Book Reviews

A Nation Transformed by Information: How Information hasShaped the United States from Colonial Times to the Present.Alfred D. Chandler, Jr. and James W. Cortada. New York: OxfordUniversity Press; 2000. 380 pp. Price $39.95 (ISBN 0-19-512701-3.)

This collection is a survey of information developments in theterritories incorporated into the United States from colonial peri-ods to the late 20th century. Essays cover topics from the “EarlyAmerican Origins of the Information Age” (Richard D. Brown, pp.39–53), through “Business Use of Information and Technologyduring the Industrial Age” (JoAnne Yates, pp. 107–135), to “Com-puters in U.S. Households since 1977” (Lee S. Sproul, pp. 257–280). A broad understanding of information is adopted, althoughthere is an implicit, but still exclusive, focus on the enfranchised(and not the native or slave) populations of those territories.Contributors come from a variety of institutional and intellectualcontexts, with some from economic and social history, whose viewof technology as a human construction could be profitably adaptedto information technologies (Warner, 1999, 2000). Despite someeditorial disclaimers and the potential influence from economicand social history, attention is given as much to the informationinfrastructure as to the human conditions of its use.

There is evidence of overall editorial control, with carefulattention given to the mutual integration of constituent chapters,through crossreferences. An introduction gives a summary ofsubsequent chapters, although the absence of a fuller overviewmay reflect the difficulties of synthesis in a beginning subject.Chapters read, in some respects, like contributions to a subjectencyclopedia, carefully and rather neutrally written, well informedhistorically, with extensive references indicating full research. Onechapter, written by one the editors, an executive consultant withIBM (James W. Cortada. Progenitors of the Information Age: TheDevelopment of Chips and Computers. pp. 177–216), is dissonantin using a style from a nonscholarly register. A concluding bib-liographic essay, organized under chapter topics, seems compre-hensive and potentially valuable.

The historical perspective and scope of the collection is avaluable corrective to assumptions of the recency of moderninformation technologies. In terms of the information society de-bate, it implies, and, in some respects, also states (p. 282), apreference for continuities rather than disjunctions from previousforms of social organization (Webster, 1995). It also providesextensive empirical data to inform this debate.

The richness of the empirical data offered is not fully matchedby theoretical sophistication. The focus is on the effects of indi-vidual and corporate endeavor and not on larger historical forces.Although the material form of technologies is regarded as sociallyshaped (p. 139), the possibility of viewing technologies, includinginformation technologies, as radically humanly constructed is onlyslightly approached. Software is regarded, in contrast to the otherinformation technologies discussed, as not emerging from previ-ously existing technologies (pp. 294–295). Yet precursors can befound in verbal and nonverbal forms of writing, including nota-

tions for symbolic logic. Curiously, there is simultaneously somereminiscence of an alphabetical teleology—in which nonalpha-betic forms of writing are regarded as imperfect attempts at thealphabet—in the view of special purpose information machines asincomplete precursors to the computer (a universal informationmachine). The closing of the American frontier is briefly men-tioned (p. 15), but the possible influence of continental expansionon the adoption of technologies, such as the telegraph and tele-phone, for communicating over space, is not explored. Someconfirmation of the late 19th century United States as a criticallocus for the development of modern information technologies isstill given. A valuable insight is offered when it is indicated that,by viewing knowledge work as the intellectual infrastructure offorms of work (by lawyers, teachers, librarians, accountants, andgovernment staff) previously regarded separately, we can see“patterns of their activities in new ways” (p. 198).

In conclusion, the value of the collection lies in its empiricalrichness, balance, the scholarship enhanced by rigorous editing,and in the hints of more sophisticated perspectives. A further issue,which deserves exploration, is whether information did not trans-form a nation but was constitutive to the creation of that nation, tothe development from colonies and a native population to a col-lectivity known to itself. Could the development of a consciouscollectivity through mutual informing have been part of federalintentions in providing, by the Post Office Act of 1792, for thecarriage of newspapers by the mail service “at extremely lowrates” (p. 8)?

Julian WarnerSchool of Management and EconomicsThe Queen’s University of BelfastE-mail: j.warner@qub.ac.uk

Published online 30 April 2002 in Wiley InterScience(www.interscience.wiley.com).DOI: 10.1002/asi.10101

References

Warner, J. (1999). An information view of history. Journal of the AmericanSociety for Information Science, 50, 1125–1126.

Warner, J. (2000). What should we understand by information technology(and some hints at other issues)? Aslib Proceedings, 52, 350–370.

Webster, F. (1995). Theories of the information society. London: Rout-ledge.

Usability for the Web: Designing Web Sites that Work. TomBrinck, Darren Gergle, and Scott D. Wood. San Francisco, CA:Morgan Kaufmann: 481 pp. Price: $49.95 (ISBN: 1-55860-658-0.)

Usability for the Web gives an invaluable and often missingperspective on Web site design: how to make a site “highly© 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 53(9):775–777, 2002

usable.” In the introduction, the authors write, “Highly usable Websites are intuitive. They support the users and allow users toaccomplish their goals quickly, efficiently, and easily.” Brinck andhis colleagues present a reasoned approach to, and argument for,designing with the user in mind, and they include the detailsneeded to carry out that approach. The authors point out in thepreface that even with common principles as a guide, the details ofdesign are enormously important. They propose to lay out arational design process that places the user at center stage, and theyhave written a book that is both a user manual for Web site designand a primer on user-centered design. The book specifies a numberof audiences including managers of Web site design organizations,designers and developers, usability specialists, those who hire Webdesigners, and those who desire to be Web designers. Threeaspects of the book set it apart from other Web design handbooks.These are (1) the perspective on Web design taken by the authors,(2) the audience addressed, and (3) the design of the book.

The Perspective on Web Site Design

The focus of the book is on usability, and its greatest strengthis the detailed insights it provides into what it means for a Web siteto be usable. The emphasis is appropriate and needed. Who has notused Web site after Web site that seems to assume that all usershave broadband connections and can follow links ad nauseum?Many sites on the Web, commercial as well as others, wouldbenefit greatly from following the guidelines and advice given inthis book. The authors note, “Designers and developers need userstudies precisely because they are too expert to form reasonableassumptions of what users are like” (p. 56). This is exactly thepoint, and it is made repeatedly throughout the book. Designersand developers need to talk to users, to figure out what users want,and to design accordingly.

The book is ambitious—it covers the Web site developmentprocess from start to finish, covering not only design but alsoproject management including budgeting, communicating with theclient, and managing personnel. The authors begin with a chapterexplaining their conception of usability, a theme that pervadestheir entire design process. Then they present sections on require-ments analysis, conceptual design, mockups and prototypes, pro-duction, launch, and evaluation. There is a huge amount of detailin each section, with specific advice on how to accomplish thetasks entailed by each stage of design. How to design a focusgroup, how to create a survey, how to keep notes from interviewswith users—these are all topics covered in detail.

The best sections of the book are those that are explicitly aboutusability and paying attention to user requirements. They explainneeds analysis (Chapter 3), task analysis (Chapter 4), navigationstyles (Chapter 5), and usability evaluation (Chapter 12). Thechapter on information architecture (Chapter 5) is an excellent,simple summary of the issues involved in designing the innerworkings of a Web site. The topics provide a lot of detail, from thepage width problem and its impact on users, to choosing andmixing typefaces, to working with programmers and developingproduction schedules. Many of the chapters include examples ofWeb sites, sometimes comparing different pages across a commonfeature, and sometimes showing how a Web page could be im-proved with respect to a particular principle. The illustrations arewell placed, and add enormously to the authors’ ideas.

A good example of the tone and content of Usability for theWeb is the chapter entitled “Writing for the Web.” This is a topicnot often addressed in books that might have the same audience—for example, Web design books or HTML handbooks. In thischapter, the authors make suggestions for assessing readability,creating a style guide, thinking about how and why people read onthe Web, and reading on a screen versus a printed page. Theydiscuss differences in writing styles for Web and print media, how

users scroll, and how link text should be written. As an example ofthe level of detail, in the discussion of links, they caution againstusing blue text or underlined text for anything other than a link, toavoid user confusion. As in other chapters, detail abounds, butalways in the larger context of usability.

Another important feature of the book is the attention paid toaccessibility and user differences. The authors provide accessibil-ity guidelines, and they make the interesting argument that acces-sibility is not only an ethical issue: ignoring it can be a seriouscommercial mistake. Accessibility issues are addressed throughoutthe book. For example, in the chapter on design, the authorsmention that an estimated 4% of the population is colorblind.Make the color scheme work in grayscale, they say, then it will notonly look better in color, but it will be usable by those who arecolorblind. They also consider needs of different user populationsincluding, for example, those who are not native English speakers.For example, they discuss date and time formats as they affectinternational users, something many American Web site providersignore when they write dates such as 2/3/02. Brinck and colleaguespoint out issues that seem obvious once you see them, althoughthey are apparently not addressed on many Web sites.

In the effort to be comprehensive, however, some sections weretoo abbreviated. For example, the sections on budgeting andproject management in Chapter 1 were too short and compressedto be useful. It is a dilemma for a book with ambitious goals:money and time are such important resources for designing Websites that managing money and time could hardly be omitted fromthe book. Yet those sections felt like a race through, and oversim-plification of, some extremely tricky and complex issues. On thepositive side, some of their advice in these sections is important.For example, the graphic they produced to show staffing over timein a Web design project is a significant and memorable represen-tation for resource planning (Figs. 1–4, p. 27). Other graphs andcharts are equally well presented and useful.

One of the best features of the book is the design tools itprovides. Forms for every phase of design and development—forexample, budgeting, user evaluations, production time tables, cli-ent approvals, to mention a few—are illustrated in the book withlinks to the Web site where they can be downloaded for actual use(www.mkp.com/uew/). This is a generous move on the part of theauthors, who themselves are in the business of designing anddeveloping Web sites. They are truly encouraging competition,making their own ideas and methods available to anyone whowants them. This is in the spirit of open code in a commercialarena where one would more typically see cut-throat competitionrather than free help.

The Audience for the Book

Although the authors specify that the book is for a variety ofaudiences, it seems most useful for those familiar with HTMLcoding and Web site development. The book assumes knowledgeof relatively arcane details of Web page coding, including suchthings as CGI scripts, “size attributes for image tags,” and hit logs.In the case of hit logs, for example, the authors provide some veryuseful insights into what hit logs can and cannot reveal, but they donot give even a hint about how to produce a hit log. This is surelydeliberate—the book is not a coding handbook. However, theirdisclaimer at the start that the book requires little knowledge ofHTML is probably overstated.

Who is the appropriate audience? It is informative to considerto whom the book would not be useful. It is not for someone tryingto learn HTML or any technical details about running a Web site.It is not particularly suited for an individual creating a single Webpage, although many of the design suggestions would be wellheeded by such a person. (These authors could write a great bookfor individual Web providers. A more focused and pared down

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version of the current book would be a wonderful resource.) It willbe a very useful book for anyone who is actively involved in thedetails of producing complex Web sites. The list the authors offeris about right—managers of Web site design organizations, de-signers and developers, usability specialists, those who hire Webdesigners, and those who desire to be Web designers, with thecaveat that this is not a book for those who do not plan to get theirhands dirty.

The Design of the Book

It is always encouraging when designers themselves presenttheir ideas in a well-designed format, and that is one of the strikingthings about this book. It is beautifully designed. The table ofcontents and index are well planned and easy to use. Chapters areidentified through a simple and attractive color-coded map withmatching chapter dividers. Summary tables referring to differentchapters in the book also feature the chapter color coding (e.g.,Table 1–2, p. 32). Pages are laid out to make them easy to read.Graphics and images in the book are clear and well described.Whether the authors had input into the design of the book is notrevealed, but it is clear that this is an unusually thoughtful design,and reflects some of the very principles it describes. This isespecially important for a book like this, which will undoubtedlybe used as a handbook, with repeated looks at relevant sectionsduring the design process. Usability for the Web is exceptionallyeasy to use.

Conclusions

Two aspects of the book are somewhat problematic. First, atleast in some sections, the advice given may be too general to beuseful. As mentioned above, the sections on budgeting and projectmanagement are evidence of this problem. Second, the claims

made about design, about user requirements, and about the designprocess are not substantiated by citations from the literature. Al-though each chapter has a list of references, it is impossible todistinguish claims the authors make based on their own experiencefrom claims that are warranted in research. For example, in Chap-ter 5, the authors make this claim: “We disagree with the recom-mendation that a limit of seven links at each level is optimal(usually argued for on the basis that people can remember about 7� items.)” Is this based on their personal experience? On data theyhave collected? On data from others? Similarly, in the samechapter, they refer to several models of human navigation withoutpointing to any sources: for example, satisficing, information for-aging, and mental maps. Although this may not be important tomany users of the book, it would seem valuable for those seekingto understand the domain of user-centered design and how itapplies to the Web to be able to follow up on the ideas presentedand to understand their genesis in the fields of computer science,information science, or human–computer interaction. Usability forthe Web is not a scholarly book, but at times it seems like it shouldbe. Except for the lack of citations, it is a primer on user-centereddesign, and it would be more valuable if it were easier for thereader to follow up on the important ideas they present by going tothe source.

The authors have accomplished what they set out to do. This isa highly useful and usable handbook for anyone involved in theday-to-day work of designing, developing, and managing Websites.

Raven WallaceMichigan State UniversityE-mail: ravenmw@msu.edu

Published online 2 May 2002 in Wiley InterScience(www.interscience.wiley.com).DOI: 10.1002/asi.10099

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