com-puters, technology and training. The third level ofimplementation is in introducing relevant programsand initiatives that can help the masses utilise newtechnologies to increase their knowledge, upgradetheir skills and improve the quality of their lives.These programs include information technology lit-eracy programs, information literacy awareness andtraining, and the integration of such programs andtraining within the school curricula, so that citizensare trained from young to develop and hone the ne-cessary skills. This integration is important to ensurethat when children leave school and venture out intothe workforce, not only are they familiar and adeptat using ICT, they are equipped with informationliteracy skills that they may apply in their work anddaily lives. As a result, they are always ready to learnskills that are relevant in this era of rapid knowledgeproliferation and change.Focusing on information literacy programs in the

school curricula, it must be realized that the skills,which students ought to be equipped with, shouldnot merely adhere to lists of competencies that arepromulgated by established standards and guidelines.Although those are necessary to keep track of theskills that students ought to possess, it is crucial togive more emphasis to the manner in which they aretaught to students. Students should be given oppor-tunities to explore these skills such as through con-structivism or experiential learning, rather than

simply follow a checklist approach in acquiring thesecompetencies. This would help ensure internalization,deep erudition and lasting retention of these skills,rather than surface-learning and short-term know-ledge that would render the whole teaching andlearning process futile.Related to information literacy is the idea of uni-

versal access to and sharing of domain knowledge.The powerful idea of open, free access to informationis fast gaining popularity. The British House ofCommons, after extensive debate, recommended that“all UK higher education institutions establish insti-tutional repositories in which their published outputcan be stored and from which it can be read, free ofcharge, online.” In the US, medical research reportsfunded by the National Institutes of Health will bedeposited into PubMed Central, the NIH’s digitaldepository for public access. Such open access totechnical, scientific, cultural and educational re-sources is the path to bridging the digital divide andevolving into knowledge societies. It is often notedthat a bigger barrier to creating knowledge societies,than the availability of infrastructure, is the accessto content that is current, relevant and usable. Opensource or share-ware for content is a significant stepin overcoming this barrier.

In ClosingIn the infrastructure pillar of the 3-pillar modelpresented in this paper, a technological frameworkwhich governs the access to distributed, secure,multimedia content and transactions, and, the ubi-quity of devices and applications leading to a pervas-ive platform and services suite correspondingly res-ults in a high ICT or network readiness index. In thesecond pillar of access to information and know-ledge, there is a strong link between education, inter-net use and the utilization of knowledge. The thirdand final pillar is the conviction that information lit-eracy is a means of bridging the digital divide anddeveloping into the information society. The 3-pillarmodel may seem superficially analogous to thehardware, software and services components of tra-ditional ICT solutions. However, the policy implica-tions are far more significant.

It is worth recapitulating that the purpose of theWSIS initiatives was to gather best practices forpolicy-makers that “promote the concept of know-ledge societies, rather than that of global informationsociety” since enhancing information flows alone isnot sufficient to grasp the opportunities for develop-ment that is offered by knowledge. Therefore, a morecomplex, holistic and comprehensive vision and aclearly developmental perspective are needed. Em-pirical investigations must be undertaken to addressthe main challenges posed by the construction of


knowledge societies: “first, to narrow the digital di-vide that accentuates disparities in development, ex-cluding entire groups and countries from the benefitsof information and knowledge; second, to guaranteethe free flow of, and equitable access to, data, inform-ation, best practices and knowledge in the informa-tion society; and third, to build international con-sensus on newly required norms and principles.”[Dutton, 2004, preface].The disparitywithinAsia seemsmore pronounced

than that betweenAsia and OECD countries. Initiat-ives such as the African Digital Solidarity Fund serveas a useful model. In the United States, private sectorinitiatives from the likes of ICT principals such asHP andMicrosoft to bring the Internet to the masseshave been successful in more ways than one. Albeitself-serving, these programs are sustainable in thatthe downstream demand for ICT products and ser-vices that they create generate profits that pay forthem. Perhaps the most pragmatic driver of this isthe approach advocated by CK Prahalad [2004], theHarvey C Fruehauf Professor of Business Adminis-tration at the University ofMichigan Business Schoolwho believes that business cannot be sustained on“philanthropy or corporate social responsibility” butpractices that are integral to its success. Prahaladposits that the huge markets that comprise theworld’s poorest 4 billion people add up to a spendingpower of US $ 13 trillion. However to be profitable,businesses cannot merely edge down market withvariations of the same products or services theyprovide to the top of the pyramid. There is a need tore-engineer the business model so that the productsor services are in smaller units, lower margins,higher volumes, and represent an entrepreneurialdistribution system. It follows then that the provisionof internet applications to the masses cannot be pre-dicated on high end computers with broadband con-nectivity and a host of licensed software and sub-scribed content. There is obviously a need to providean “on-demand” utility service which will allow themasses that aspire to be a part of the knowledge so-ciety to pay for what they use without the barriersof ownership of ICT resources or needless high levelsof ICT skills. The track records of governments andbusinesses in providing such a platform are mixed;inevitably requiring a multilateral solution tobridging the digital divide.

It would be foolish for policy-makers to ignorethe huge investments required to emerge into acompetitive knowledge economy. Even advancednations such as Japan, with its e-Japan initiative, andthe United Kingdom, with the digital Britain pro-gram, are required to commit billions of dollars overa span of 5 to 10 years in order to achieve impact.The “lower income” [ITU] or “lesser developed”[OECD] countries of Asia with inadequate infrastruc-ture or low levels of literacy have an even more for-midable public fiscal challenge. If the e-Korea Vision2006 is a benchmark, it may take an investment ofover 10% of the gross national product in a sustain-able period of 20 years to raise the level of infrastruc-ture as well as the capability of a society to be com-petitive in the knowledge era. There is, however,consolation in the trends – just as mobile networkshave allowedmore people access to telecommunica-tions in the past ten years than was possible in theprevious hundred years, the proliferation of the Inter-net (cybercafés and tele-centres) and associated newmedia content have impacted literacy and informa-tion consumption to the masses. This is the case evenin the larger societies of Asia such as China, Indiaand Indonesia.Income levels, age, gender, education, urbaniza-

tion and the oft-cited lament that 80% of Internetcontent is in English which less than 10% of theworld’s population understand [Boafo, 2003] havebeen consistently pointed to as the dependent vari-ables of the digital divide. However, geography andpublic policy are noticeably more pronounced. Ulti-mately, to paraphrase Richard Joseph [in OECD,2001b]: it is that the digital divide will not be under-stood if it is viewed purely as a technological phe-nomenon. It will hardly be lessened if the only solu-tions put forward are ‘tech-fixes’ advocating an ‘ir-rational exuberance’ on the part of developingcountries to embrace ICT. The way ahead must relyon a deeper appreciation of the interconnectionsbetween the value of information and sustainabledevelopment of societies. Already in place is a suffi-ciently broad set of theoretical perspectives fromfields such as economics, sociology, law, politicsand information studies in general to champion thisagenda.

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UNESCO.Measuring and Monitoring the Information and Knowledge Societies : a statistical challenge, A UNESCOWSIS Document, 2003. Available online at: http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.phpURL_ID=10592&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction.Wisconsin’s Model Academic Standards for Information and Technology Lit-eracy, 1998. Available online at: http://www.dpi.state.wi.us/dpi/standards/pdf/infotech.pdf


World Summit on the Information Societies Geneva 2003 – Tunis 2005: http://www.itu.int/wsis/index.html

Annotated Bibliography of Online Resources on Asian ICT DevelopmentsAsia - Pacific Development Information Programme (APDIP) seeks to promote and establish informationtechnology (IT) for social and economic development throughout Asia-Pacific. Launched in 1997 and based inKuala Lumpur, the Programme serves 42 countries in a vast region, from Iran in the west, north to Mongoliaand south to the Pacific Islands of Fiji : http://www.apdip.netAsia PacificNetworkingGroup (APNG) is an Internet organization dedicated to the advancement of networking

infrastructure in this region, and to the research and development of all associated enabling technologies. Itsmission is to promote the Internet and the coordination of network inter-connectivity in the Asia Pacific Region: http://www.apng.orgNational Information Infrastructure In South-East Asia Report (1997) examines the information infrastructure

programs in twelve Asia Pacific nations, and discusses APEC’s recent initiative to establish an APII - an AsiaPacific Information Infrastructure : http://www.vacets.org/vtic97/txbui.htm

About the AuthorsProf Ravi SharmaRavi S. Sharma is presently Adjunct Faculty at the School of Communication and Information and part of theadministration of the Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. His teaching, consulting and researchinterests are in telecommunications best practices and strategies. As consulting engagements, he had served astelco industry advisor to Frost & Sullivan’s technology practice in the Asia Pacific as well as several startups.Prior to this, Ravi was the Asean Communications Industry Principal at IBM Global Services and before that,Director of theMultimedia Competency Centre of Deutsche TelekomAsia. He has worked in the area of advancedcommunications technologies for over 20 years and his work has appeared in leading journals, conferences,trade publications and the broadcast media. Ravi received his PhD in engineering from the University ofWaterlooand is a Chartered Engineer (UK) and a Senior Member of the IEEE. He serves as an associate editor of theIEEE Communications Surveys and sits on various technical and professional boards.

Ms Intan Azura MokhtarIntan Azura Mokhtar is currently a doctoral research student in Information Studies. Her current research is onInformation Literacy Pedagogy that traverses both the areas of Information Studies and Education. Her researchtopic is “Information Literacy Education in the Context of Project Work: Using Gardner’s Theory of MultipleIntelligences”, where she is supervised by A/Prof Shaheen Majid and Prof Schubert Foo. Intan obtained herBSc degree in Physics from the National University of Singapore. She then proceeded to do her PostgraduateDiploma in Education and went on to teach in a secondary school for three years before taking a year off topursue her MSc in Information Studies. Intan went back to teaching but eventually left the teaching service tojoin the PhD programme. Intan’s research interests include Information Literacy, Pedagogy, and School Libraries.


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