Braun an Experimental Investigation of cut mark

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DR. Braun t al. I Journal of Archaeological Science xx (2007) 1•8

bone urface when muscle masses obscure it. As oo n as the butcher can ee he bone urface, ew f any cu t marks will be inflicted thereafter in that area" Bunn, 2001: 207).

Bunn (2001: 208) further asserts that " [E]ven partial defleshing by carnivores reveals where the surfaceof the bone is, which enables he butcher to avoid hitting t with he knife which

would

only

be

dulled

by

contacting

he

bone

and

producing a cutmark)." Bunn has therefore used the assumption that stone tools are dulled by the creation of cu t marks to build a scenario in which Paleolithic butchers are unlikely to makemarks on bones that have been previously defleshed by carnivores. From this he has made the behavioral inference that at archaeological sites with cut-marked ossils, he bones must have been accessed by hominins while they retained substantial muscle masses.

The assumed relationship between cu t mark production an d tool edge attrition (dulling) also has obvious implications fo r the se ife f ools ound n rchaeological ssemblages (Shott and Sillitoe, 2005). Understanding the factors that influ- ence use life of simple flake tools during butchery activities is important or nderstanding he unctional ignificance f stone rtifacts t arly tone ge ites Tactikos, 005; Toth, 982, 987). Although new tudies uggest hat many Early Stone Age sites may represent the use of stone artifacts to rocure on-mammal issue esources Mora nd e a Torre, 005), here emains xtensive vidence ha t harp edge lakes ere ssociated with extracting esources rom large mammal carcasses during this time period (Bunn et al., 1980; unn, 981, 986; e Heinzelin et al., 999; ominguez-Rodrigo nd ickering, 003; ominguez-Rodrigo et al., 2005; Potts and Shipman, 1981). Therefore, exploration of the association between tone artifact us e life and various

butchery activities will assist in the development of hypotheses about tool discard behaviors in the past (Schick, 987).

Two things are required before such analyses may proceed. First, the assumption that cut mark production dulls stone tools must be ested and quantified. econd, he elationship between various butchery activities an d stone tool edge attrition mustbe more precisely investigated. This study reports a series of butchery experiments esigned o address hese equire- ments. W e irst quantify he degree of association between cu t mark number and three different measurements of edge attrition, thereby examining the basis of Bunn's (2001) inference that hominins took measures to reduce the likelihood of tool- bone contact. W e then evaluate the relationship between stone tool edge attrition and three specific butchery tasks, no t all of which ould onsistently eave rchaeological races ha t would be preserved n he orm of cut-marked ossils: kinning, disarticulation, an d defleshing.

2. Methods

This study is based on two separate types of butchery experiments designed to test specific hypotheses. The first set of experiments is aimed at determining the association between cu t mark number and edge attrition. This et of experiments n- cluded the ystematic butchery of 18 individual hindlimbs of

various ized animals 6 heep; juvenile cows; zebras)

acquired from a local commercial butcher. In these 8 experiments Cut Mark Experiment • 18, henceforth CM E 1•18) skinning was carefully conducted with a metal knife in a man- ne r that precluded contact between the knife edge and any bone surfaces. Subsequent defleshing was done with a single whole flake (detached piece with a complete platform and completely

intactdistal edge: sensu Isaac, 1981) so that all cu t marks could be associated with edge attrition of a single flake. These limbs were no t disarticulated. Th e econd et of experiments was conducted to measure edge attrition in three separate butchery tasks (defleshing, disarticulation and skinning). This set of experiments included the systematic butchery of two sheep (Cut Mark Experiment A and Cut Mark Experiment B, henceforth CM E A and CM E B). All of the stone tools used fo r the butcheries were made rom ine-grained holeitic basalts rom the Gombe roup f basalts n he Turkana Basin n northern Kenya. This raw material was used by the majority of hominins that produced the archaeological record in the Koobi Fora For- mation (Braun, 2006).

2.1. Butchery

The butcheries were conducted by tw o Turkana men who were skilled butchers (Dominguez-Rodrigo, 1999). These men were aware ha t the butcheries were being conducted fo r research purposes. Fo r CM E 1•18 butchers were presented with the kinned hindlimbs nd old o ompletely eflesh each limb. A otal of 8 lakes were used or hese experiments. Th e CME A and B experiments were conducted following the pattern described by Jones (1980). An initial vertical incision was made witha metal knife from throat to tail to remove the vis-

cera. Th e head was then removed with a metal knife. No cu t marks were made on he imbs during hese wo operations. Th e carcass was then hung upside down from a tree, by a rope tied around on e leg, to facilitate butchery.

In CME A and B, a ingle whole lake was used fo r each butchery ask skinning, disarticulation, defleshing) on each limb 4 orelimbs, 4 hindlimbs). otal of 24 lakes were used fo r these tw o experiments (8 skinning flakes, 8 disarticulation lakes, and 8 defleshing lakes). Periosteum was no t removed. Th e sequence of butchery on each limb was as follows:

1) skinning, hich began at he carpáis or arsals and e- moved enough skin to disarticulate the limb from the axial skeleton;

2) initial disarticulation, or removing the limb from the axial skeleton;

3) defleshing, hich nvolved he capula/humerus/radio- ulna n he orelimbs nd emur/tibia n he indlimbs (metapodials were no t processed, as they have very little flesh and the butchers aid they would no t normally pro- cess them fo r flesh);

4) secondary disarticulation, or removing each of the afore- mentioned limb bones from each other.

Only one whole flake was used for each of these butchery ac-

tivities uring ME nd , egardless f he ifficulty

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D.R. Braun et al . I Journal of Archaeological Science xx (2007) 1•8

associated with butchering with dulled tools.Fo r consistency, initial disarticulation and secondary disarticulation were perform ed with the same "disarticulation" flake. Each activitywas timedto the nearest minute. Defleshing activities were limited to limbs.

After utchery as omplete, lakes nd ones ere washed with ho t water and a mild detergent to remove adher-

ing grease and bits of tissue.

2.2. tone tool measurements

W e assumed that dulling of the sharp edge on a flake is re- lated to the os s of small amounts of material on/around he edge. W e measured he potential oss rom each lake using three different methods:

1) MASS: W e weighed each flake before and after butchery with a digital cale. W e recorded mass to the nearest 0.1 gram.

2) AREA: W e measured the area of each flake using a digital imaging technique. Digital photographs of each flake were taken before and after butchery. Th e area was calculated by tracing the outline of the ventral surface of each flake using digital imaging software. Measurements were taken to ensure accuracy an d consistency of measurements following the methods outlined in Braun and Harris 2003), Braun (2005) and McPherron and Dibble (1999).

3) EDGE ANGLE: W e measured the edge angle of each flake before and afterbutchery using a modified caliper edge angle measurement developedby Dibble and Bernard (1980). This technique was elected because Dibble and Bernard showed that it was subject to minimal measurement error.

Th e measurement was taken at intervals of 2 cm along the edge of each lake. Edge angle measures were averaged from the multiple measures along the edge to create a composite edge angle measure (Eren et al., 2005). Each flake ha d between hree and ix measurements. he ocation where hese measurements were aken was marked with a permanent marker so that the measurement could be re- peated after the butchery experiments.

2.3. Cut mark counts

W e counted cu t marks or CM E 1•18 on he on g bones and nnominates only Table ). Cut marks were examined with a Ox hand lens under a bright high incident light (Blu- menschine, 986; Blumenschine et al., 1996). Although some single butchery actions (=strokes) can imultaneously eave multiple ncisions, or ou r purposes here n quantifying he damage his might cause o a tone ool, any ingle ncision was counted as a separate cu t mark.

2.4. tatistical analysis

W e tested three null hypotheses using three different variables o dentify any correlation between he number of cu t

marks produced and stone tool edge attrition:

Table

Numbers of cu t marks on hindlimbs from experimental butcheries

Experiment Cut mark count

CM E Bo s taurus)

CM E 2 Bos taurus)

CM E 3 Bos taurus)

CM E 4 {Bos taurus)

CM E 5 Bos taurus)

CM E 6 Bos taurus)

CM E 7 (Ovis aries)

CM E 8 Ovis aries)

CM E 9 Ovis aries)

CM E 0 {Ovis aries)

CM E 1 Ovis aries)

CM E 2 {Ovis aries)

CM E 3 Equus hurchelli) CM E 4 {Equus hurchelli) CM E 5 Equus hurchelli) CM E 6 {Equus hurchelli) CM E 7 Equus hurchelli) CM E 8 Equus hurchelli)

3 0 4 5 8 2 4 7 6 6 9 4 4 9 3 3 1 8 5 1 7 6 2 2

1 3 3 2 9 5 1 6 3 2 32 2 3 6 1 8 3

1) HQ : Th e total number of cu t marks in the experimental assemblage will have no significant correlation with proportional flake area lost.

2) HQ : Th e total number of cu t marks in the experimental assemblage will have no significant correlation with proportional edge angle change.

3) HQ : Th e total number of cu t marks in the experimental assemblage will have no significant correlation with proportional flake mass lost.

Because these samples do no t meet the assumptions of the

least

quares

egression we used

he

non-parametric

correlation coefficient (Kendall's Tau) o describe he goodness of fit between cu t mark count and he hree measures of flake edge attrition. To account fo r differences n initial lake ize and shape prior to the different butchery tasks we normalized each value as a proportion of the original value. Th e following formulae escribe he alues xpressed n he igures nd analyses:

1) Proportional mass lost is calculated as

(MBefore - ^After)/MBefbre * 100

where Meefore s he mass of the lake prior to butchery and

A ^ A f t e r s he

mass

of he

lake

after he butchery ask was complete.

2) Proportional area lost refers to the change in the area as measured with digital imaging software, and is calculated as

(^Before • A Aña) / A Afta * 100

where A b e f o r e epresents he area of the lake prior o each butchery task and A^fter represents the area after the butchery task was complete. As the change in flake area is small we digitized each flake three times prior to butchery an d three times after butchery. Th e values in this analysis represent the differences between the mean of these three separate calculations of

flake area.

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3) Proportional change in angle refers to the change in the proportional edge angle measurement, and is calculated as

( V ^ B e f o r e • VAñeT) /VB * 100.

where V ß e f o r e represents the composite angle measure prior to butchery and VA f t e r epresents he composite angle measure after he butchery ask was complete. Several of these edge angle measurements were aken on each lake, herefore he measurements n his analysis are a composite measurement fo r each oo l ha t epresents he average proportional angle change.

W e examined the relationship between stone tool edge dulling as uantified n he hree easures f oo l ttrition described bove) nd hree utchery ctivities skinning, disarticulation, and defleshing) to identify any significant differences in these variables during various butchery tasks. W e chose he Mann•Whitney /-test or ndependent amples o compare hese ifferent utchery ctivities o ne nother

because small sample sizes precluded the use of parametric tests.

Table 2 Correlation coefficients (Kendall's Taut) an d associated significance values fo r correlations between measures of edge attrition and cu t mark count

Measure of edge attrition Kendall's TaUh Significance

Proportional flake area lost

.072

Proportional edge angle change

0.098 Proportional flake mass lost

0.270

0.67 0.57 0.12

3. Results

Our ests of the association between cu t marks and edge attrition found that the variation n the number of cu t marks produced uring pecific efleshing event cannot explain the variation in edge attrition in three separate measures of attrition (Table 2). None of the correlation coefficients are ignificant to the p = 0.05 or even p = 0.1 evel of significance (Fig. a•c). W e therefore cannot reject any of the null hypoth-

eses stated above, and have found no statistical support fo r the

0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0 250.0 300.0 Cu t mark Count

0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0 250.0 300.0 Cut mark Count

0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0 250.0 300.0 Cu t mark Count

Fig. . Three separate measures of edge attrition correlated with the number of cu t marks associated with that experiment showing a lack of significant correlation between measures of edge attrition an d cu t mark count, a) Proportional mass oss; b) proportional change in edge angle; and (c) proportional flake area loss. These values are normalized to account fo r differences in flake shape and size. Regression lines are based on least squares regression. Evaluation of the statistical

strength of the relationship between each set of variables can be found in Table 2.

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DR. Braun et al . I Journal of Archaeological Science xx (2007) 1•8

assumption that infliction of cu t marks causes significant duU- ing of stone tool edges.

However, nvestigation of different butchery activities did show ignificant differences n edge attrition. Fig. 2a•c dis- play he median and nterquartile anges of all hree of the measurements of stone tool attrition, and Table 3 ummarizes

the

esults f

he

Mann•Whitney -test.

roportional rea loss and proportional change n angle both how ignificant differences between defleshing and kinning and disarticulation samples respectively at below the p = 0.01 level of significance. owever, roportional ass oss oes ot how significant differences between he different butchery asks. Given hat wo of the hree measures of edge attrition how highly significant differences between certain butchery activities, we conclude that there are much higher attrition rates in flakes used fo r skinning and disarticulation than those used fo r defleshing only.

4. Discussion

The results of ou r experiments provide no tatistical up- port fo r Bunn's (2001) inference that hominins took measures to reduce the likelihood of tool-bone contact because of potential edge dulling caused by cu t mark production. Our results

also lead to the expectation that tool discard behavior should no t necessarily be associated with high requencies of cut- marked bone, and his expectation can be ested at a variety of archaeological localities. A brief investigation of stone artifact discard patterns t Early tone Age ites uggest ha t hominins are discarding artifacts at very high ates even at

sites

when

here

s

very

ittle

evidence

of butchery

activity (Table 4). However, we still expect that stone tool discard rates may be associated with the degree of edge attrition. Given the differences n oo l edge attrition described n his tudy, he frequencyof different types of tasks may have had a substantial effect on rates of tool discard at different archaeological localities. his aises he possibility ha t tone oo l discard was linked o utchery ctivities ha t id ot lways esult n high numbers of cu t marks.

Our experiments show that tw o specific butchery activities (skinning and disarticulation) cause ignificantly more edge attrition han egular efleshing ctivities. hen ominins were ngaged n hese ctivities, heir ools re ikely o have had horter use ives. thnographic ata uggest ha t the nature of flake edges was a major factor in tool selection and us e Hayden, 979). urther, dge abrasion of utilized flakes s uggested to be very high during kinning activities (Hayden, 1979). Shott nd Sillitoe (2005) have eviewed

(a ) 25.0

20.0-

15.0-

o 10.0

SO

0. 0

19 O

-

T

(b )

Defleshing Disarticulation Skinning

40.0-

« 30.0- CI c < •g" 0. 0

ñ

S 0.0- a. o

0. 0

15 *

•

1

J. ^

- L

Defieshing Disarticuiation Sl<inning

(C)

2.5-

2.0-

S 1 -5

O ë .Q o

0.5-

0. 0

- o

1 1 o

36 *

c'

^ h • T

1 J. X

Defleshing Disaiiicuiation

icinning

Fig. 2. Edge attrition measured by three separate measures (a: proportional flalie area lost during butchery; b: proportional mass lost during butchery; c: proportional change in edge angle during butchery) in whole flakes used for different butchery activities. Samples of whole flakes varied fo r different butchery activities

(Defleshing: = 26 18 rom CM E 1-18 and 8 from CM E A and B]; Skinning « = 8 CM E A and B]; Disarticulation n = S CM E A and B]).




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Table 3 Results of Mann•Whitney {/-test for independent samples showing significant differences in two measures of edge attrition between defleshing an d disarticulation samples as well s defleshing and skinning amples

Mann•Whiney /-test

Proportional area loss

Proportional change in angle

Proportional mass loss

Defleshing vs. disarticulation U 27 U 16 U 95 Z -3.126 Z -3.573 z -0.345 .•iignif 0.001 signif. 0.0001 .signif 0.735

Defleshing vs. kinning U 4.00 U 40 U 95 Z -4.060 Z -2.598 Z -.366 signif 0.0001 signif 0.008 .signif 0.715

ethnographic evidence of stone oo l butchery and uggested that the us e hf e of butchery tools is often very short (in matters of hours to days). Sillitoe (1982) reports use-life values of up to weeks at a time fo r simple flake tools, although completion of a ask s he most requent eason or discard. As Early Stone Age toolkits are primarily simple flake an d core indus- tries, the us e life of stone tools in Oldowan assemblages was probably associated with the relative sharpness of their edges.

Discard rates of stone tools are clearly associated with raw material availability (Marks, 1988; Potts, 1994), and comparisons of numbers of artifacts across ocalities s ittle more than anecdotal without raw material availability information. Furthermore, f the degree of tool edge damage affected tool discard rates then it is likely that physical properties of differ- en t aw materials would also affect he use ife of artifacts

(Greenfield, 2006; Lerner et al., 2007). Rates of edge attrition are likely much higher fo r tools made from less durable materials (e.g. obsidian; Cotterell and Kamminga, 1990) and subse- quently discard rates may be much higher fo r these materials. In contexts where raw material sources fo r stone are scarce it is likely that conservation of stone raw material will prompt hominins o extend he us e ife of their ools Brantingham et al., 2000; Dibble, 995; Dibble and Rolland, 992; Roth and ibble, 998). ecause he imple roduction f cu t marks re ot emonstrated o ul l tone oo l dges, he

abundance of cu t marks n an assemblage s no t likely o be linked to the amount of effort that was directed at conservation of raw material sources (Odell, 1996). However, the sheer vol- um e of lithic material deposited at many archaeological ites suggests ha t activities hat drastically educe he use ife of flake tools are being carried ou t at these archaeological local-

ities and providing the impetus fo r stone tool discard. Presently, he best evidence or tone artifact use n he Plio-Pleistocene is the presence of striae made by tool edges on he urfaces of bones Bunn, 981; Potts and Shipman, 1981). lthough hominins ere ertainly using tone ools fo r other activities uch as plant processing Dominguez-Ro- drigo t l., 001), ut-marked ones how ha t ominins were definitely using tone ools o butcher carcasses. How- ever, here are also high frequencies of stone artifacts ound at sites that have relatively little evidence of hominin butchery. Extensive evidence of transport of flakes uggests ha t even simple elements of the hominin toolkit may have been used fo r everal asks Bunn t l., 980; chick, 987; oth, 1985). If defleshing activities have ess effect on he edges of tools, as ou r experiments suggest, an alternative explanation fo r why so many artifacts are discarded at Early Stone Age archaeological sites may be that the tools were used fo r activities that are no t producing evidence in the form of modification on bone surfaces of bone portions that are commonly preserved, such as skinning, disarticulation, and possibly processing plant matter.

A recent review of Plio-Pleistocene sites that preserve evidence of hominin butchery activities advocates the view that hominins may have had earlier access to carcasses than previously uggested Dominguez-Rodrigo and Pickering, 003).

Early access to carcasses may have necessitated a greater variety of butchery activities that would have included skinning and disarticulation as well as lesh emoval, and ou r experiments have hown that the high rate of stone oo l discard at many Plio-Pleistocene sites may therefore offer supporting evidence fo r a pattern of early access. Our experiments further introduce an explanation or why om e ites with high requencies f discarded tone ools o ot onsistently lso have high requencies of cut-marked bones. Butchery activities may have varied across the andscape, depending on the

Table 4

Early Stone

Age

archaeological

localities

and

the

number

of artifacts

an d

associated

cut-marked

bones

Site/level Number of excavated lithics

Number of excavated cut-marked bones

Source

FL K 22 (Zinj) 2647 F L KN6 1 30 FLKNNl-2 1205 HWKEl-2 46 7 BK 6801 M NK Main 4399 Sterkfontein Member 5 3245 Peninj 35 4 E G 3 Gona) 179 FLKN5 15 1 DK1,2,3 1198

Swartkrans Member

3 72

25 2 5 1 5

46 13

1 17

1 3 9

60

Potts 1988), Bunn and KroU (1986) Potts (1988), Bunn (1982) Bunn (1982), Leakey 1971) Leakey (1971), Monahan (1996) Leakey (1971), Monahan (1996) Leakey (1971), Monahan (1996) Pickering 1999) Dominguez-Rodrigo et al. 2002) Dominguez-Rodrigo et al. 2005), Stout et al. 2005) Potts 1988) Potts (1988)

Pickering

2004),

Brain

et al.

1988)

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DR. Braun t al . I Journal of Archaeological Science xx (2007) 1•8

circumstances surrounding each carcass or prey encounter op- portunity. These different activities would have resulted in variability in the length of tool use-life, herefore also affecting the umber f cut-marked bone ragments, he umber f cu t marks on hese ragments, and he number of discarded stone tools.

An obvious caveat in comparisons between archaeological localities s ha t they may no t be taphonomically equivalent, and imple cu t mark counts or cut-marked ragment counts relative o tone oo l ounts n ssemblages ith oorly- understood taphonomic histories are only useful in the broad- es t ense. However, om e generally applicable patterns have been stablished n he ooarchaeological iterature ith regards o he elationship etween utchery ctivity, ut- marked ragment count, nd bone portion urvivability. y using these general observations o nform the results of this study, e an ak e redictions bout he rchaeological record ha t an hen e ore pecifically xamined n a site-by-site basis.

Different butchery activities will often produce cu t marks that are ocation-specific Ab e et al., 2002; Nilssen, 000). Many of the races of disarticulation are ocused on or near long bone ends, while traces of defleshing can occur anywhere along the length of the shaft or on other elements such as the ribs and vertebrae. Depending on the method used, kinning can result in cu t marks around the carpáis, arsals, and distal metapodia • or none at all. However, aphonomic processes that commonly operate at archaeological ites (carnivore rav- aging, ediment compaction, and a variety of other biotic and abiotic rocesses) esult n differential urvivorship f elements ithin ingle keleton • long ith he ctivity-

specific cu t marks they bear. Several tudies have hown ha t bone ensity s very

strong predictor of bone survivability, and that long bone shaft fragments are among the most dense bone portions in the skeleton (Lam et al., 1998, 2003; L am and Pearson, 2005; Lyman, 1984). W e therefore expect that under the majority of taphonomic circumstances, long bone shafts will have higher representation er ndividual ha n on g on e nds r lements comprised entirely of spongy bone (such as the vertebrae, pel- vis, or the mall compact bones of the wrist and ankle). Th e archaeological implication is that although skinning and disarticulation have been shown to increase the degree of edge attrition n imple lake ools elative o efleshing, et defleshing marks may be preserved elatively more often •

even in association with tone tools that may have been discarded as a esult of skinning and disarticulation damage o their edges.

5. Conclusion

Our experiments provide no support fo r the assumption that there s a direct elationship between he production of cu t marks and the dulling of a stone tool edge. Bunn's (2001) asser- tion that Paleolithic butchers actively reduce the likelihood of producing cu t marks uring butchery activities s herefore

also no t supported by this experiment. Furthermore, tool edge

attrition is much higher in butchery activities that are no t usu- ally associated with cu t mark production. Butchers that were skinning or disarticulating carcasses would reduce the use life of their artifacts relative to butchers that were defleshing only. Thus, it is possible that as the frequency of skinning and disarticulation increased at archaeological localities, discard rates of

stone tools

would have

also

ncreased •

bu t without leaving a corresponding archaeological signature on the fossils.

Acknowledgem ents

W e would like to thank ou r two Turkana butchers fo r con- ducting these experiments. Funding fo r this project was pro- vided y he ulbright-Hays DR A nd SF-IRFP programs. W e would like to thank the Office of the President and the Ministry of Science, Education and Technology of the Republic of Kenya fo r research clearance. W e also thank the National Museums of Kenya, Archaeology Division fo r their support.

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Please cite this article in press as: David R . Braun et al.. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.08.015

An experimental investigation of cu t mark production and stone tool attrition, J. Archaeol. Sei. (2007),

Braun an Experimental Investigation of cut mark

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