Brand Positioning Through Advertising in Asia, North America, And Europe

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Brand Positioning Through Advertising in Asia, North America, and Europe: The Role ofGlobal Consumer CultureAuthor(s): Dana L. Alden, Jan-Benedict E. M. Steenkamp, Rajeev BatraSource: The Journal of Marketing, Vol. 63, No. 1 (Jan., 1999), pp. 75-87Published by: American Marketing AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1252002

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locker room andslammingthe lockerdoor,but in Thailand,the creativecontentwas toneddown, thoughit still commu-nicated convenience in a hectic world (The Economist1992).Thus,thoughGCCPmaybe used in standardized d-vertising,we view it as a distinct construct.In summary, he purposeof this study is to conceptual-ize, measure,and examine the use of a new brandposition-ing strategy referred to as GCCP. In addition, GCCP iscontrastedwith LCCP and FCCP,and other factors influ-encing its use aretested. To thisend, we firstdraw on semi-otics and communication theories to conceptualizeculture-basedpositioning strategiesthat might be used inadvertising.Wenextdevelopand test severalhypothesesre-garding he use of GCCP.Finally, mplicationsarediscussedanddirectionsfor furtherresearchsuggested.

Theoretical FrameworkSemiotics TheoryThe hypothesizedpositioningframework ocuses on the useof verbal, thematic,and visual signs in advertising o asso-ciate the brandwith global, foreign,or local consumercul-ture,a processthat McCracken 1993) refersto as "meaningtransfer."Given our focus on signs, semiotics theory pro-vides an appropriateoundation.Semiotics is devotedto thestudy of signs and their meanings(cf. Mick 1986). Sherryand Camargo(1987) apply a semiotics approachin theiranalysis of the visual symbolism of Japanese packaging.They note that use of kanji (Chineseideograms) representstraditionand formality, hiragana (simplified one or twostroke characters)connotes femininity and softness, andkatakana(used to express foreign words) implies newness,foreignness,and directness.Relatedto this visual aspect of semiotics is a broadercategoryreferred o as "visual aesthetics."Examplesof aes-theticsigns used to create brandassociations ncludecolors,shapes,and materialsused in advertisingandpackaging,aswell as aestheticstyles such as complexity(minimalismver-sus omamentalism) or representation realism versus ab-straction;Schmitt and Simonson 1997). Aesthetic valuesvaryculturally,and therefore,certainsigns are likely to bepreferredover others.Forexample,Asians valuecomplexi-ty and decoration,balance and harmony,and naturalism(Schmittand Pan 1994).

Advertisingthemes also serve as signs to communicatemeanings associated with the brand. Schmitt, Simonson,and Marcus 1995) note that themesaestheticallycommuni-cate brandpositioning,and they provideexamples, includ-ing the professionalism theme used by many investmenthouses and the high-tech theme used by many electronicsmanufacturers.Cheng and Schweitzer (1996) report thatthemes in Chinese television advertisements end to signifyfamily values, tradition,andtechnology,whereas themes inAmericanadvertisements end to symbolize the importanceof enjoyment,cost savings, andindividualism.

Finally,verbalsounds also can symbolize certainbrandassociations. For example, Corey and Williams (1994, p.211) note that knowledge of social class language differ-ences has enabled marketers o use appropriateanguagein

segmentingmarkets.Heath,Chatterjee,and France(1990,p. 38) refer to this as "phoneticsymbolism"and arguethatthe sounds of brand names can symbolize attributesandstrengthenbrandpositioning. Leclerc, Schmitt, and Dube(1994) investigatethe effects of foreignbranding pronunci-ationor spelling of a brandname in a foreign language)onconsumer brand perceptions and attitudes in the UnitedStates. French,as opposed to English, pronunciationof thesame brand name enhanced brand attitudes for hedonicproductsbut not for utilitarianor hybridproducts.Frenchspellingof the brandnameproducedmorepositivebrandat-titudes for hedonic brands han did country-of-origin nfor-mation alone (i.e., "Made n France").As we noted previously, t is our contentionthatvisual,thematic,and verbalsigns reflectingthe emergenceof glob-al culture are likely to be found in advertisingaroundtheworld. A fairly well-developed literatureexists to accountfor the general developmentof a global consumerculturefrom which such signs arise.The Emergence of Global Consumer CultureHannerz 1990, p. 237) notes that "worldculture" s emerg-ing as a result of the "increasing nterconnectedness f var-ied local cultures as well as throughthe development ofcultureswithouta clearanchorage n any one territory." p-padurai (1990, p. 299) proposes a particularlyrelevantframeworkof diffusion for global consumercultureusingfive paths of global culturalflow, including mediascapes,which "provide especially in theirtelevision, film andcas-sette forms)largeandcomplex repertoiresof images, narra-tives and 'ethnoscapes' o viewers throughout he world, inwhich the world of commodities and the world of 'news'and politics are profoundlymixed." From these sources,"scriptscan be formedof imaginedlives, theirown as wellas those of others living in otherplaces"(Appadurai1990,p. 299). From the semiotics perspective, it can be arguedthatcertainconsumers(e.g., elite, post-WorldWarII [WWII] consumers,teens) will desire consumptionexperiencesandobjectsthattheyconsider"signs"of these scriptsin or-der to act out imagined or real participation n the morecosmopolitanglobalconsumerculturecommunicatedby themedia.Walker 1996) providesevidence of the extent to whichmass mediain generaland television in particular re play-ing centralroles in the creationof global consumptionsym-bols. He notes thatMTValone reached239 million viewersin 68 countriesin 1996.Among teens in the UnitedStates,Europe,LatinAmerica,andAsia, eight out of theirtop tenactivitiesare media related.In a semiotics sense, the directinfluenceof such programmings evidenced by teens whowatchMTV or similarchannelsbeing morelikely to displaythesignsof teenglobalculture,suchasjeans, running hoes,anddenim ackets(Walker1996).Walker 1996, p. 42) con-cludes that worldwide access to television is creating aglobalcultureof consumption,what he refersto as a "glob-al mall."

Becauseof the diffusionof such imageryandthe desirefor real or imaginedparticipationn the consumerculture tcreates, certainproductcategories become signs of globalcosmopolitanismandmodernity e.g., airconditioners,CDs,

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the hamburger, usiness suits). Simultaneously, t is likelythat brandmanagersseek to capitalize on the semiotic na-ture of the productcategory by positioning their brand assymbolic of global consumer culture-for example, thejeans brandwornby adult,upper-middle-classmen who areglobally cosmopolitan.The objectivewould be to have con-sumersidentifythe brandas a sign of membership realorimagined)in the globally cosmopolitansegment.With thisreview in mind, we now turn to a formaldefinitionof ourconstructs.

Global, Foreign, and LocalConsumer Culture PositioningOn the basis of theforegoingreview,a GCCPstrategy s de-fined as one thatidentifiesthe brandas a symbolof a givenglobalculture-for example,the post-WWII,cosmopolitansegment. It does so using meaning transfer(McCracken1993),anadvertisingprocess throughwhich the brand s as-sociated withothersigns thatreflect this culturalorientation(e.g., language,aesthetics,themes). Globalizationhas beendefinedby Robertsonas the "crystallization f the world asa single place" (1987a, p. 38) and "the emergenceof theglobalhumancondition" 1987b,p. 23). By implication,ad-vertising featuring the idea that consumers all over theworld consume a particular randorappealing o certainhu-man universals might invest the brand with the culturalmeaningof beinga conduitto feeling at one withglobalcul-ture. Examples of brandsthat apparentlyhave used suchstrategies ncludeSony ("MyFirstSony"),whichpositionedone of its productsas appropriateor young people aroundthe world;Philips("Let'sMakeThings Better"),whose ad-vertisementsexplicitly featurepeople from different coun-tries; and Benetton ("The United Colors of Benetton"),whose sloganemphasizesthe unityof humankind.As we notedpreviously,GCCPshould be distinguishedfromat leasttwo otherstrategies hat nvolve culturalmean-ing transfer.First,LCCP(local consumercultureposition-ing) is defined as a strategythat associates the brandwithlocal culturalmeanings, reflects the local culture's normsand identities,is portrayedas consumedby local people inthe nationalculture,and/oris depictedas locally producedfor local people.Forexample,ChevyTrucksandDr Peppersoft drinks have been positionedin U.S. advertisingas partof the "American"way of life. Second, FCCP(foreigncon-sumer culturepositioning)is definedas a strategy hatposi-tions the brandas symbolic of a specific foreignconsumerculture; that is, a brandwhose personality,use occasion,and/orusergroupare associatedwith a foreignculture. Forexample,Gucci in the UnitedStates is positionedas a pres-tigious and fashionableItalianproduct.Dimensions of Consumer Culture PositioningThree centralcomponentsof a culturalsymbol set are lan-guage, aestheticstyles, and story themes.Althoughit mayhave originallyreflectedAnglo-Americanculture, Englishhas come to representsomethingmore.As the primary an-guage of internationalbusiness, the mass media, and now,the Internet BusinessWeek1996), Englishhas come to sig-nal modernism and internationalism o many consumers.

Forexample, SherryandCamargo 1987) note thatEnglishsymbolizes modernization, ocial mobility,and an interna-tionalizedoutlook when used on packagingin Japan.Fur-thermore,Ray,Ryder,and Scott (1994, p. 251) hypothesizethat the extensive use of English in print advertisementsaround he world occurs primarily o suggest to consumersthat they are cosmopolitan. In this case, the denotativemeaningattachedto the wordsis often secondary.What ismoreimportant s an appreciationof the language'simplic-it, symbolic meaning. Therefore,one way for a brand tocommunicateGCCP s to use Englishwords,writtenand/orspoken, in its communications.In contrast,a brandmanag-er wanting to use LCCP might emphasize the local lan-guage. Finally,a brandcould associate itself with a specificforeignconsumerculture FCCP)by employingspokenandwritten words from that culture in its advertising and/orbrandname. Forexample,Volkswagenhas used the slogan"Fahrvergniigen"n U.S. advertisements.As withtheEnglish language,certainaestheticstyles arebecoming recognizedas partof globalconsumerculture.Asan example, considerthe use of spokespersons n advertis-ing. Just as certain aestheticcharacteristics f a spokesper-son are associatedwith local cultureprototypes(cf. Mehtaand Belk 1991), it is likely that a distinct set of spokesper-son characteristics s coming to reflect GCCP,and use ofsuch spokespersoncharacteristicss likely to give the branda more global image (e.g., Michael Jordan or Nike, PierceBrosnanfor Omega). To the extent that the spokespersonembodies aestheticcharacteristicshat reflect the local cul-ture(e.g., a Frenchbusinesswomandrivinga Peugeot in aFrench television advertisement)or a specific foreign cul-ture (e.g., a Germanengineer spokespersonfor Audi in aU.S. television advertisement), onsumersare likely to as-sociate the brandwith that culture.

The aestheticconstructionanddisplayof brand ogos al-so may reflect alternativeconsumer culture positionings.For example, some logos may be tied less to specific cul-tures in terms of their appearance,such as the logos forAT&T(abstractglobe), Nike (swoosh), Royal Dutch/Shell(shell), Mercedes-Benz(star),and so forth. Othersmay bemoresymbolic of specific cultural raditions.CathayPacif-ic, forexample,recentlychanged ts logo to a white Chinesecalligraphystrokethatsuggests the wing of a birdto "giveitself a more Asian air" (The Asian Wall Street JournalWeekly1994, p. 11). Of course, it is likely that most con-sumerswouldview the logo in its aestheticentirety(includ-ing shape, color, texture, and overall design) and formlinkagesto global, foreign,or local consumercultureon thebasis of the symbol's gestalt-like familiarity(cf. Grunert1996).

Finally, certainstory themes are likely to be identifiedgenerallyas symbolic of global consumerculture.For ex-ample,theyoung, professionalbusinesspersonwho is on therise uses a Toshibalaptopwhetherin New York,New Del-hi, or Paris.Thus, the storythemeimpliesthatownershipofthis brandsignifies that the consumer is a memberof the"transnational ommerce culture"(Hannerz 1990). Otherstorythemes aremore likely to be associatedwith a specif-ic foreign positioning,such as the purplecow in the Alps inthe advertisements for Milka chocolate, or with local

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themes,such as scenes from the characteristicandscapeofTyrol for Tirolmilch.Thus, dependingon the story-relatedthemesin anadvertisement, onsumersaremoreor less like-ly to associatethe brandwith a specific consumerculture.One additionalpoint should be consideredas we con-clude the review. In this study,we adoptan "etic-emic"ap-proach (Poortinga and Malpass 1986). From a theoreticperspective, we investigate the hypothesis that the basicstructureof the global-foreign-local positioning frame-work,namely,language,aesthetics,andstorythemes, is et-ic andappliesto advertisingaround he world.However,thedetailedexpressionof thatstructure anbe influencedby lo-cal culture(emic). Forexample,Nescafe's advertisingpro-jects the image of a brandconsumedglobally.However,inthe Netherlands, his positioning s executedby featuringanold manfrom SouthAmericaenjoyingthecoffee. InGreece,the advertisement etting portrays everalyoung people ona raftwith a small hut for a cabinat the sea shore.Thus, lo-cal culturemembersshoulddeterminewhether igns in theircountry's advertising symbolize global, foreign, or localconsumerculture.This empiricalapproachenables the re-searcher o test hypothesesregardinga universalpositioningframeworkwhile remainingsensitive to variationsacrosscultures.

Research HypothesesIdentification of consumer culture positioning. The pre-ceding discussion indicates that GCCP,LCCP,and FCCPshould be identifiable as distinct brand positioning con-structs n television advertising.Withthis in mind,our first

hypothesisstates:Hi: LCCP,FCCP,andGCCParemeaningfulpositioningcon-structs n television advertising.This hypothesis does not assume that mixed consumerculturepositioning strategies(e.g., GCCPand FCCPsignsin the same advertisement) annotoccur.A brandcan be (1)

uniquely positioned on GCCP,LCCP,or FCCP;(2) posi-tionedpredominantly n one of the threetypes while incor-poratingelements of other types of positioning;or (3) notpositionedpredominantly n anyof the dimensions.The ad-vertisingseries in which TinaTurnersings the Pepsi-Colathemesong with local bands n differentcountries o providelocal identification n a global campaign s an example of amixed strategy(Jeannetand Hennessey 1995).Relative frequency of GCCP. Despite mass exposure tocertain similar signs of consumption,there appearsto befairly strongconsensus thatglobal consumercultureis stillin its infancy (cf. Samli 1995). Some scholars,such as deMooij (1998), even argue that global consumerculture isessentially nonexistent,that it is a concept that exists onlyin the minds of corporatestrategists.However,we believethatthis is an extremepositionand that thereis ample the-oreticjustification, as well as empiricalevidence (referredto previously), to conclude that certainconsumptionsym-bols and meaningshave diffused globally as a result of thesubstantial increase in intercultural nteraction since the

end of WW II (Appadurai 1990; Hannerz 1990). At thesame time, given the continuedimportanceof local culture

to individual identity (Johansson 1997) and the relativelyearly stage of global consumer culturediffusion (Feather-stone 1990), it is expected that the brandsin each countrysample most often will be positioned as local brands,em-ploying language, aesthetic, and thematic signs that aresymbolic of the home culture.H2:LCCPwill be used more frequentlythanFCCPor GCCPas the brandpositioningstrategy n television advertising.Consumer culture positioning in the United States.Based on our literature eview, it appears hat theremay bea substantialoverlapbetweenbrandsymbols thatconstitute

global consumer culture and those found in the UnitedStates (Domzal and Keman 1993; Ray, Ryder,and Scott1994). From fast food to furnitureto fashions, consumerculturemeaningsystems (language,aesthetics,and lifestylethemes)aretransmittedromthe UnitedStatesto the rest ofthe world throughthe mediascapes described previously(Appadurai1990; Hannerz1990). Over time, certainbrandsymbols arelikely to become disassociatedwith the UnitedStates per se, becoming associated with something that islarger hananysingle country-the global consumptionset.However, within the United States, many symbols (e.g.,friedchicken)in all likelihoodcontinueto be viewed as lo-cal. Because of the number of global symbols that wereoriginally American, brand managers may believe thatGCCP has more differentiatingpower outside the UnitedStatesandthereforeuse it more in othermarkets,such as indeveloping countries, where consumers may seek to en-hanceself-perceptionsof status,competence,andesteem byacquiringbrandsthatare perceivedas cosmopolitan,mod-em, and global (Friedman1990). If these observationsaretrue, then fewer (more) television advertisementsshouldemployGCCP(LCCP)in the UnitedStatesrelativeto othercountries. Based on this logic, our next two hypothesesstate:

H3:GCCP will be identified less frequently in televisionadvertisementsn the United States relativeto advertise-ments in othercountries.H4:LCCP will be identified more frequently in televisionadvertisementsn the United States relativeto advertise-ments in other countries.Advertising content differences. Turning to advertisingformat/style,there are strong reasons to expect advertise-mentsemployingGCCPto use more often a "soft-sell"in-steadof a "hard-sell" pproach.Soft-sell advertisementsusemore visual imagery and are more subtle and ambiguousthanhard-sellones, whicharerelativelymoreinformationaland focus on tangible productfeatures (Bradley,Hitchon,and Thorson 1994, p. 143). Furthermore,because soft-selladvertisements ypically use a lot of visual imagery,theylend themselves to messages that require implicit, ratherthanexplicit, communication Messaris 1997, p. vi). In ad-dition, because image-orientedpsychological concepts are

typically more abstract than feature-based informationalconcepts(Johnson1988;Lefkoff-Hagiusand Mason 1993),soft-sell advertisementshatuse imageryinsteadof featuresarealso, by implication,usuallymoreabstract hanhard-selladvertisements.



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These featuresof soft-sell advertisements subtlety, m-plicitness,andabstractness)would seem to makethemmoresuitable for advertisementsusing GCCP. Because globalconsumerculture s an emergingandrapidlychangingphe-nomenon,withdifferingsets of signs in differingglobalseg-ments (Hannerz 1990), advertising using this positioningshould be more effective if it communicates n a subtle, in-direct,and abstract ashion.A more direct and tangible ap-proachruns a greaterriskof misspecifyingthe symbols thatare reflective of GCCP. It is also plausible that advertise-ments using GCCP are more often image oriented than in-formationalbecauseof linkagesbetweenthe brandsandtheimaginedmembership n a global consumersegment (Ap-padurai1990). These factorsprovide the rationalefor ournext hypothesis:

H5:Televisionadvertisementssing GCCPwill more fre-quentlyuse indirect,mage-orientedontentapproaches(soft-sell) handirect, trongmessageargument ppeals(hard-sell).Product category differences. Recall that GCCP in-

volves associating a brand with globally shared,consumption-relatedsymbols that signal membership inglobal consumersegments (Dawarand Parker1994; Han-nerz 1990). It also may involve appeals to certain humanuniversals(Robertson1987b),especially the urgeto appearmodem and cosmopolitan(Friedman1990). It follows thatthe use of GCCP should be easier and more frequentinproductcategories for which consumers exhibit commonbehaviors,rather han n those consumedin locally idiosyn-cratic ways. In addition,GCCP should be potentiallymorerelevantin productcategoriesthat have come to symbolizemodernityandcosmopolitanismrather hantradition.Because of its deep connections to local culture,foodgenerallyis regardedas theproductcategorythat s mostof-ten consumed in traditionaland locally idiosyncraticways.Fischler (1988) maintainsthat foods play a crucial role inthe process of enculturation.What we eat, how it is pre-pared,and the rules and meaningsthatpermeateevery as-pect of food consumptionpractices are all socioculturalmatters, irrespectiveof their biological, psychological, oreconomicdimensions.Even what s considerededibleor notis largely a local culturalmatter(Fischler 1988; Murcott1986).Althoughthere areexceptions(e.g., global fast-foodbrandssuch as McDonald's),because of such strongties tolocal traditionsandmeanings, ood brandsappear east like-ly to be associatedwithGCCP.Consumer high-tech durables (such as cameras andcomputers),however,are used worldwidein similar,if notidentical,ways. Yip(1995, pp. 30-32) arguesthatcommon-ality of consumer needs across countries is highest forhigher-techdurablesand lowest for foods, with householdandpersonalcareproductsnearthe middleof the spectrum.Such high-tech durables also satisfy universal consumerneeds such as the demandfor superiortechnology (Levitt1983). Furthermore,many higher-techdurablebrandshavecome to symbolize the essence of modernismand interna-tionalism,as well as membership n global consumerseg-ments (such as cellular phones for businesspeople).Together,these characteristics hould facilitate the use of

GCCPin high-techproductcategories.It thus seems likelythat GCCPwill be used most frequently orproducts hataredurable,fairly complex, and highly technologicaland leastfrequently or foods, with the othergoods categories in be-tween. The converse should be truefor LCCP.In comparing goods with services, it has been arguedthat services aremoredifficultto homogenizethangoods, inpart because of variations in local consumption patterns(e.g., Zeithaml,Parasuraman,ndBerry 1990).As a result,services generallytend to be positionedmore frequentlyaslocal in comparisonwith goods (Meffertand Bolz 1993). Ifthis is the case, then LCCP s likely to be usedmore often inadvertisements or services than in those for goods. Basedon thisreview,our nexthypothesesstate that(relativeto usewith othergoods)

H6:GCCPwillbe used east requentlyn television dvertis-ing for food products nd mostfrequentlyor durable,high-technologyoods,withhousehold,ersonalare,andlow-techdurable onsumer roductsn between.H7:LCCPwill be usedmost requentlyn television dvertis-ing for food products nd least frequentlyor durable,

high-technologyoods,withhousehold,ersonalare,andlow-techdurableonsumer roductsn between.H8:LCCPwill beusedmoreoften ntelevision dvertisingorservices han orgoods.Method

Sampling-National cultures.Seven countrieswere se-lected to representbroadlyAsian and Western cultures aswell as developed and developing economies: India,Thai-land, Korea, Germany,the Netherlands,France, and theUnited States.Comparisonof the countrieson demographicand economic characteristics,as well as on Hofstede's(1980) culturaldimensions, ndicatedconsiderablevariationwithineach regionand betweenregions.1This enhancesthegeneralizabilityof ourfindings.

Sampling-Advertisementswithincountry.Randomizedclustersamples of national-brandelevision advertisementsshown on majornetworksin each countrywere collected.Local advertising e.g., for small, local retailers)anddupli-cations of national-brand dvertisementswere eliminated,along with advertisements hat contained more than 50%sales promotion information(e.g., a tie-in promotion forPepsi with a local supermarket).Advertisements for thesamebrand hatdiffered n termsof 50%ormoreof thecon-tentremained n the sample.

Samplingwas conductedduringa three-or four-daype-riod in the winteror springof 1995. On each day (random-ly chosen), a major,nationalnetwork randomlyassignedtoeach day) was recorded rom6 A.M. to midnight.All adver-tisements then were logged. A systematic randomsample(i.e., every kth advertisement)was taken from the overalldata set to achieve a randomsample of 20% to 25% of alladvertisements ollected.Formostcountries, hisresulted nsamples of 175 to 200 national-brand dvertisements,with

1Tableshowing he positionof eachcountryon Hofstede's(1980)dimensionsnd everal conomic nddemographicharac-teristics reavailable nrequest.



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the exceptionof India,for which 120 advertisementswereselected.2 This process produced a total sample of 1267unduplicated, ational-brandelevisionadvertisementsromseven countries.In-depthcoding procedures.In eachcountry, wo nativecoders used a standardcoding form that was double backtranslated nto theirown language if needed)to evaluatetheadvertisements.With the exception of India, graduatestu-

dent researchassistants, all natives living in their homecountry,wereemployedas coders.For the Indianadvertise-ments,coderswere recentlyarrivedgraduate tudents ivingin the United States.3 Researchassistants rather hanlargesamples of native subjects were used because the codingtask was complex and time-consuming.This approachisregularlyemployedin cross-cultural esearch nvolving ad-vertisingcontentanalyses(cf. Alden, Hoyer,andLee 1993;Bradley,Hitchon,and Thorson1994;ChengandSchweitzer1996).All coders receivedextensivetrainingusingpracticead-vertisementspriorto the actual coding task. Much of thistraining was conducted in the coders' native languages,thoughforeignresearcherswere usually present.The codersworkedindependentlyand took approximately en minutesto code each advertisement.For all itemsin all countrysam-ples, interjudge agreementexceeded 80%. Disagreementswere resolved with the assistance of a thirdresearchassis-tant or projectcoordinatorwhen the two coderswere unableto reach consensuson their own.

Measures.Previously n this article,three broadculturalcategoriesfrom which signs arise were identified,namely,language,aesthetics, and story themes. Reflecting each ofthese culturalcategories,the measure of consumerculturepositioningin television advertisingwas composed of fiveindicators.Signs of consumerculturepositioningwere (1)pronunciationof brand name, (2) symbols used and/orspelling of visually displayedbrandname,(3) symbol usedfor brandlogo, (4) centralthemes, and (5) appearanceofspokesperson(s).Although there are other sign categoriesthat could have been coded (cf. Caudle 1994), these cate-gories form a reasonable nitial subsetthatrepresentsmulti-ple semiotic dimensions without being too onerous forcoders to use. If codersfoundthat one or more of the signswere present n the advertisement,hey determinedwhether

21t s possible hat hesampling rocedureielded eweradver-tisementsn Indiabecauseheproportionf broadcastimedevot-ed to advertisingmay have been smaller herethanin othermarkets,houghwe haveno wayto confirmhishypothesis. l-though he number f Indian dvertisementsasstill substantial(120),thismay imit he extent o whichour indings anbegen-eralizedothe universe f all Indian elevision dvertisements.3The ndian dvertisementserecoded n the UnitedStatesn-stead f inIndiabecause f resourceimitations ith heIndian e-search artner. owever, ecausehecoders mployedwerenativeIndiangraduateesearch ssistants ecentlyarrivedromIndia,theres littlereasonoexpect ndia-basedodersohavecoded headvertisementsnydifferentlyhan heydid.Notethatgraduatestudents reregularlymployed s coders oradvertisingontentanalyses Alden, Hoyer,andLee 1993;Bradley,Hitchon,andThorson 994;ChengandSchweitzer996).

the indicator(s)reflectedglobal, local, or foreignconsumerculture.In carryingout theirtask,coderswere told thatthe signsshouldbe coded as (1) local, if they reflected their own na-tive culture e.g., use of the Thaialphabet o write the brandname in Thailand); 2) foreign, if they representedanotherindividual, identifiable culture (e.g., use of the southernFrenchcountryside n anAmericanadvertisementor wine);and (3) global, if they representeda culturalelement thatwas not associatedwith a single country(local or foreign),but rather a larger group generally recognized as interna-tionalandtranscendingndividualnationalcultures(e.g., anairline advertisement eaturingbusinesspeoplefrom multi-ple countries nteractingn businessclass on an internation-al flight). Beyondthese etic instructions, oderswere left todetermineemically which elements were local, global, orforeign.Therefore,on each of three dimensions (GCCP,LCCP,FCCP), ad contentscores could rangefrom 0 to 5. Adver-tisementswith three or more of any single consumerculturepositioningelement were labeled as emphasizingthatposi-tioningstrategy; orexample,anadvertisementwith threeormore local elements was categorized as emphasizingLCCP.4Ourcoding procedure s consistentwith ourpositionthat GCCP,LCCP,and FCCP are separateconstructsthatcan occursimultaneouslyandto differentdegreesin specif-ic advertisements.This multi-itemmeasurementprocedureenables us to arriveat a more reliableclassification andval-idate the structure f the items.5Othercharacteristicsof the advertisementsrelevant totesting our hypotheses also were coded. For H5, (soft-versus hard-selland GCCP),a dichotomousscale was ap-plied. Coderswere asked to determinewhetherthe overallsales appealof the advertisement houldbe labeledas "soft-sell/image"(image-oriented ontentthatdoes notemphasizereasons to buy, but rather general associations with the

4Thus, urcoding cheme ategorizesn advertisements em-phasizing particularonsumerulture ositioningf themajorityof thefivesignsbelong o oneparticularypeof consumerulturepositioning.t alsousesequalweighting f eachculturalndicator.The use of equallyweightedndicatorss commonn marketing.However, ther ypesof assignmentchemesare also possible.Onerevieweruggestedhefollowingcheme:An advertisementsclassifiedas usinga particularulturepositioning nly when atleastfourof thesigns ncludinghe themearesupportivef thatculture.The rationaleorthisapproachs thatadvertisementsorsome brandsmightbe classifiedas usingGCCPbecauseof theirbrandname, ogo,andsymbols, atherhanbecause heseadver-tisementsexplicitly) retrying o conveythat he brands usedaroundheworld nd s part f theglobal onsumerulture.Weal-so testedH2-H8with hisalternativerandingcheme.The resultswerealways n the same direction s thatfor ourclassificationscheme.Forsix of eighthypotheses,he results eachedtatisticalsignificancep< .10),andanother ypothesiswas closetosignifi-cance(p = .12).Thus,our resultsarerobust cross wodifferentclassificationchemes,which ncreasesonfidencenour indings.5SeealsoRoth 1995b),whousesacloselyrelated rocedureutemploys ingleratherhanmultipletems oidentifyunctional,o-cial,and ensory rand-imagetrategies.n hiswork,brandsouldbe positioned niquely longone of theseimagestrategies, r acompany ouldemploya hybrid pproach y combiningeveralstrategies.



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brand)or "hard-sell/direct"sales-oriented,verbal, strongmessage arguments, comparative content; cf. Bradley,Hitchon,and Thorson 1994;Mueller 1996).To test H6-H8,productsdisplayedor referred o in theadvertisementswereclassified as follows: food nondurables, personal non-durables, household nondurables,lower-technology con-sumer durables, higher-technology durables, consumerservices, business goods, business services, and other. Fol-lowing discussion among the research coordinatorsaboutfunctional and conceptual equivalence across countries,similarexamplesof each productcategorywereprovided nall countries(e.g., personalnondurable are goods includeshampoo, makeup,toothpaste,anddeodorant).

ResultsIdentification of Consumer Culture PositioningHl states thatLCCP,FCCP,and GCCPwould be found asmeaningfulbut distinctbrandpositioningconstructs n tele-vision advertising rom countriesaround he world.The fiveitems used to measurethe extent to whichan advertisementemployedLCCP,FCCP,or GCCPwere scaledcategorically.Therefore,classical (metric) factor analysis could not beused to validate the structureof the categorizations.Multi-ple correspondenceanalysis (MCA), which, conceptually,can be regardedas principalcomponentsanalysis on cate-gorical data, is a more appropriate nalytictechnique(Gifi1990; Hoffman,de Leeuw,andArjunji1994).6

The MCA approach, using the versatile HOMALS pro-gram (SPSS 1989), was applied to the matrix of 1267 ad-vertisementsby five items. The analysis was performed ntwo dimensionsbasedon elbow andinterpretabilityriteria.The fit was .857, indicating hat85.7% of the variancewasexplained(afteroptimalscaling).7Figure1shows thequan-titative results for the three categories of local, foreign, andglobal for each item. Clear regions of categories are re-vealed in this plot.

6The MCAapproachdeals with the analysisof interdependenceamonga set of categoricalitems. Itquantifiescategoricaldatabyassigning numerical values to the advertisementsand the cate-gories of the items (for all five items, the categorieswere "local,""foreign,"and"global").Inaddition,MCAprovidesan interpreta-tion in terms of distancesin a multidimensionalmap.Categoriesofdifferent tems that tendto sharethe same advertisements re rela-tively close to one another n the map.Thus,categoriesof differentitems are locatedrelativelyclose to one another f theyoccur oint-ly in the same advertisements Hoffman,de Leeuw, and Arjunji1994). The validity of combiningscores across items is thereforesupported f the relevant tems areclose together.7Some of the advertisementshad missing data for one or moreitems because none of thecategorieswas applicable.Forexample,if the brand ogo was not displayedvisually duringthe advertise-ment,this item could not be coded. However,missingdatapresentno problemsfor HOMALS, and there is no need to discardthemissing observations(Gifi 1990).The analysiswas carriedout onthe incompletedata matrix.Gifi (1990, p. 138) refers to this treat-mentof missing data as "missingvalues passive."Anotheroptionis to add thecategory"missing" o each item. Gifi (1990, p. 138)calls this "missingvalues single."We also analyzedthe datausingthe "missingdata single" approach.The categoryquantificationsfor local, foreign,andglobal were virtually he same.

For all items, thecategory"foreign"s locatedin the up-per-rightquadrant.The upper-leftquadrant ontainsthe cat-egory "global"for all items, and the lower-rightquadranthas the category"local" for all items.The clusterof foreigncategoriesis relativelyloose. In contrast, he clustersof thelocal and global categories are tight, and these two cate-gories constitutethe mainfoci of our study.8The HOMALS programoffers an additional,powerfultest on the discriminabilityof the three culturalpositioningconcepts. If the concepts clearly representunique perspec-tives, a single underlyingcontinuum rom local to foreigntoglobal (indicatingan increasingdegreeof remotenessfromnativeculture)should not be obtained.This assumptionwastestedby imposingmonotonicconstraintson the quantifica-tionof the categories by item (Gifi 1990).Imposingthe mo-notonic constraint ed to a substantialdecrease in fit from.857 to .664. Imposinga linearconstraint urtherdecreasedthe fit to .640. Thus, the threecategoriesof local, foreign,andglobalappear o constituteuniqueconstructs hat shouldbe treatedseparately, ather hanbeing placedon a continu-um. These resultsprovidefurther videnceregarding he va-lidity of distinguishingamongLCCP,FCCP,and GCCP.The results of the MCAanalysis providesupport or theconvergentvalidityof the items selectedto measureculturepositioning.Thus, a sum measurewas created on the basisof the extent to which similarconsumerculturepositioningelementswere presentin a given advertisement. n particu-lar, advertisementswith three or more similar identifiers(out of five) were classified as emphasizingthatapproach.Table 1 lists the overall frequenciesfor type of consumerculturepositioningbased on the sum score. Morethan 85%of the advertisementshad a dominantculturalpositioningandwere classified as GCCP,LCCP,or FCCP.

Employingthe sum score measures,an additionalcheckon the measures'discriminant aliditywas undertaken. im-ple correlationswerecalculatedbetweenthenumberof con-sumer culture positioning identifiers found in eachadvertisementor each of the threedimensions(e.g., Adver-tisement33 mighthave threeglobal identifiers,one foreign,andone local).As we expected,therelationshipbetweenthetotal numberof local and global items was negative (r =-.77, p < .001). It was also negative for local and foreignitems (r = -.57, p < .001). At the same time, the correlationbetween global and foreign items was not significant (r =-.03, n.s.). All threecorrelationswerealso significantlybe-low 1.0 (ps < .0001).Given these results,LCCPandGCCPare meaningfulasseparate ndividualbrandpositioningconstructs.Use of thesum measuresfor GCCP and LCCPthereforeis justified.The results for the FCCPmeasureare encouragingin thatthe impositionof monotonicconstraintsand the correlationsindicatethatFCCP s a meaningfulseparate onstruct.How-

8A cluster analysis on the category quantificationsdepicted inFigure I revealedfourclusters.One cluster consisted of the fiveglobal categories,anda secondclustercontained he five local cat-egories. The five foreigncategorieswere divided in two clusters.The category"foreign" items 1, 2, and 5) composedone cluster,andthe foreign categoriesof items 3 and4 were the othercluster.The former temsdealtwith thebrand,whereas he latterdealt withtheme andcharacters.



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FIGURE 1Results of Multiple Correspondence Analysis: Consumer Culture Positioning Measure

Dimension 1

G = coded as globalF = codedas foreignL = coded as local

G1 G2G4 G5C3I I -2-3.0 -2.0

I I --1.0

Dimension 2---T- . . I . I I I I I I I I

1 1.0 2.0 3.0L2 L-2 L5-1.0

Scale Items by Number:1. Spokesperson appearance2. Theme3. Pronunciationof brand

name4. Visual display of brandname5. Brand logo design

-2.0 -

-3.0 -

TABLE 1Consumer Culture Positioning by Country

CountryUnitedStates Thailand Korea India Germany Netherlands France Total

CulturePositioningStrategyLCCP 177 81 133 102 84 81 90 748(88.5) (40.5) (66.5) (85.0) (45.4) (46.0) (48.4) (59.0)GCCP 11 83 44 12 60 38 36 284(5.5) (41.5) (22.0) (10.0) (32.4) (21.6) (19.4) (22.4)FCCP 1 13 4 1 11 15 3 48(.5) (6.5) (2.0) (.8) (5.9) (8.5) (1.6) (3.8)No dominant 11 23 19 5 30 42 57 187consumer (5.5) (11.5) (9.5) (4.2) (16.5) (23.9) (30.6) (14.8)culturepositioningTotal 200 200 200 120 185 176 186 1267Note:Percentagesreinparentheses.

82 / Journalof Marketing, anuary1999

3.0 -

2.0

FlF2

F4F3

F5

1.0 -


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ever, the graphicalMCA results are less clear-cut than fortheother two constructs.This maybe due to the small num-ber of FCCPadvertisements48 total) in thissample,whichrenders he results for FCCP ess stable (cf. Gifi 1990). Re-sults involvingthe FCCPconstructare,therefore,viewed asstrictly exploratory.Relative Frequency of GCCPH2 states that LCCP would be employed more frequentlythaneither of the othertwo strategies.This hypothesisre-ceived strong support.Overall,LCCPwas used in 59% ofthe advertisements,versus 22.4% for GCCPand 3.8% forFCCP.The difference n frequencyof occurrenceamongthethree consumer culture positioning strategies was highlysignificant [X2(2)= 704.62, p < .001]. Analysis of the fre-quencyof use of LCCP,GCCP,andFCCPfor eachcountrysupported hisbasic conclusion(see Table 1for the frequen-cies). In six of seven countries, significantlymore adver-tisementsemployedLCCPthan either GCCPor FCCP(p


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relevant nformationortesting H6-H8.A significantassoci-ationwas found between the use of GCCP(versusany oth-er positioning strategy, including no dominant culturepositioning)and the typeof good involved [X2(2)= 11.64,p< .01]. As Table 2 shows, GCCP was used in 18.6%of thefood advertisements, 24.2% of the advertisements forhousehold, personalcare, and low-tech durable consumerproducts,and 33.3% of the advertisements or high-techconsumerdurables.Thus,H6 is supported.However,63.1%of the food advertisements; 8.4%of the advertisementsorhousehold,personalcare, andlow-tech consumerdurables;and34.3% of the advertisements orhigh-techdurablesusedLCCP.The differencein percentageswas again significant[X2(2) = 28.86, p < .001], in support of H7. Finally, in sup-portof H8,LCCPwas used relativelymore often in adver-tisements for services (72.3%) than in those for goods[57.9%;X2(1)= 8.71, p < .01].

Discussion and ImplicationsAlthough scholarsagree that the perceptionof a brand asglobalenhancesequity(Kapferer1992;Shocker,Srivastava,and Ruekert 1994), efforts to identify pathways throughwhich such associationsdiffuse have been limited. In thisstudy,we conceptualizeda theoretical ramework n whichthe advent of global consumer culturesgives rise to globalsigns (i.e., language,aesthetic systems, and story themes)andhypothesized hatthese signs wouldbe used in advertis-ing to associate certainbrandswithglobalconsumerculturethrougha processof meaningtransfer McCracken1993).

Applyingthis framework,we proposedand validatedanew measureof GCCPin television advertising HI). It en-ables managersand researchers o distinguishGCCP fromtwo other types of consumer culture positioning, that is,LCCPand FCCP.Supportwas found forpredictionsregard-ing the overall use of GCCP versus LCCP(H2), the use ofGCCPandLCCP n U.S. advertising H3andH4),the use ofGCCPin conjunctionwith hard or soft sales themes (H5),and the use of GCCPand LCCP across productcategories(H6-H8).These resultsacquireaddedvalue from the natureof the data used (a randomsample of television advertise-mentsfrom diversecountries)andthe natureof the analysesconductedon the data(suchas theMCAused to test thedis-criminantvalidityof GCCP,FCCP,andLCCP,as well as theadditional est of the robustnessof the measurementmodel;see Footnote4).

Previousresearchhasgiven substantial ttention o com-parativeanalyses of advertisingcontent-for example, in-formationlevel, humoruse, and materialisticthemes. Yetfew comparativestudies have examined strategic,brand-related issues such as positioning.Furthermore,o date, aframework hatsupportsanalysisof culturalcontentin tele-vision advertising as opposed to culturaleffects on adver-tising content) and relates that content to alternativepositioning strategieshas been missing.As an initial test ofthe culture-basedbrand positioning concept groundedinsemiotics theory,this studyis encouraging.

Managerial ImplicationsA key strategic ssue formanagers nvolves identificationofcountry,consumer segment, and product category factorsthat favor the use of GCCP,FCCP,or LCCP.For example,the managerof a beer brandemploying GCCPin manyna-tional marketsmight analyze competitive advertisingin anewly targetedcountryand conclude thatnone of the brandsalready n that marketuses FCCP.If the foreignculturehis-toricallytied to the beer brandhas a positive image amongconsumers in the targeted country, the manager mightchoose to employ FCCPinitially (cf. Leclerc, Schmitt,andDube 1994). If so, brandadvertisingwould emphasizeaes-thetic, spokesperson,and thematicsigns associated with aspecific foreign country.At some futuredate, the managercould determinewhethera shift to GCCP(oreven LCCP)iswarranted.It is possiblethatGCCPmightwork better hanLCCP nmarkets hat arecharacterizedby lower levels of economicdevelopment.This could be the case because consumersinthese marketsmay admire the "economic center" and be-lieve thatproduction echnologiesin theirown countriesareless advanced (Appadurai1990). This is consistent withsome of the researchon country-of-origineffects (cf. Hes-lop andPapadopoulos1993, p. 45). In line with this, Fried-man (1990) and other culturalanthropologistsreportthatownershipof brandsfrom the West increases the owner'sstatus n many developingcountries.Therefore, angibleandthematic signs that connote enhanced status from GCCPbrandownershipmay achieve meaningtransfermore effec-tively for consumers n developingcountrieswho areproneto reference group influence, such as teenagers (Beardenand Etzel 1982;ParkandLessig 1977).

Longitudinal rendsin aggregatemarketbehaviorsalsomight affect perceptionsof positioning strategies.For ex-ample,as the qualityof local goods improvesandimportedgoods lose scarcityvalue, markets nitially favoringGCCPbrandsmay turn nward and favor LCCPbrands(cf. Etten-son 1993). Firmsusing GCCP thusmust track ts effective-ness, because changing market sentiments may suggestalternativepositioningstrategies.This frameworkcan be used for otheranalyses as well.According to previous work regardingbrandpositioning(Park,Jaworski,and Maclnnis 1986; Roth 1992, 1995a), itis possible that certainbrandsare sending mixed messagesto theirtargetmarketby communicatingmultipleconsumerculture dentities n theiradvertising.Thatis, advertisementsemploying too much breadth e.g., one FCCPelement, twoGCCPelements,andtwo LCCPelements)mayconfusecon-sumers and/or create negative brand attitudes. Managerscould therefore benefit by using the frameworkdevelopedhereinto examine previouscommunicationstrategies o en-surethey erron the side of depthrather hanbreadth.In terms of the tacticalquestion-how best to communi-cate GCCP in situations n which it is strategically he bestpositioning option-we offer the following hypothesis,based on theory discussed previously regardingparticipa-tion in global experience:GCCP executions should accom-plish meaning transfer more effectively when they (1)feature the idea that people all over the worldconsume the

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advertisedbrand(e.g., Benetton)and (2) appeal to certainhuman universals or depict consumersegments that sharesimilarattitudes, ifestyles,andaspirations round he world(e.g., Sony).The first idea mightbe communicatedby providingev-idence of consumers in several diverse culturesconsumingthe advertisedbrand, he second throughdepictionof rele-vantsymbolism-ladenvisualsigns (suchas laptop-wieldingbusinesspeople;cf. Caudle1994). Some locally based mar-keters, fighting global brands,have begun to use GCCP toimply to local consumers that their productsare "world-class" for quality and acceptability.Thus, in the Indianmarket,advertising or local brandssuchas Videocon(con-sumer durables),Amrutanjan pain reliever), and Kenstar(appliances) shows data on exports or visuals of foreignconsumers consuming their products.Advertising in theNetherlands or Brand,a well-knownlocal beer,portraysaU.S. settingand uses English.The use of GCCPapparentlyis not limited to multinationalbrands.Limitations and Future Research DirectionsSimilarto any study,this one has limitations.First,the mea-suresused to assess positioningtypesmaybenefit fromfur-ther refinement-for example, identification of additionalcodingmeasuressuchas color scheme and aestheticstyle oralternativeweightingschemes.Second,our coders were lo-cal consumers;however,it is possible thatthey interpretedadvertisingcontentdifferently han"ordinary"onsumers ntheircountries.Additionalresearchcoulduse largersamplesof ordinaryconsumers to validate our findings. Third,de-spite attemptsto control for potentialconfounds (such asthat betweenproductandpositioningtype;see Footnote9),some may remain,such as the possibilitythatmultinationaladvertisersn some countriesalso mayhave thelargestshareof voice. Because multinationaladvertisersoften use localbrandnames, partialingout this factor would be challeng-ing, but furtherresearchshould investigatemethodsof do-ing so. In a similar vein, though the correlationbetweenGCCPandglobal brand tandardizations likely to be posi-tive, the strengthof that relationship s unclear.This cer-tainly represents an interesting empirical question foradditionalresearch.Fourth,because of our samplesize andtheoreticfocus, we did not modelhigherorder nteractions.Further esearchshould considerthese as well.There are several other potentiallyfruitful avenues foradditionalresearchandtheory development.First,more de-

tailed semiotic analysis of the signs associatedwith GCCP,FCCP,and LCCP might prove worthwhile. As we noted,Robertson 1987a, p. 38) defines globalizationas the "crys-tallizationof the entire world as a single place." By impli-cation, showing thatconsumersall over the world consumea particular randmaybe one recurringGCCPsign-for ex-ample, a direct visual image in individualadvertisements(e.g., Benetton's "United Colors of Benetton").Other the-matic signs used to symbolize GCCPmight includeappealsto "freedom,""individualrights,"or "democracy,"whichAppadurai(1990) argues constitute the emerging globalideoscape. In addition,theremay be a varietyof aesthetic(color,complexity,and so forth),spokespersons sportsfig-ures, actors, models, and so forth),and place signs (soccerstadiums, modern urbancenters, and so forth) associatedwith GCCP(cf. Caudle 1994).Second,further esearchcould involve identifyingwhichconsumersegmentsare mostresponsiveto GCCPstrategies.As we notedpreviously,Hannerz 1990) suggests thatglob-al cosmopolitansperceivethemselves as less provincialandmorecompetentwith regard o foreigncultures.These con-sumersare oftenyounger,moreeducated,andless ethnocen-tric.Thus,tangibleas well as thematicsigns thatspecificallyconnote internationaland/or intercultural ompetence andcontrolmaybe particularlyffective in accomplishingmean-ing transfer or this group.In contrast,signs that are rich inlocalculturemeaning e.g., traditional lothing)mayachievemeaning transfermore effectively for consumers who arehigherin ethnocentrismShimpand Sharma1987). In sum-mary, understandinghe effectiveness of differenttypes ofpositioning n differentcountriesmay require he analysisofcomplex,higherorder nteractions hat nvolve product ype,country,and characteristics f the targetsegment.10A final area for futuretheoreticdevelopment involvesmanagerialuse of GCCP,FCCP,and LCCP.Surveys of lo-cal andmultinationalbrandmanagerscould beginto addressthese issues. Building on Roth's (1992, 1995a) work, man-agerialreportswould help determinewhether the effective-ness of depthversus breadth trategies orGCCP,FCCP,andLCCPalso vary by targetmarketandother macrolevelfac-tors. Over time, such researchwill enhancethe competitivetools that brandmanagerscan apply to the global market-place.

l1We hank revieweror thissuggestion.

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