Boris IomdinRussian Language Institute,

Russian Academy of Sciencesiomdin@ruslang.ru

Lecture 5. PlanSentence and utteranceProposition and judgmentPropositional attitudes (modal frames)Dictum and modusTypes of questionsTypes of anomalous sentencesPresupposition and assertionCommunicative structurePresuppositions and modal frames in

explications

De Saussure: language and speech Human language (system of signs

that express ideas) may be divided into 2 components:

Langue (the abstract system of language)

Parole (individual acts of speech using this system).

Sense and meaningFrege: Sinn / BedeutungSense is more abstract, meaning

(=reference) is linked to a certain referent

the capital of Czechoslovakia: clear sense, but no meaning

Sentence and utteranceSentences are units of language

(langue) and have a senseUtterances are units of speech

(parole) and have a meaningThe sentence sense is an abstract

entity, a property of the language itself The utterance meaning is a meaning

that the Hearers assign to it

Proposition and judgmentA judgment (assertion) is an affirmative statement:

A 6-year-old boy ascended to the skies aboard a balloon.

A proposition is the content of various utterances:A 6-year-old boy ascended to the skies aboard a balloon!Did a 6-year-old boy ascend to the skies aboard a balloon?The 6-year-old boy did not ascend to the skies aboard a

balloon.It was the 6-year-old boy who ascended to the skies aboard a

balloon.The boy who ascended to the skies aboard a balloon was six

years old.…

Propositional attitudeThe sense of a sentence may contain an objective

constant (proposition) and a subjective variable (propositional attitude ≈ modal frame)

A propositional attitude is a mental state connecting the speaker to his proposition

Many types of propositional attitudes:KnowingBelievingSayingDesiring…

Dictum and modusCh. Bally, Le language et la vie, 1925

Dictum: what is saidModus: how this is said

Dictum: This is a dull lecture. Modi:I think that this is a dull lecture. I believe that this is a dull lecture. I know that this is a dull lecture. I hope that this is a dull lecture. I doubt that this is a dull lecture. It must be a dull lecture.…

Types of questions (Bally)Interrogation dictale totale:

What’s happening? – A lecture on semantics.Interrogation dictale partielle:

Where’s the lecture? – It’s in room S8.Interrogation modale totale:

Is the lecture happening? – Yes. / No. / Probably.

Interrogation modale partielle: Is this a lecture on semantics? – Yes. / No. / Probably.

Total modal questionsIs everything OK? – Yes. / *No./ No, my car broke.Are you paying in crowns? – Yes. / *No. / No, in euros.Does your son have black hair? – Yes. / *No. / No, red.Do I look OK? – Yes. / *No. /No, your hair’s tousled.

Has anyone called me? – No. / *Yes. / Yes, your son.Any news? – No. / *Yes. / Yes, the lecture’s cancelled.Do you have a dream? – No. / *Yes. / Yes, I want to be an

astronaut.

Types of anomaliesThis are a lectures dull.Charles University is situated in Moscow.The capital of Czechoslovakia is Prague.Mary’s husband is a bachelor.Mary’s husband is married.Mary’s husband is rainy.Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.Although Mary is 48, she already has 2

children.

PresuppositionPresupposition is a component of an utterance which, if

it is false, makes the whole utterance anomalous.The capital of Czechoslovakia is Prague.

Presupposition: Czechoslovakia exists and has a capital.He knows that Charles University is in Prague.He doesn’t know that Charles University is in Prague.He is surprised that Charles University is in Prague.

Presupposition: Charles University is in Prague.Open the door! Presupposition: the door is closed.

Presupposition and negationHe knows that Charles University is in Prague.He doesn’t know that Charles University is in Prague.*He knows that Charles University is in Moscow.*He doesn’t know that Charles University is in Moscow.Presupposition: Charles University is in Prague.He thinks that Charles University is in Prague.He doesn’t think that Charles University is in Prague.He thinks that Charles University is in Moscow.He doesn’t think that Charles University is in Moscow.No presupposition.

Presupposition and assertionMary is John’s daughter.Assertion: John is Mary’s father.Presupposition: Mary is a girl.Mary isn’t John’s daughter.Assertion: John isn’t Mary’s father.Presupposition: Mary is a girl.*Peter is John’s daughter.Assertion: John is Peter’s father.Presupposition: Peter is a girl.

Communicative structureV. Mathesius. O tak zvaném aktuálním

členění větném // Cěstina a obecný jazykozpyt. Praha, 1947

Actual analysis of sentences: theme (T) and rheme (R)

Petr (T) viděl Pavla (R). – Koho viděl Petr? ‘Peter (T) saw Paul (R). – Whom did Peter see?’

Pavla (T) viděl Petr (R). – Kdo viděl Pavla?‘Peter (R) saw Paul (T). – Who saw Paul?’

Theme (topic)the part of a sentence that the whole sentence is aboutIn free word order languages (Russian, Czech, …), the

topic usually comes first:(Chto delaet mal’chik?) – Mal’chik (T) bezhit (R).

‘(What does the boy do?) – The boy (T) is running (R).’(Kto aeto bezhit?) – Bezhit (T) mal’chik (R).

‘(Who is running?) – A boy (R) is running (T).’In Japanese, the topic tends to be marked:uindoozu wa (T) sugoi koutypu da si (R)

‘ As for Windows (T), it is terribly successful (R).’

Rheme (focus, comment) In some languages, special constructions can

mark the rheme:It is Peter who saw Paul.It is Paul whom Peter saw.C’est Pierre qui a vu Paul.C’est Paul que Pierre a vu.

The answer to a partial dictal question is generally the rheme: Where’s the lecture? – It’s (T) in room S8 (R).

Rheme and exhaustive listing?German is spoken in Austria? Englishmen live in Essex

German is spoken in GermanyIn Austria, German is spoken

P. Sgall, E. Hajičová, J. Panevová, J. Mey, The meaning of the sentence in its semantic and pragmatic aspects, 1986

Given and newGiven (old) is the information that the Speaker

believes to be known to the Hearer and active in his mind at the moment of the utterance.

New is the information that the Speaker believes to be unknown to the Hearer or absent in his mind before the utterance.

At the lecture on semantics (T, G) I fell asleep (R, N).I entered Room S8. A lecture on semantics (T, New)

was just starting (R) in the room (Given).English language has articles. French (T, New) has

them, too (R, Given).

Modal frames in explicationsX managed to do P

‘X did P’ [assertion]‘The speaker thought that X would fail to do P because P is

difficult for X’ [modal frame] Even X did P

‘X did P; some others also did P’ [assertion]‘The speaker did not expect that X would do P’ [modal

frame]Only X did P

‘X did P; no one else did P’ [assertion]‘The speaker expected that someone else would also do P’

[modal frame]

Presuppositions in explicationsX found 1 P

‘Before T, X was searching for P’ [presupposition]‘At T, X determined the place where P was’ [assertion]

I found my watch‘I have been looking for my watch’ [presupposition]‘I determined where my watch was’ [assertion]

I did not find my watch‘I have been looking for my watch’ [presupposition]‘I did not determine where my watch was’ [assertion]

Presuppositions in explicationsX found 2 P

‘X unexpectedly saw P and took it’ [assertion]I found a watch at the streetI did not find a watch at the street

Presuppositions in explicationsX vstretil 1 Y v Z ‘X met Y in Z’

‘Y arrived to Z’ [presupposition]‘X came to Z; after that, X and Y were together for some

time’ [assertion]Ja vstretil druga na vokzale ‘I met my friend at the

station’‘My friend arrived at the station’ [presupposition]‘I came to the station’ [assertion]

Ja ne vstretil druga na vokzale ‘I did not meet my friend…’‘My friend arrived at the station’ [presupposition]‘I did not come to the station’ [assertion]

Presuppositions in explicationsX vstretil 2 Y

‘X came across Y’ [assertion]Ja vstretil druga na ulice ‘I came across my

friend at the street’Ja ne vstretil druga na ulice ‘I did not come

across my friend at the street’

Properties of presuppositionsPresuppositions are impenetrable not only for

the negation, but also for other kinds of lexical items: quantifiers, modifiers, modal verbs, estimates, etc.

He rarely finds what he loses ≠ ‘he rarely searches’

He cannot find what he lost ≠ ‘he cannot search’

Thematic and rhematic wordsFew is mostly the rheme:

Few students (R) came to the lecture (T).Na lekciju prishlo (T) malo studentov (R).

A few can be the theme:A few students (T) came later (R).Neskol’ko studentov (T) prishlo pozzhe (R).

Once upon a time is mostly the theme:Once upon a time (T), there was a king (R).*There king was there (T) once upon a time

(R).

Two meanings of aloneX does P alone 1 ‘X does P; one could expect

that someone else would do P simultaneously or together with X; no one else does P’Living alone [T] is difficult [R].He stands there [T] all alone [R].

X alone 2 does P ‘X does P; there is no one else that does P’: only rhematic! He alone [R] knows the truth [T].

Next lectureTheoretical and practical

lexicography. Types of dictionaries. Types of information in an explanatory dictionary.