Book- Blommaert- Sociolinguistics of Globalization

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For Michael S. and Sali M.

loyal Kepketarians

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Table of contents

Preface

1. A critical sociolinguistics of globalization

1.1. The challenge

1.2. Two paradigms

1.3. Globalization s!per"di#ersity and m!ltiling!alism

1.$. The start o% a tradition

1.&. The challenge again

2. A messy new marketplace

2.1. 'ina(s derri)re

2.2. Socioling!istic scales

2.3. *rders o% inde+icality

2.$. ,olycentricity

2.&. - socioling!istics o% mobile reso!rces

2.. Selling accent

2./. 0oncl!sion

3. Locality, the periphery an images of the worl

3.1. riting locality a globalized Tanzanian no#el

3.2. ocality and the periphery

3.3. The norms o% the periphery

3.$. 4mages %rom the periphery

!. "epertoires an competence

$.1. Tr!ncated repertoires

$.2. Globalized genres o% %ra!d

$.3. - world o% reso!rces

#. Language, globalization, an history

&.1. 5istorical concepts

&.2. The worlds o% gol%

&.3. ong and short histories

&.$. The chaotic shop

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&.&. 0oncl!sion

$. %l an new ine&ualities

.1. Globalization the state and ine6!ality

.2. ang!age asyl!m and the national order

.3. Mainstreaming the migrant learner

.$. The end o% the state and ine6!ality7

'. "eflections

/.1. Sketch o% a road map

/.2. 8nglish in the periphery imperialism re#isited

/.3. 0oncl!sions

(otes

"eferences

Author )ne*

+ubect )ne*

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Preface

4 see this book as the third one o% a trilogy in which 4 try to %orm!late some o% the

conse6!ences o% globalization %or the st!dy o% lang!age in society. The %irst book o% the

series Discourse: A Critical Introduction 92::&; attempted to sketch these conse6!ences %or

o!r !nderstanding o% disco!rse as well as %or o!r ethos o% analysing it. The same approach

was applied to literacy in Grassroots Literacy 92::<; and 4 am here bringing the same

e+ercise to the %ield o% socioling!istics. 8ach o% the books is an attempt an essai in the

classical and original sense o% the term in which 4 try my best to describe the problem and

o%%er some concept!al and analytical tools %or addressing it. -nd 4 make this e%%ort beca!se 4

belie#e that globalization %orces !s = whether we like it or not = to an aggiornamento o% o!r

theoretical and methodological toolkit. M!ch as modernism de%ined most o% the c!rrent

widespread tools o% o!r trade the transition towards a di%%erent kind o% social system %orces !s

to rede%ine them. S!ch an e+ercise howe#er iconoclastic it may seem at %irst cannot be

a#oided or postponed.

The tone o% this book like the pre#io!s two is conse6!ently critical and paradigmatic.

4 deliberately try to p!sh mysel% to e+plore the limits o% the present socioling!istic

instr!mentari!m in an attempt to demonstrate its shortcomings and the need to re#ise its

ingredients. 4t is a conscio!s attempt to think o!tside the bo+ and at times it will s!%%er %rom

its own radicalism. There will be passages in this book where 4 will probably o#erstate my

case while trying to be as clear as possible and there will be places where 4 prod!ce

theoretical o#erkill. 4 hope howe#er that 4 will nowhere create a caricat!re o% socioling!istic

globalization processes. 4 ha#e in this book tried to be o!tspokenly empirical in the theoretical

e%%ort 4 make. The theoretical iss!es will be addressed by pro#iding long and detailed

empirical analyses partly to enhance the clarity o% my arg!ment and partly to pro#ide

baseline descriptions o% globalization phenomena o% a partic!lar kind. 4 hope that e#en in the

e#ent that the theoretical e%%ort will be >!dged to be worthless the empirical e%%ort will be

appreciated. ?ehind the >ob o% theoretical de#elopment lies the work o% description and being

an ethnographer 4 tend to take that >ob 6!ite serio!sly. 4 also belie#e that this >ob o%

description is the most important contrib!tion that socioling!istic work can make. e possess

9i% we !se it well; a descripti#e apparat!s o% !nparalleled precision capable o% reading

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in%initely big %eat!res o% society %rom in%initely small details o% comm!nicati#e beha#ior. *!r

most pers!asi#e disco!rse is empirical and descripti#e we are at o!r best when we pro#ide

theoretically gro!nded and sophisticated descriptions o% lang!age problems in the world. The

theoretical challenges o% globalization may make some scholars inclined to prod!ce more

theory than description@ in my #iew this wo!ld mean that we thereby sacri%ice some o% o!r

best and most power%!l tools.

The three books ha#e one large theoretical theme in common = a theme which will

emerge here towards the end o% this book. 4t is a criti6!e o% the Sa!ss!rean synchrony = a

#iew o% socioling!istic reality in which lang!age is !ndressed so to speak and robbed o% the

spatial and temporal %eat!res that de%ine its occ!rrence meaning and %!nction in real social

li%e. 4t is my #iew that this Sa!ss!rean synchrony has no real e+istence and cannot remain

intact e#en as a hypothetical theoretical constr!ct. e need to replace it with a #iew o%

lang!age as something intrinsically and perpet!ally mobile thro!gh space as well as time and

made for mobility. The %inality o% lang!age is mobility not immobility. 4 share this insight

with se#eral other scholars and cannot claim to be original in this respect. Michael Sil#erstein

%or one has done a lot in 6!estioning this old paradigm and the book is dedicated to him and

to Salikoko M!%wene another scholar with a !ni6!e sense o% history 9and the man who

o%%ered me an opport!nity to write this book;. ?!t the attack started as soon as people s!ch as

Aohn G!mperz Bell 5ymes 8r#ing Go%%man and -aron 0ico!rel redisco#ered the

theoretical and paradigmatic #al!e o% ethnography and ,ierre ?o!rdie! Michel Fo!ca!lt and

others la!nched their criti6!es on str!ct!ralism. 'eedless to say G!nther Kress( de#elopment

o% m!ltimodal analysis was also instr!mental in the criti6!e o% the static and totalizing

%eat!res o% synchronicity. 4n my #iew synchrony is a %eat!re o% a modernist epistemology one

that re%lected its times. 'ow that times ha#e changed and we are looking at a world that no

longer can be neatly di#ided into clear and transparent categories the theoretical paradigms

need to be re#ised as well. My e%%ort is in that sense deeply historical.

8#en i% the direct origins o% the book are a series o% seminars 4 ta!ght at the Cni#ersity

o% 0hicago in 2::3 this book is a synthesis o% a decade o% research and 4 cannot possibly

thank e#eryone who has in%l!enced its so!nd and shape. ?!t 4 m!st thank the original co"

a!thors o% certain parts o% it %or allowing me to re"!se o!r >oint work here Tope *moniyi

0harlyn Byers 'athalie M!yllaert Marieke 5!ysmans 8#ita illaert ies 0re#e and

ieselotte Dan der Bonck. Ste% Slembro!ck and Aim 0ollins were essential in %orm!lating

some o% the key concepts and insights that dri#e this book. 4 am also grate%!l to Kathy AieBong -pril 5!ang S>aak Kroon Ma+ Spotti Sari ,ietikainen and Eob Moore my partners



d!ring %ieldwork ad#ent!res o#er the past %ew years who ha#e helped me shape my tho!ghts

on n!mero!s iss!es 9and sometimes also helped me in %orm!lating them;. My wi%e ,ika ga#e

me ad#ice on the Aapanese e+amples and read the whole man!script a co!ple o% times

pro#iding me with tons o% help%!l comments and s!ggestions %or clari%ication. -nd some o%

my interloc!tors o% the past %ew years = G!nther Kress ?en Eampton Eo+y 5arris ?rian

Street 0onstant e!ng Ba#id ?lock Sirpa eppnen and ,i#i ,ahta = constantly %ed me

with a s!pply o% tho!ghts re%lections and criticisms o% my radical #iews.

*ne %inal word abo!t the series in which this book is appearing. 4 consider it a great

pri#ilege to become an a!thor in the Cambridge Approaches to Language Contact . The series

has consistently prod!ced books o% the highest 6!ality and 4 can only be %lattered and

h!mbled by the association with the o!tstanding gro!p o% a!thors in that series. The consistent

6!ality o% the series is to a large e+tent the e%%ect o% the rigoro!s and metic!lo!s editorial work

o% Sali M!%wene who th!s deser#es another accolade here. 4n my own case Sali pro#ided

me with h!ndreds o% tho!ght%!l and constr!cti#e comments and 6!estions on the %irst dra%t o%

this book. The re#isions prompted by them greatly impro#ed the book.

-ll o% these people deser#e my thanks and i% the book is >!dged to be good it is in no

small meas!re d!e to them. *n the other hand i% it(s >!dged to be bad 4 nat!rally take alone

the blame %or it.

-ntwerp and Ay#skyl Aan!ary 2::

Aan ?lommaert

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Acknowlegements

Bi%%erent parts o% this book are based on materials that were pre#io!sly p!blished. Section 2.2

is based on HSocioling!istic scales( 9 Intercultural Pragmatics $I1 1"1 2::/;. The sections2.3 and 2.$ ha#e their orginis in HSocioling!istics and disco!rse analysis *rders o%

inde+icality and polycentricity( 9 Journal of Multicultural Discourses 2I2 11&"13: 2::/;.

Section 3.1 is a re#ised #ersion o% Hriting locality in globalized Swahili Semiotizing space

in a Tanzanian no#el( 94n 0Jcile Digo!ro!+ Salikoko M!%wene 9eds.; Globalization and

Language itality: Perspecti!es from Africa: 21:"22<. ondon 0ontin!!m 2::<;. Section

3.3. is based on H,eripheral normati#ity iteracy and the prod!ction o% locality in a So!th

-%rican Township school 9 Linguistics and "ducation 1 3/<"$:3 2::&; a paper co"a!thored

with 'athalie M!yllaert Marieke 5!ysmans and 0harlyn Byers. Section $.2 has its origins in

a paper co"a!thored with Tope *moniyi and called H8mail %ra!d ang!age technology and

the inde+icals o% globalisation( 9#ocial #emiotics 1I$ &/3":& 2::;. Section /.2 %inally is

an adapted #ersion o% HSit!ating lang!age rights 8nglish and Swahili in Tanzania re#isited(

9 Journal of #ociolinguistics I3 3:"$1/ 2::&;. 4 am grate%!l to Mo!ton de Gr!yter

Eo!tledge 0ontin!!m 8lse#ier and iley"?lackwell %or permission to !se these materials

%or incl!sion in the book.

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1. A critical sociolinguistics of globalization

1.1. The challenge

Socioling!istically the world hasn(t become a #illage. That well"mat!red metaphor o%

globalization doesn(t work and that is a pity %or socioling!istics = a science traditionally more

at ease while st!dying a #illage than while st!dying the world. Globalization is the catch"word

%or a partic!lar historical phase 9the capitalist present so to speak; and e#en i% the processes

we call globalization are not new in s!bstance they are new in intensity scope and scale. The

no#elty transpires in the labels we !se %or them one o% the main %eat!res o% globalization is

that it has spawned its own disco!rses"on"globalization th!s making it into a sel%"conscio!s

and seemingly a!tonomo!s political economic c!lt!ral and intellect!al pro>ect. 4 will ha#e a

word or two to say abo!t the sel%"conscio!sness and a!tonomy b!t %or now 4 can restrict

mysel% to accepting the challenge o% globalization #iz. to rethink o!r concept!al and analytic

apparat!s. The world has not become a #illage b!t rather a tremendo!sly comple+ web o%

#illages towns neighborhoods settlements connected by material and symbolic ties in o%ten

!npredictable ways. That comple+ity needs to be e+amined and !nderstood.

4 consider this state o% a%%airs a positi#e e%%ect o% globalization beca!se it %orces !s to

think abo!t phenomena as located in and distrib!ted across di%%erent scales %rom the global to

the local and to e+amine the connections between these #ario!s le#els in ways that do not

red!ce phenomena and e#ents to their strict conte+t"o%"occ!rrence. 4n other words

globalization %orces socioling!istics to !nthink its classic distinctions and biases and to

rethink itsel% as a socioling!istics o% mobile reso!rces %ramed in terms o% trans"conte+t!al

networks %lows and mo#ements. This !nthinking and rethinking is long o#erd!e 9allerstein

2::1 reminds !s o% that; and socioling!istics still bears so many marks o% its own pec!liar

history as it has %oc!sed on static #ariation on local distrib!tion o% #arieties on stati%ied

lang!age contact and so on. 4t shares this problem with many other branches o% the lang!age

sciences = a point 4 tried to make elsewhere with respect to disco!rse analysis and literacy

st!dies 9?lommaert 2::& 2::<;. hat is needed is a new #ocab!lary to describe e#ents

phenomena and processes new metaphors %or representing them new arg!ments to e+plain

them = those elements o% scienti%ic imagination we call theory. This book is theoretical in



ambition %orm!lating proposals %or a di%%erent theoretical approach to socioling!istic iss!es

in globalization. More directly it describes globalization as a socioling!istic s!b>ect matter

and lang!age as something intrinsically connected to processes o% globalization. -t the same

time the book is empirically"gro!nded@ my hypotheses are based on e+tensi#e analyses o%

#ario!s kinds o% data that instantiate in my #iew processes o% globalization.

My own attempt >oins an emerging tradition in socioling!istics and related disciplines

in which scholars engage with globalization 9e.g. 5eller 1@ de Swaan 2::1@ ?lock and

0ameron 2::1@ 0o!pland 2::3@ ?lock 2::&@ Eampton 2::@ 5arris 2::@ 0al#et 2::@

Fairclo!gh 2::@ ,ennycook 2::/;. The engagement is not always s!ccess%!l as we shall see

shortly@ nor does it always res!lt in elegant pieces o% intellect!al work = the aspect o%

!nthinking is sometimes le%t aside and replaced by a 6!ick patch"!p o% c!rrent theoretical and

methodological comple+es. Many people still belie#e that the iss!e can be %orm!lated as

Hlang!age and globalization( in precisely the same way as one wo!ld speak o% Hlang!age and

c!lt!re( Hlang!age and society( and so on. That is with precisely the same problems

lang!age itsel% is seen as essentially !na%%ected by globalization 9c!lt!re society and so on;

and globalization is seen as >!st another conte+t in which lang!age is practiced a new one at

best. This o% co!rse precl!des the possibility that the modes o% occ!rrence o% lang!age

themsel#es change and that the traditional concept o% Hlang!age( is dislodged and destabilized

by globalization. 4n other words it red!ces the socioling!istic iss!es o% globalization to iss!es

o% method while a serio!s consideration o% them wo!ld re6!ire ontological epistemological

and methodological statements as well = it wo!ld see it as iss!es o% theory.

This theory constr!ction cannot be >!st another linguistic theory. 4t needs to be a

theory o% lang!age in society or more precisely o% changing lang!age in a changing society.

To some e+tent this is already an ontic decision the socioling!istics we need is one that

addresses not the traditional ob>ect o% ling!istics b!t something %ar more dynamic something

%!ndamentally c!lt!ral social political and historical. That ob>ect cannot be !nderstood as

a!tonomo!s b!t needs to be e+amined as part o% the larger package as the socioling!istic

side o% a larger social system. This obser#ation is not new@ in some meas!re it e#en de%ines

the socioling!istic approach

L it will not do to begin with lang!age or a standard ling!istic description and look

o!tward to social conte+t. - cr!cial characteristic o% the socioling!istic approach is

that it looks in toward lang!age as it were %rom its social matri+. To begin withlang!age or with an indi#id!al code is to in#ite the limitations o% a p!rely

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correlational approach and to miss m!ch o% the organization o% ling!istic phenomena.

95ymes 1/$ /&;

The socioling!istic approach 5ymes contin!es in#ol#es a shi%t %rom %oc!s on str!ct!re to

%oc!s on %!nction = %rom %oc!s on ling!istic %orm in isolation to ling!istic %orm in h!man

conte+tN 9id. //;. -nd it is this socioling!istic approach that 4 shall try to !se in the chapters

o% this book an approach that looks at ling!istic phenomena %rom within the social c!lt!ral

political and historical conte+t o% which they are part@ one that considers lang!age as

organized not >!st in a ling!istic system b!t in a socioling!istic system the r!les and

dynamics o% which cannot be a!tomatically deri#ed %rom considering their ling!istic %eat!res@

and one that so e+amines lang!age in an attempt to !nderstand society. 9See 5anks 1@

-gha 2::/@ ?lommaert 2::& %or elaborate disc!ssions.; -n ethnographically %orm!lated

socioling!istics seen %rom that angle is a critical social science o% lang!age.

There is a need %or s!ch a critical social science o% lang!age. 8ric 5obsbawm recently

reminded !s o% the %act that

the c!rrently %ashionable %ree"market globalization has bro!ght abo!t a dramatic

growth in economic and social ine6!alities both within states and internationally.

There is no sign that this polarisation is not contin!ing within co!ntries in spite o% a

general dimin!tion o% e+treme po#erty 95obsbawm 2::/ 3;.

4n addition the impact o% this globalization is %elt most by those who bene%it %rom it leastN

9ibid; there is a globalized Hreser#e army o% labo!r( o% immigrants %rom the #illages o% the

great zones o% po#ertyN and while the act!al scale o% globalization remains modest 9L; its

political and c!lt!ral impact is disproportionately largeN 9id. $;. Most people in the world still

ha#e no access to the new comm!nication technologies that o%%er shortc!ts to globalization

they li#e so to speak %!ndamentally !n"globalized li#es@ b!t the elites in their co!ntries ha#e

s!ch access and !se it in the p!rs!it o% power and opport!nities = a p!rs!it which does a%%ect

the li#es o% the H!n"globalized( citizens. Migration %rom the Hzones o% po#erty( into 8!ropean

societies e#en i% statistically restricted is a ma>or political %actor in many 8!ropean co!ntries

has changed the %ace o% some o% its !rban centers has prompted or %!elled the rise o%

reactionary racist or %ascist right"wing gro!ps and has generated a heightened awareness o%

politicized identities o% ethnoling!istic nationalism and o% national cha!#inism. 4t has alsochanged the %ace o% m!ltiling!alism as we shall see below creating new and comple+

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markets %or ling!istic and comm!nicati#e reso!rces. S!ch markets nat!rally incl!de winners

and losers and many people nowadays %ind their ling!istic reso!rces to be o% #ery low #al!e

in globalized en#ironments. 4 ha#e described this problem elsewhere as one o% #oice and

mobility. That is people manage or %ail to make sense across conte+ts@ their ling!istic and

comm!nicati#e reso!rces are mobile or lack s!ch semiotic mobility and this is a problem not

>!st o% di%%erence b!t o% ine6!ality it is a problem acerbated by the intensi%ied processes o%

globalization 9?lommaert 2::& chapter $ 2::<;. Globalization th!s is like e#ery

de#elopment o% the system in which we li#e something that prod!ces opport!nities as well as

constraints new possibilities as well as new problems progress as well as regression. -

critical approach m!st at least pro#ide an acc!rate diagnostic o% these iss!es.

?e%ore we can mo#e on we need %irst to %ind some bearings %or this e+ercise.

Socioling!istics is changing and so is its ob>ect. 4 start by sketching the general lines o% this

change@ then 4 engage in its e%%ects on what we !nderstand by socioling!istic di#ersity. 4n so

doing 4 %irst pro#ide introd!ctions to some o% the key concepts o% this book.

1.2. Two paraigms

Modern socioling!istics drew an arte%act!alized image o% lang!age into time and space b!t it

didn(t necessarily destroy the old Sa!s!rean synchrony. The arte%act!al image is the image

de#eloped in modern ling!istics o% lang!age as a bo!nded nameable and co!ntable !nit

o%ten red!ced to grammatical str!ct!res and #ocab!lary and called by names s!ch as

H8nglish( HFrench( and so on 9?lommaert 2::@ also Sil#erstein 1<@ ?a!man and ?riggs

2::3@ Makoni and ,ennycook 2::;. Socioling!istic st!dies o% lang!age #ariation %oc!sed

strongly on di%%!sion = the spread o% ling!istic #ariables o#er a restricted horizontal space as

in the work o% Tr!dgill abo# and others 9see ?ritain and 0heshire 2::3;. The concept!al

de#elopment o% space and time in s!ch st!dies is s!per%icial and this is where we see that the

Sa!ss!rean synchrony s!r#i#ed in modern socioling!istics. There is attention %or generational

transmission 9time; and distrib!tion o% #ariables in one locality or across localities s!ch as

cities regions or co!ntries 9space;. abo#(s %amo!s st!dies o% 'ew Oork 0ity 91; and o%

Martha(s Dineyard 9abo# 1/2; are classics in this trend. 0ontact ling!istics in the

meantime %oc!sed on the socioling!istic and ling!istic patterns res!lting %rom migration

90lyne 2::3; and patterns o% m!ltiling!alism res!lting %rom migrations also drew the

attention o% scholars 98+tra and Derhoe#en 1<;. *ne widespread problem with s!ch st!diesis that the people whose lang!age repertoires are st!died e#en i% they are migrants are

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H%i+ed( so to speak in space and time. The Sa!ss!rean synchrony was o% co!rse also a syn"

topy. The phenomenology o% migration and diaspora became an ob>ect o% theoretical

elaboration in c!lt!ral st!dies sociology and anthropology. S!rely in the conte+t o% recent

globalization processes notions s!ch as transc!lt!ral %lows transidiomaticity and

deterritorialisation made their way into mainstream social science 9-ppad!rai 1@ see also

Aac6!emet 2::&;. e now see that the mobility o% people also in#ol#es the mobility o%

ling!istic and socioling!istic reso!rces that Hsedentary( or Hterritorialized( patterns o%

lang!age !se are complemented by Htranslocal( or Hdeterritorialized( %orms o% lang!age !se

and that the combination o% both o%ten acco!nts %or !ne+pected socioling!istic e%%ects. The

possibility o% %re6!ent electronic contact with the co!ntry o% origin %or instance can generate

new %orms o% lang!age inno#ation 9and th!s contrib!te to lang!age maintenance; in diasporic

comm!nities@ small and marginal lang!ages can in the conte+t o% to!rism ac6!ire new and

!ne+pected %orms o% prestige 95eller 2::3;@ pop!lar c!lt!re s!ch as 5iphop or Eeggae can be

a #ehicle %or the worldwide dissemination o% partic!lar lang!age %orms 9,ennycook 2::/@

Eichardson 2::/; incl!ding new %orms o% literacy and message design 9Kress and #an

ee!wen 1;. -ll o% these dimensions o% mobility still collapse in concrete spaces where

act!al people li#e and interact with one another@ the str!ct!re o% people(s repertoires and the

patterns o% m!ltiling!al lang!age !se howe#er become less predictable and signi%icantly

more comple+ as we shall see below.

The !pshot o% these de#elopments is that we see two paradigms de#elop one

established and one emerging. The established paradigm is the sociolinguistics of distribution

as sketched abo#e in which mo#ement o% lang!age reso!rces is seen as mo#ement in a

horizontal and stable space and in chronological time@ within s!ch spaces #ertical

strati%ication can occ!r along lines o% class gender age social stat!s etc. The ob>ect o% st!dy

howe#er remains a Hsnapshot( in which things are in place so to speak. The second paradigm

can be called a sociolinguistics of mobility and it %oc!ses not on lang!age"in"place b!t on

lang!age"in"motion with #ario!s spatiotemporal %rames interacting with one another. S!ch

spatiotemporal %rames can be described as Hscales( and the ass!mption is that in an age o%

globalization lang!age patterns m!st be !nderstood as patterns that are organized on

di%%erent layered 9i.e. #ertical rather than horizontal; scale"le#els. -nd while a

socioling!istics o% distrib!tion is by and large concerned with Hlang!age( = ling!istically

de%ined ob>ects = a socioling!istics o% mobility is concerned with concrete resources. ,!t

more concisely it is a socioling!istics o% Hspeech( o% act!al lang!age reso!rces deployed inreal socioc!lt!ral historical and political conte+ts 95ymes 1 chapter 3;. 4 disc!ss this

13



topic more %!lly in the ne+t chapter. -ccess to and control o#er scales is !ne#enly distrib!ted

it is a matter o% power and ine6!ality as becomes clear when we consider typical reso!rces

%or access to higher 9i.e. non"local and non"sit!ationally speci%ic; scales s!ch as a

sophisticated standard lang!age #ariety or ad#anced m!ltimodal and m!ltiling!al literacy

skills.

This second paradigm o% co!rse %aces the challenge o% incorporating a more pro%o!nd

theoretical !nderstanding o% space. Space here is metaphorically seen as !ertical space as

layered and strati%ied space. 8#ery horizontal space 9e.g. a neighborhood a region or a

co!ntry; is also a #ertical space in which all sorts o% socially c!lt!rally and politically salient

distinctions occ!r. S!ch distinctions are inde$ical distinctions which pro>ect min!te ling!istic

di%%erences onto strati%ied patterns o% social c!lt!ral and political #al!e"attrib!tion. They

con#ert ling!istic and semiotic di%%erences into social ine6!alities and th!s represent the

Hnormati#e( dimensions o% sit!ated lang!age !se 9Sil#erstein 2::a@ -gha 2::/@ ?lommaert

2::&;. The strati%ied and ordered nat!re o% s!ch inde+ical processes 4 ha#e called by analogy

to Fo!ca!lt(s Horder o% disco!rse( orders of inde$icality 9?lommaert 2::& ; and e#ery

9horizontal; space is %illed with s!ch orders o% inde+icality = with strati%ied normati#e

comple+es that organize distinctions between on the one hand Hgood( Hnormal(

Happropriate( and Hacceptable( lang!age !se and on the other Hde#iant( Habnormal( etc.

lang!age !se. *rders o% inde+icality de%ine the dominant lines %or senses o% belonging %or

identities and roles in society and th!s !nderlie what Go%%man called the Hinteraction order( =

which is an inde$ical order 9Sil#erstein 2::3a@ -gha 2::/;. 4 ret!rn to this in the ne+t chapter.

Mo#ement o% people across space is there%ore ne#er a mo#e across empty spaces. The

spaces are always someone(s space and they are %illed with norms e+pectations conceptions

o% what co!nts as proper and normal 9inde+ical; lang!age !se and what does not co!nt as

s!ch. Mobility socioling!istically speaking is there%ore a tra>ectory thro!gh di%%erent

strati%ied controlled and monitored spaces in which lang!age Hgi#es yo! away(. ?ig and small

di%%erences in lang!age !se locate the speaker in partic!lar inde+ical and ascripti#e categories

9related to identity and role;. -s we learned %rom Aohn G!mperz( work 9e.g. 1<2; this is

rarely inconse6!ential. ?elow 4 introd!ce s!ch patterns o% mobility and their e%%ects on what

we !nderstand by socioling!istic di#ersity.

1.3. -lobalization, superi/ersity an multilingualism

Super-diversity

1$



The H#illages( traditionally addressed by socioling!ists ha#e changed. -s mentioned abo#e

the c!rrent globalization processes are best seen as part o% longer wider and deeper

globalization processes in which they represent a partic!lar stage o% de#elopment. That

de#elopment is real howe#er and changes in economic and technological in%rastr!ct!re ha#e

especially a%%ected whate#er we c!rrently !nderstand by mobility. Migration was long seen as

people emigrating and immigrating = that is a change in the spatial organization o% one(s li%e

in an end!ring way. ,eople le%t their co!ntry and settled in another. 4n that new co!ntry they

li#ed separated %rom their co!ntry o% origin perhaps 9b!t not necessarily; in ethnic

comm!nities. They took their lang!ages and other c!lt!ral belongings with them b!t the

separation %rom the land o% origin and the permanent nat!re o% migration was likely to bring

press!re to accommodate to the host society. - tradition o% st!dy emerged in estern host

societies on s!ch relati#ely isolated stable and residential immigrant gro!ps o%ten also

consisting o% large comm!nities %rom the same co!ntry or e#en region o% origin T!rks in

Germany -lgerians and est"-%ricans in France 0aribbeans and 8ast" or So!th"-sians in

?ritain.

The 1:s bro!ght a change in the nat!re and pro%ile o% migration to estern host

societies and Ste#en Derto#ec 92:: 1; s!mmarizes that process with respect to Great ?ritain

as %ollows

*#er the past ten years the nat!re o% immigration to ?ritain has bro!ght with it a

trans%ormati#e Hdi#ersi%ication o% di#ersity( not >!st in terms o% ethnicities and

co!ntries o% origin b!t also with respect to a #ariety o% signi%icant #ariables that a%%ect

where how and with whom people li#e.

These #ariables Derto#ec e+plains

incl!de a di%%erentiation in immigration stat!ses and their concomitant entitlements

and restrictions o% rights labo!r market e+periences gender and age pro%iles spatial

%actors and local area responses by ser#ice pro#iders and residents. 9L; The interplay

o% these %actors is what is meant here in s!mmary %ashion by the notion o% Hs!per"

di#ersity(.

1&



The new migrants typically settle in older immigrant neighborhoods which th!s de#elop into

a layered immigrant space where resident 9Hold(; immigrants o%ten rent spaces to newer more

temporary or transient gro!ps and where new segments o% the labor market are de#eloped.

Many o% the new immigrants li#e in economically and legally precario!s conditions and

many o% them are strongly dependent !pon in%ormal employment and solidarity networks

s!ch as ch!rches 9?lommaert et al 2::&@ ?lommaert 0ollins and Slembro!ck 2::&a 2::&b;.

The e+treme ling!istic di#ersity in s!ch neighborhoods generates comple+ m!ltiling!al

repertoires in which o%ten se#eral 9%ragments o%; Hmigrant( lang!ages and ling!a %rancae are

combined. -nd s!ch neighborhoods o%ten display a density o% mediating instit!tions s!ch as

wel%are and employment o%%ices as well as night shops money trans%er b!rea!s s!ch as

estern Cnion and = signi%icantly = telephone and 4nternet shops where international phone

calls and internet access are o%%ered at bargain prices.

S!per"di#ersity poses descripti#e as well as theoretical challenges. Bescripti#ely these

globalized neighborhoods appear chaotic and common ass!mptions abo!t the national

regional ethnic c!lt!ral or ling!istic stat!s o% the inhabitants o%ten pro#e to be !seless. The

pres!ppositions o% common integration policies = that we knew who the immigrants were and

that they wo!ld ha#e a shared lang!age and c!lt!re = can no longer be !pheld. 4n addition the

dense presence o% telephone and 4nternet shops show that e#en i% new migrants reside in one

partic!lar place they are capable o% maintaining intensi#e contacts with networks elsewhere

incl!ding o%ten their co!ntries o% origin. - b!rgeoning network o% satellite and 4nternet

pro#iders also allows them to %ollow 9and be in#ol#ed in; e#ents in their co!ntry o% origin and

to cons!me its media and c!lt!ral prod!cts. Their spatial organization conse6!ently is local

as well as translocal real as well as #irt!al = and all o% this has e%%ects on the str!ct!re and

de#elopment o% lang!age repertoires and patterns o% lang!age !se. Theoretically this stretches

the limits o% e+isting %rameworks %or analyzing and !nderstanding m!ltiling!alism and the

dynamics o% lang!age change. e can ill!strate the comple+ity o% these phenomena and

theoretical iss!es by looking at my own globalized neighborhood in ?erchem an inner"city

part o% -ntwerp ?elgi!m.

Multilingual repertoires and super-diversity

The repertoires o% new migrants o%ten appear to be Htr!ncated( 9?lommaert 0ollins and

Slembro!ck 2::&a@ see also section $.1 below; highly speci%ic Hbits( o% lang!age and literacy#arieties combine in a repertoire that re%lects the %ragmented and highly di#erse li%e"

1



tra>ectories and en#ironments o% s!ch people. Th!s recent est"-%rican 9e.g. 'igerian;

immigrants in ?erchem can combine one or more -%rican lang!ages with a est"-%rican

indigenized 8nglish which can be !sed with some interloc!tors in the neighborhood and

wo!ld be the medi!m o% comm!nication d!ring weekly worship sessions in a new e#angelical

ch!rch in the neighborhood. 8nglish howe#er is not part o% the repertoire o% most other

immigrants in the neighborhood. Most o% the shops %or instance wo!ld be owned by T!rkish

or Moroccan people who wo!ld o%ten !se #ernac!lar %orms o% German or French as

Hemergency( ling!a %ranca. Th!s when a 'igerian woman goes to b!y bread in a T!rkish"

owned bakery the code %or cond!cting the transaction wo!ld %or both be a clearly non"nati#e

and #ery limited #ariety o% local #ernac!lar B!tch mi+ed with some 8nglish respecti#ely

German words. 4n the phone shops #ernac!lar 8nglish wo!ld ha#e slightly more c!rrency

beca!se the phone shops wo!ld typically be r!n by people %rom 4ndia or ,akistan. 'ote

howe#er that the partic!lar #arieties o% 8nglish spoken in s!ch transactions wo!ld be #ery

di%%erent none wo!ld be Hstandard( each #ariety wo!ld re%lect in%ormal patterns o%

ac6!isition and an !neasiness in !se.

The B!tch !sed in the bakery is a minimal in%ormally ac6!ired small Hbit( o%

lang!age a specialized lang!age skill limited to speci%ic domains o% interactions and shows

signi%icant limitations compared to %l!ent speakers. 4t is ins!%%icient %or s!ccess%!l

comm!nication in instit!tional enco!nters b!rea!cratic proced!res are in standard and

literate #arieties o% B!tch typically #arieties that are associated with %ormal ac6!isition

e%%orts. Th!s when a 'igerian woman goes to her da!ghter(s school %or cons!ltation on the

child(s progress she wo!ld ha#e to re#ert to her non"nati#e 8nglish. This wo!ld then be met

by a ?elgian"Flemish #ariety o% 8nglish %rom the teachers and the interaction is typically less

than smooth. The medi!m o% comm!nication between mother and child wo!ld be a mi+ed

code o%ten blending !ne#enly distrib!ted ch!nks o% B!tch and 8nglish. 'at!rally the child

d!e to its immersion in a %ormal lang!age learning en#ironment wo!ld ha#e access to more

elaborate #arieties o% standard and local #ernac!lar B!tch and wo!ld o%ten ha#e to assist the

mother and the teacher in comm!nication attempts. This importantly points towards another

pec!liarity o% lang!age in s!ch neighborhoods the %act that lang!age tasks o%ten in#ol#e

collaborati!e %or& . ,eople wo!ld call on others or others wo!ld #ol!nteer to translate and

assist in comm!nication. This is not only the case %or tasks that in#ol#e literacy@ it can also be

noticed in %ace"to"%ace enco!nters. ,eople #ery o%ten pool their competences and skills in

partic!lar lang!ages when they ha#e to accomplish demanding comm!nication tasks.

1/



-t home the 'igerian %amily wo!ld ha#e access to tele#ision and the choice wo!ld

go to 8nglish"medi!m channels s!ch as ??0 orld or MTD with an occasional %oray o%ten

initiated by the children into B!tch"medi!m children(s programs. There wo!ld be a #ery low

le#el o% cons!mption o% local printed mass"media and access to printed so!rces %rom 'igeria

wo!ld be restricted. -t the same time telephone contacts in the nati#e lang!ages wo!ld be

maintained with people back home and %ellow migrants %rom the same region o% origin now

li#ing in ?r!ssels ondon or ,aris. *ccasionally there wo!ld be m!t!al #isits d!ring which

the -%rican regional lang!age can be the medi!m o% comm!nication among ad!lts while the

children re#ert to #ernac!lar %orms o% 8nglish to interact with each other. Their e+pos!re to

ed!cation en#ironments in which di%%erent lang!ages are the medi!m o% instr!ction = B!tch

and French %or instance = constrains the !se o% any other lang!age.

Th!s we see #ery %ragmented and Hincomplete( = Htr!ncated( = lang!age repertoires

most o% which consists o% spoken #ernac!lar and non"nati#e #arieties o% di%%erent lang!ages

with an o#erlay o% di%%erentially de#eloped literacy skills in one or some lang!ages

9depending on the le#el o% literacy at the time o% migration;. e also see how many

comm!nication tasks are accomplished collaborati#ely by combining the reso!rces and skills

o% se#eral people. The partic!lar patterns o% s!ch repertoires are di%%ic!lt to establish in detail

= here is the descripti#e challenge. Eepertoires s!ch as those re6!ire close inspection@ chapter

$ below addresses this iss!e more %!lly. The socioling!istic world o% these people is strictly

local 9the neighborhood; as well as widely translocal 9in#ol#ing the network o% %ellow

migrants elsewhere comm!nication with people back home and the media;. -nd internally

we see #ariation in lang!age repertoires in which ad!lts ha#e di%%erent repertoires than

children@ %ellow migrants %rom the same region now li#ing elsewhere ha#e di%%erent

repertoires as well.

The local en#ironment o% these migrants is ab!ndantly m!ltiling!al. Since 'igerians

are a #ery small minority their lang!ages are in#isible in the p!blic space. The older resident

comm!nities = T!rks and Moroccans = do p!blicly display the %ormal literate aspects o% their

m!ltiling!alism. e see -rabic and T!rkish displayed in shops and on posters anno!ncing

c!lt!ral or political e#ents. S!ch p!blic lang!age displays can inde+ the size and the degree o%

solidi%ication o% partic!lar immigrant comm!nities. Th!s -lbanian posters ha#e recently

beg!n to appear indicating the e+istence o% a well"organized and resident -lbanian migrant

comm!nity in ?elgi!m. Gro!ps that ha#e not yet achie#ed that le#el o% stability and #isibility

re#ert to highly !nstable %orms o% written lang!age mi+ing 8nglish and B!tch and betrayingnon"nati#e pron!nciation o% words as the display o% rates in phone shops ill!strates 9%ig!re 1;.

1<



They are also addressed by %!lly globalized signs in 9near"; Standard 8nglish ad#ertising

ser#ices s!ch as money trans%er 9%ig!re 2; that cater to speci%ic needs o% recent and

economically #!lnerable immigrants.

9F4GCE8 1 58E8@ 0-,T4*' H-BD8EST4S8M8'T *F T58 E-T8S 4' - ,5*'8

S5*,(;

9F4GCE8 2 58E8@ 0-,T4*' HM*'8O TE-'SF8E -BD8ET4S8M8'T(;

9F4GCE8 3 58E8@ 0-,T4*' H4-E 05-''8(;

The !ne#en distrib!tion o% lang!age reso!rces #iz. degrees o% p!blic legitimacy o%

lang!ages and o% patterns o% access to lang!age reso!rces becomes clear when we e+amine

%ig!re 3 %or e+ample where we see how someone changed the name o% a large transnational

ad#ertisement b!rea! called H0lear 0hannel( to Hiar 0hannel( on a billboard. This is a play%!l

lang!age act a case o% Hl!dic( 8nglish 9,ennycook 2::/ 3:%%; re#ealing ad#anced

competence in 8nglish and in literacy as well as a partic!lar critical political stance. hen we

compare %ig!re 3 with %ig!re 1 we see how strongly the le#els o% literacy and command o%

lang!age #arieties di%%er within one topographically delineated comm!nity. The reason is

historical and has to do with the partic!lar social and c!lt!ral mi+ o% the neighborhood which

has o% late also seen an in%l!+ o% ed!cated middle"class nati#e ?elgians attracted by

a%%ordable ho!sing prices. These latter people ha#e typically had access to prestige #arieties o%

lang!age and prestige %orms o% m!ltiling!alism = Standard B!tch and Standard literate

8nglish. Th!s highly ad#anced m!ltiling!al repertoires can be displayed alongside #ery

incomplete ones and the general pict!re is one o% e+treme mi+edness. 4t is conse6!ently

hard to identi%y the Hdominant( lang!age in the neighborhood. Dernac!lar %orms o% B!tch

wo!ld probably ha#e the widest local c!rrency@ at the same time #ario!s lang!ages point

inwards as well as o!twards to local comm!nities and small networks in the neighborhood as

well as to translocal and transnational networks that ha#e their Hh!b( in the neighborhood.

ang!ages and lang!age #arieties operate and ha#e #alidity at partic!lar scale le#els %rom the

strictly local to the strictly global with all sorts o% intermediate scale"le#els in between. 4n o!r

e+ample the weekly worship session in the 8#angelical ch!rch gathers se#eral h!ndreds o%

people and so creates a translocal b!t locally anchored scale"le#el. -nd the occasional #isits

%rom and to %ellow immigrants also creates a local"translocal scale le#el. 8ach time elementso% the repertoires will ha#e to be mobilized beca!se the di%%erent criss"crossing scales answer

1



to di%%erent norms and e+pectations. - lang!age #ariety that is good eno!gh to per%orm

ade6!ately d!ring the worship session is not necessarily good eno!gh %or b!ying bread in the

bakery or %or talking to the schoolteacher.

Stratified distribution

4% we now try to s!mmarize some o% the elements disc!ssed so %ar we see that a

socioling!istic analysis o% s!ch globalization phenomena cannot proceed on the basis o%

common notions o% distrib!tion. First %hat is distrib!ted is not easily de%ined %or we are

ne#er >!st talking abo!t lang!ages b!t always abo!t highly speci%ic lang!age reso!rces 9the

Hlittle bits( o% lang!age 4 re%erred to earlier;. Second ho% these reso!rces are distrib!ted also

re6!ires a le+icon and imagery o% considerable comple+ity %or there is no H%lat( distrib!tion

no >!+taposition o% partic!lar reso!rces. e see a range o% densely layered stratified

distribution patterns in which the partic!lar speci%ic lang!age reso!rces are deployed 9and

deployable; on partic!lar scale"le#els and not on others@ what is #alid in one sit!ation is not

#alid in another. 4 ret!rn to the iss!e o% scales in greater detail in the ne+t chapter. The point

here is some reso!rces will allow mobility across sit!ations and scale"le#els. ,restige

#arieties o% lang!age s!ch as Standard B!tch %or instance wo!ld ha#e c!rrency across a wide

range o% sit!ations@ the same goes %or prestige and literate #arieties o% 8nglish. These are

high"mobility reso!rces. *thers = think o% the -%rican lang!ages spoken by o!r 'igerian

s!b>ects = ha#e #ery little in the way o% mobility potential. Their range is largely con%ined to

the ad!lts in the %amily and the wider network and to some restricted !se with the children.

*!tside these sit!ations these lang!ages ha#e no potential %or !se. 4nstit!tionally they are

o%ten not e#en recognized as lang!ages.

The key to !nderstanding this comple+ pattern is %hat counts as language in partic!lar

conte+ts what is rati%ied and recognized as a #alid code %or making onesel% !nderstood. The

key is in other words the inde$ical !alue that particular linguistic resources ha!e in certain

spaces and sit!ations. 4n highly comple+ neighborhoods s!ch as the one 4 disc!ssed here

comple+ and tr!ncated repertoires can ha#e s!ch #alidity at least to the e+tent that partic!lar

ingredients o% the repertoires are mapped onto partic!lar micro"en#ironments networks or

sit!ations. 0onse6!ently migrants are o%ten con%ronted with sit!ations in which the

socioling!istic and comm!nicati#e re6!irements stretch their repertoires and comple+ patterns

o% shi%ting and mi+ing occ!r. -s we shall see in the %ollowing chapters con#entional

2:



treatments o% s!ch patterns o% shi%ting and mi+ing 9%or instance code"switching( where

Hcodes( are !nderstood as arte%act!alized lang!ages; %ail to do >!stice to their comple+ity.

The main parameters %or the e+ercise ha#e now been sketched and 4 am almost ready

to engage the challenge 4 described earlier. Since as noted abo#e 4 am >oining an emerging

tradition o% work on lang!age and globalization and it is good to take stock o% part o% the

rele#ant scholarship.

1.!. The start of a traition

The term globalization is most commonly !sed as shorthand %or the intensi%ied %lows o%

capital goods people images and disco!rses aro!nd the globe dri#en by technological

inno#ations mainly in the %ield o% media and in%ormation and comm!nication technology and

res!lting in new patterns o% global acti#ity comm!nity organization and c!lt!re 90astells

1@ -ppad!rai 1;. ?eing shorthand %or highly comple+ %orms o% mobility the term th!s

obsc!res important distinctions. 5owe#er %ailing to note them may res!lt in con%!sion o#er

what e+actly o!r ob>ect is.

4n the opening chapter o% his Age of "mpire 5obsbawm asks how the world o% the

1<<:s co!ld be compared with that o% the 1/:s@ his answer is PiQn the %irst place it was

now gen!inely globalN 95obsbawm 1</ 13;. 4n e%%ect the 1th cent!ry was the era o%

globalization and 5obsbawm act!ally !ses the term globalization %or the process o% capitalist

e+pansion and deepening described in his Age of Capital 91</ 1$n;. This period coincides

with what allerstein co#ers in his analysis o% the de#elopment o% the modern world"system

characterized by a geoc!lt!reN drawing on 8nlightenment and capitalist #al!es and mass

politics 9allerstein 2::$ especially chapter $;. -ccording to allerstein this modern world"

system has been in crisis since the late 1:s and the phenomena we c!rrently call

Hglobalization( 9with economic delocalization the destabilization o% old social str!ct!res new

migrations growing gaps between rich and poor and Hterrorism(; are %eat!res o% that crisis.

The point is that globalization cannot e%%ecti#ely be !nderstood when it is de"historicized or

in allerstein(s own terms

4% we look at globalization and terrorism as phenomena that are de%ined in limited time

and scope we tend to arri#e at concl!sions that are as ephemeral as the newspapers.

?y and large we are not then able to !nderstand the meaning o% these phenomena

21



their origins their tra>ectory and most importantly where they %it in the larger scheme

o% things. 9allerstein 2::$ i+;

This slow and deep process o% globalization can be called geopolitical globalization. 4t a%%ects

the deep social political and economic %abric o% societies and it is an old process. There is o%

co!rse another sense in which we c!rrently !se the term globalization. This latter sense can

be called geocultural globalization. 4t re%ers to more recent de#elopments %ithin

globalization largely an e%%ect o% the emergence o% new comm!nication technologies

increasing and intensi%ied global capitalist processes o% acc!m!lation and di#ision o% labor

increased and intensi%ied global ine6!alities res!lting in new migration %lows 9in t!rn

res!lting in s!per"di#ersity in metropolitan areas;. These geoc!lt!ral globalization processes

de#elop within a narrower time"%rame and as 5obsbawm(s earlier obser#ation tells !s their

scope speed and intensity do not correlate those o% geopolitical globalization. S!ch

geoc!lt!ral globalization processes ha#e been impressi#ely doc!mented by e.g. 0astells

91; and -ppad!rai 91;@ b!t while they do a%%ect the str!ct!re and %abric o% social

systems there is #ery little fundamentally new to them. Be#elopments in mass

comm!nication systems %or instance ha#e their precedents. ,eople in earlier ages had similar

%eelings o% re#ol!tionary newness when the telegraph telephone radio or tele#ision became

part o% their world and the in#ention o% book printing may ha#e been the biggest re#ol!tion o%

that kind. 8ach time s!ch de#elopments a%%ected the way people comm!nicated tho!ght

organized themsel#es and acted. The c!rrent globalization phase is there%ore another stage o%

de#elopment %ithin globalization = e#en i% this is perhaps the %irst stage that has recei#ed the

name o% Hglobalization( 9-rrighi 1/;. This stage is interesting eno!gh partic!larly in the

%ield o% lang!age where we see how these new geoc!lt!ral processes a%%ect socioling!istic

patterns o% lang!age in society the emergence o% new m!ltimodal %orms o% comm!nication

9Kress and Dan ee!wen 1; and s!per"di#erse patterns o% !rban m!ltiling!alism. ?!t it is

good to !nderstand that s!ch processes and the time"%rame in which they occ!r can only be

!nderstood as part o% larger slower and more pro%o!nd changes in society.

4n the %ield o% lang!age we are witnessing the modest beginnings o% a tradition o%

scholarship that addresses globalization. 4 will brie%ly re#iew three recent books that address

each in their own way aspects o% lang!age in globalization. This re#iew will 4 hope

demonstrate some o% the concept!al iss!es and di%%ic!lties in#ol#ed in this e+ercise as well as

allow me to sketch my own agenda in this book. 4 will disc!ss 'orman Fairclo!gh(s Language and Globalization 9Fairclo!gh 2::; %ollowed by o!is"Aean 0al#et(s 'o%ards an

22



"cology of (orld Languages 90al#et 2::; and -lastair ,ennycook(s Global "nglishes and

'ranscultural )lo%s 9,ennycook 2::/;. 8ach o% these books e+plicitly addresses

globalization as a topic and %ramework o% analysis b!t each o% them addresses it %rom a

di%%erent angle and perspecti#e.

Fairclo!gh(s Language and Globalization is an ambitio!s attempt to bring critical

disco!rse analysis to bear on globalization. The problem howe#er is that it addresses

geopolitical globalization within the time"%rame o% geoc!lt!ral globalization. The

globalization Fairclo!gh e+amines starts apparently in 11 when the 0old ar ended. 8#en

i% in his concl!sion he warns his readers that globalization is not 9L; a phenomenon which

de#eloped in the last decades o% the twentieth cent!ryN adding that we now witness >!st a

distincti#e contemporary s!rge in globalization associated especially with inno#ations in

comm!nications and in%ormation technologyN 9Fairclo!gh 2::13; this wider horizon is

ne#er addressed in the book. hat is addressed and gi#en %oc!s is H globalizm* the neo"

liberal #ersion o% post"0old ar globalization propagated by Eeagan Thatcher and their

%ollowers. 4t is a highly speci%ic and #ery restricted de#elopment within globalization. This

neo"liberal globalizm takes the shape o% widely disseminated disco!rses s!ch as those o%

9Hestern(; management techni6!es re"scaling processes an intensi%ied e%%ect o% mass

mediated comm!nication and a global ar on Terror. Fairclo!gh analyzes these distinctly

recent phenomena mainly in relation to the c!rrent sit!ation in Eomania a co!ntry awaiting

membership o% the 8C and there%ore ca!ght in a process o% transition to neoliberal globalizm.

The line he %ollows is %amiliar to those ac6!ainted with Fairclo!gh(s oe!#re.

Fairclo!gh acc!rately locates the processes to be considered at the le#el o% disco!rse not

lang!age. There are new te+ts and genres@ these te+ts and genres point towards new

disco!rses and relations between disco!rses and these in t!rn point towards social change.

Th!s Hnew( managerial genres s!ggest historical breaks and discontin!ities and the te+ts he

analyzes s!ggest a historical discontin!ity which he calls globalization. There is a serio!s

theoretical %law in this line o% arg!ment beca!se it leads to a Hsnapshot( approach to history

all o% this looks or so!nds Hnew( so it m!st be new. -nd the disc!rsi#e no#elty is then

pro>ected onto social systems as if a fundamental discursi!e change necessarily presupposes

a fundamental social change. *bser#able interte+t!ality becomes a s!bstit!te %or history here

a cr!cial methodological %law in m!ch critical disco!rse analysis. This %law becomes clear

when Fairclo!gh e+amines Hre"scaling( processes in Eomania 9chapter $;. 4n Fairclo!gh(s

interpretation Hscale( is essentially spatial scope and the Hre"scaling( o% Eomania meansro!ghly that Eomania now becomes part o% a larger comple+ the 8C. The arg!ment here is

23



social systems within Eomania now !ndergo in%l!ences %rom the 8C. This can be seen in the

appearance o% new Hmanagerial( disco!rses and in the implementation o% the ?ologna

Beclaration in 8!ropean higher ed!cation. For Fairclo!gh this is a new process@ he pre%aces

his analysis with the statement that PcQontemporary globalization is also associated with the

constr!ction o% other scales than the global scaleN s!ch as the macro"regionalN scale o% the

8C 9id. $;. H0ontemporary( here stands %or the post"11 world order and Eomania is re"

scaled %rom a nation"state scale le#el to a Hmacro"regional( one.

Eomania o% co!rse has been re"scaled be%ore in the sense o% being made part o%

larger spatial !nits. The 0old ar had its own global str!ct!res in which the arsaw ,act

was as m!ch a Hmacro"regional( scale le#el as the 8!ropean Cnion 98C; and the 0omintern

was as globalized an instit!tion as the *rganzation %or 8conomic 0o"operation and

Be#elopment 9*80B;. Th!s the re"scaling trans%ormations in Eomanian higher ed!cation

cannot possibly be new or !ni6!e@ the higher scale"le#el has always e+isted beca!se 9as

5obsbawm and allerstein ne#er %ail to remind !s; in the modern world"system no nation"

state has been completely isolated. Th!s the c!rrent re"scaling process is not abo!t the

introduction o% a new scale"le#el b!t a change in the operational structure o% that same scale

le#el. The appearance o% the term Hinternational conte+t( in a man!al %rom the Cni#ersity o%

?!charest is not there%ore the te+t!ring o% ne% scalar relationsN 9id.//;@ it is nothing more

than a change in what Hinternational conte+t( means a reorientation o% that scale"le#el away

%rom the pre#io!s 0omm!nist international conte+t to the 8C. 4n other words there is #ery

little real %!ndamental re"scaling going on@ there is a trans%ormation o% the %ace o% the scales

and o% the practices and disco!rses they in#ol#e. ,ro%o!nd disc!rsi#e trans%ormation does not

%lag pro%o!nd social"str!ct!ral trans%ormation here. 4t %lags relati#ely s!per%icial c!lt!ral

political and ideological trans%ormations part o% the geoc!lt!ral globalization processes

mentioned earlier. The conse6!ence o% this con%!sion is that Fairclo!gh claims to say

something abo!t geopolitical globalization while in act!al %act he is talking abo!t geoc!lt!ral

globalization. 5e does this by committing a #ery common error to merge the real processes

o% economic globalizationN with the ways in which they are represented disc!rsi#ely 9id.&;.

The real processes to be s!re are longit!dinal while the patterns o% representation 9incl!ding

the !se o% the #ery term globalization; are recent inno#ations and there is a con%!sion o% long

and short histories here.

The Hsnapshot( approach has two #ery negati#e e%%ects apart %rom descripti#e and

interpreti#e distortions s!ch as those abo!t re"scaling Eomania. *ne is the stereotyping o%contemporary globalization processes as %!ndamentally and shockingly new things = as i% the

2$



world we now li#e in is a totally new one. 4t isn(t. The second e%%ect is related to that the de"

historization o% the contemporary 9Hglobalized(; world is part o% globalizm as an ideology as

%amo!sly proclaimed in F!k!yama(s 912; 'he "nd of +istory. F!k!yama(s arg!ment was

that the end o% the 0old war marked the end o% modern history characterized by ideological

and economic competition between systems. The end o% the 0old ar marked the beginning

o% a new world order in which 9neo"liberal; capitalism and 9-merican style; democracy were

uni!ersal 9also in the sense o% Hnat!ral(;. The message was %orget abo!t history prior to 11

do not look %or histories o% systemic de#elopment they are pointless. Th!s whene#er we let

the history o% globalization begin with the ad#ent o% the 4nternet or with Eeagan and Thatcher

we b!y into this end"o%"history claim th!s into globalizm. 0onse6!ently we tend to arri#e at

concl!sions that are as ephemeral as the newspapersN as allerstein predicted.

- lesson to be learned %rom this is that when disc!ssing globalization one has to be

precise with respect to the historical %raming o% the phenomena one e+amines. -s noted

earlier globalization is not one process b!t a comple+ o% processes e#ol#ing and de#eloping

at di%%erent scale"le#els with di%%erences in scope speed and intensity. Fairclo!gh %oc!ses

strongly on relati#ely recent and s!per%icial processes which he then con%!ses with the larger

and deeper processes. 'ot so with o!is"Aean 0al#et whose "cology of (orld Languages

takes !s to the other e+treme = to a timeless and macroscopic world a gala+y o% globalized

lang!ages.

Cnlike Fairclo!gh 0al#et does not attempt to analyze concrete instances o% globalized

lang!age !se. 4nstead he %oc!ses on the way lang!ages operate in today(s world a pattern

which he describes as an Hecosystem( or e#en a worldwide Hgra#itational system( with

di%%erent lang!ages being Hconstellations( de%ined by their relations with other lang!ages and

by their %!nctions in the Hmilie!(. Th!s certain lang!ages may be more central others more

peripheral in the gala+y the gra#itational %orce o% which is instantiated by the e+istence o%

biling!al speakers. 8ach lang!age possesses a H#alency( a capacity to pop!late a larger or

smaller n!mber o% milie!s and to transport itsel% into other milie!s. -nd th!s we get

Hperipheral lang!ages( Hcentral lang!ages( 9within one constellation; Hs!per"central

lang!ages( and Hhyper"central lang!ages( 9between constellations and gala+ies;. 8cosystems

prod!ce the materials they need to retain a balance = the principle o% homeostasis. ing!istic

ecosystems are in constant %l!+ as creoles and dialect contin!a e+empli%y and changes in the

ecosystem will trigger changes in lang!ages and in their relati#e position #is"R"#is one

another. These dynamics are the point where lang!age practices and representations o%lang!ages come into the pict!re the di%%erent ecological and gra#itational %orces also operate

2&



at the le#el o% lang!age"in"practice and there is a politics o% !se and representation that

in%orms the process.

0al#et to be s!re contrib!tes a whole set o% new metaphors to the %ield o% lang!age

and globalization. 5is book is replete with an appealing imagery o% lang!ages in orbit aro!nd

one another adapting to changing circ!mstances grad!ally changing position and so on. The

basic metaphors = those o% ecosystems and o% gala+ies = ha#e been employed elsewhere with

#arying s!ccess 9we can think o% Mhlh!sler 1 and de Swaan 2::1; and while they help

!s imagine large macroscopic comple+es o% ob>ects their de%inition o% the ob>ects itsel% is

!s!ally shallow. 0al#et(s attempt rarely transcends the le#el o% Hlang!age( = o% nameable and

co!ntable things like HFrench( H5indi( or H8nglish(. The point we took %rom Fairclo!gh that

globalization processes are discursi!e and conse6!ently operate at s!b"lang!age le#els s!ch as

register genre or style is absent %rom 0al#et(s disc!ssion. -lso absent is any consideration o%

real histories o% real social %ormations in time and space = there is to stretch 0al#et(s own

metaphors no theory o% the ?ig ?ang in his description o% socioling!istic gala+ies. ang!ages

appear here as completely isolated items as ob>ects circling aro!nd one another in a galactic

#oid not in real social c!lt!ral political and economic spaces. The notion o% homeostasis

does not o%%er m!ch analytic p!rchase either. ike so many ecological metaphors it restricts

itsel% to claiming that there is perpet!al and ine#itable change. The engines and agents o% s!ch

change and changes in s!ch engines and agents are not disc!ssed. There are cases %or

instance where the H9s!per";central lang!age( changed witho!t m!ch e%%ect on the smaller

lang!ages think o% the change %rom German to 8nglish as lang!age o% colonization in

Tanzania a%ter orld ar 4 or o% the more recent change %rom French to 8nglish in Ma!riti!s

9M!%wene 2::& 2::<;. 0al#et(s book th!s instantiates a partic!lar genre o% writing on

globalization one that tries to generalize a"historically abo!t the %orces that go#ern this

globalized world and prod!ces elo6!ent and appealing imageries to that e%%ect. 4 disting!ished

between geopolitical and geoc!lt!ral globalization processes abo#e@ 0al#et let !s say

disc!sses globalization in geological terms. The imagery is not a description howe#er b!t a

generalizing metaphor and th!s necessarily something that e+cl!des detail contradiction and

comple+ity. *ne can borrow the metaphors to achie#e partic!lar aesthetic and rhetorical aims

b!t the analysis still remains to be done.

So 0al#et o%%ers !s a theory o% the in%initely big and timeless aspects o% lang!age in

globalization one can say. -ltho!gh one co!ld e6!ally say it does not tell m!ch abo!t

globalization %or lang!ages are abstracted and e+tracted %rom their real Hecological( habitat%rom the real socioc!lt!ral political and economic globalized world o% which they are part

2



and in which they operate. 4t does howe#er emphasize the need to keep an eye on the bigger

pict!re in which socioling!istic globalization e#ol#es = a point 4 take on board = and he also

stresses the need to see s!ch processes as inherently political as a global politics o% lang!age

= a point 4 also take on board.

-lastair(s ,ennycook(s Global "nglishes and 'ranscultural )lo%s does a %ar better

>ob. hile we saw con%!sion abo!t what e+actly was !nderstood by globalization in

Fairclo!gh(s work and a #ac!!m s!rro!nding lang!age in 0al#et(s ,ennycook artic!lates

6!ite sharply what he !nderstands by socioling!istic globalization and he ade6!ately %ills the

space in which his Hhyper"central( lang!age 98nglish; mo#es. ,ennycook opens by acc!rately

obser#ing that an analysis o% contemporary socioling!istic globalization processes re6!ires a

di%%erent set o% theoretical and methodological tools and he opts %or a series o% Htrans("

approaches 9Htransc!lt!ral( Htransidiomatic( Htranslocal( Htransdisciplinary( Htransling!al(

Htranste+t!al(; rather than %or Hpost(" Hinter(" or Hm!lti(" approaches in an attempt to do away

with the legacies o% modernist tho!ght on lang!age 9and th!s constr!cting a post"modern or

sho!ld we say Htrans"modern( theoretical %ramework;. 8stablished notions s!ch as

Hlang!age( Hc!lt!re( or Hplace( are not !se%!l in an analysis o% ob>ects that are necessarily

mi+ed hybrid local as well as delocalized 9or delocalizable; dynamic and !nstable. These

ob>ects are moreo#er not >!st Hling!istic(. The bits o% lang!age that are globalized are e6!ally

bits o% c!lt!re and society. That means that they always become part o% the local while they

are part o% the global and at the end o% global processes o% semiotic rearrangement we ha#e

local !sage and ab!se o% socioling!istic reso!rces.

This is where we see how in ,ennycook(s attempt the space o% globalization is %illed

not empty like in 0al#et(s treatment in order to !nderstand lang!age globalization we need

to look at larger semiotic and c!lt!ral packages and a p!rely synchronic analysis will not do.

The packages need to be looked at historically in their histories o% becoming partic!lar signs

and dynamically in their !se !ptake and re"!se se6!ences. ike Fairclo!gh and to a lesser

e+tent 0al#et ,ennycook emphasises the political and critical nat!re o% s!ch work

thro!gho!t. 0onsidering globalization phenomena in#ol#es an engagement with power

misrecognition and recognition social >!stice and empowerment.

5iphop 9,ennycook(s main target o% analysis; is a case in point. 4t is a m!ltimodal 9or

better transmodal; semiotics o% m!sic lyrics mo#ements and dress that artic!lates political

and s!b"c!lt!ral anti"hegemonic rebellion as well as aesthetics a philosophy o% li%e and a

partic!lar range o% identities@ that has its origins in the CS inner cities among -%rican"-merican yo!ths b!t has spread all o#er the world and appears e#erywhere in a recognizable

2/



%orm in spite o% #ery signi%icant local di%%erences. 5iphop artists all o#er the world !se

similar patterns o% semiotic cond!ct 9incl!ding the !se o% 8nglish stock terms and

e+pressions; b!t where#er it occ!rs 5iphop o%%ers new potential %or local identity %ormation

9see also Eichardson 2::/;. hat happens with 5iphop is there%ore the global spread o%

a!thenticityN 9,ennycook 2::/ %%; not >!st a %lat distrib!tion o% c!lt!ral %orms b!t a

layered distrib!tion in which local %orces are as important as global ones. There is always a

comp!lsion not only to make hip"hop locally rele#ant b!t also to de%ine locally what

a!thenticity meansN 9id. <; and while many Hglobal( 9incl!ding 8nglish; %eat!res o% 5iphop

are adopted in this search %or a!thenticity many others are re>ected as well and alongside the

globalized -%rican"-merican 8nglish 5iphop register we o%ten see the emergence o% similar

registers in the local lang!ages as well sometimes 9like in Tanzania; leading to a new

localized %!lly"%ledged #ernac!lar 5iphop tradition.

This is o% co!rse a strong criti6!e o% pop!lar theses abo!t 8nglish ling!istic

imperialism 9,hillipson 12@ Sk!tnabb"Kangas 2:::; and 4 ret!rn to this topic in the ne+t

chapter and elsewhere in the book. Eather than disc!ssing the s!b>ect matter in terms o%

totalizing dominance replacement and !prooting ,ennycook arg!es that global c!lt!re needs

to be seen in terms o% circles o% %lowN 92::/ 122; large networks in which highly di#erse

%orms circ!late and are e+changed and which can o#erlap and blend together. There is th!s

not one Hcentre( %or 5iphop e#en i% its !rban -%rican"-merican origins strongly s!ggest one

b!t m!ltiple o#erlapping circles in which >oint %orms and modes o% cond!ct can %low and be

meaning%!l. This point needs to be taken on board and 4 de#elop it %!rther in the ne+t chapter

in the %orm o% polycentricity 9c%. also ?lommaert 0ollins and Slembro!ck 2::&b;. 4t is o%

signi%icance beca!se it helps to p!ll !s away %rom !ni%ied and !ni%ying #isions o%

globalization noticeable in Fairclo!gh(s book as well as in 0al#et(s and to %oc!s instead on

socioling!istic globalization as a che6!ered layered comple+ o% processes e#ol#ing

sim!ltaneo!sly at a #ariety o% scales and in re%erence to a #ariety o% centers. -t the same time

9and this is where ,ennycook remains silent; the interplay o% scales and centers re6!ires a

historical perspecti#e. The origins o% 5iphop are in%l!ences o% a di%%erent order than those

coming %rom the local en#ironments in which it is prod!ced the %ormer are more end!ring

and static than the latter " elements o% stability e+changeability and recognizability in a wildly

di#erse set o% %orms. Ee%erences in the lyrics to race or gender are also o% a di%%erent order

than re%erences to local politicians or radio stations. These orders 4 arg!e are historical orders

that prod!ce scale"le#els in semiotic cond!ct.

2<



The three books re#iewed here all ha#e their merits. Fairclo!gh !se%!lly draws o!r

attention to the %act that we sho!ld not look at lang!age b!t at disco!rse when we consider

socioling!istic globalization processes. e will ha#e to %oc!s on genres registers styles

rather than on lang!ages. This to some e+tent will deny !s the com%ort o% the clarity o% names

s!ch as "nglish or )rench b!t so be it. 0al#et emphasizes the global politics o% lang!age the

%act that lang!ages operate in relation to one another and occ!py di%%erent 9political; positions

to one another. ,ennycook stresses the inade6!acy o% established concept!al tools in

addressing the comple+ities o% socioling!istic globalization. 5e also stresses 9like Fairclo!gh;

the critical importance o% care%!l attention to these phenomena and he demolished the image

o% globalization as a !ni%ied and !ni%ying process. -ll o% these insights in%orm my disc!ssion

here. -t the same time we also saw rec!rrent concept!al problems in all three notably in

relation to the historical dimension o% globalization processes. This has led to con%!sion o#er

Hglobalization( itsel% in Fairclo!gh(s work to a less than !se%!l abstraction o% lang!age in

0al#et(s work and to silence on the historicity o% the processes o% globalization in

,ennycook(s work.

1.#. The challenge again

This book proposes a socioling!istics o% globalization not the socioling!istics o%

globalization. 4t is a modest attempt at bringing together materials and b!ilding blocks %or a

paradigmatically di%%erent approach to lang!age in society in the present age and it b!ilds on

the sho!lders o% others some o% whose work 4 ha#e >!st gi#en attention. 4 cannot promise that

4 will o%%er sol!tions to all the problems 4 enco!ntered in the work o% others b!t 4(ll gi#e it my

best shot. Some o% the main lines o% my attempt ha#e been sketched already. 4 categorically

opt %or a socioling!istics o% reso!rces not o% lang!ages and mobility is a central theoretical

concern in this socioling!istics o% reso!rces.

Mobility is the great challenge the dislocation o% lang!age and lang!age e#ents %rom

the %i+ed position in time and space attrib!ted to them by a more traditional ling!istics and

socioling!istics 9the Sa!ss!rean synchrony; that is what will ca!se the paradigm shi%t we are

c!rrently witnessing to achie#e s!ccess. 4t is the insertion o% lang!age in a specter o% h!man

action which is not de%ined p!rely in relation to temporal and spatial location b!t in terms o%

temporal and spatial tra>ectories that is the main ob>ecti#e here. 4n order to get there the

notion o% Hmobility( itsel% m!st be e+amined and an impro#ed notion o% Hlocality( needs to bede#eloped as well. This approach will o% co!rse raise 6!estions abo!t the nat!re o% resources

2



in this kind o% socioling!istics = the st!%% that is mobile and tra#els across di%%erent localities =

and it will also raise the 6!estion o% Hhistory(. -nd a critical historical 6!estioning o% iss!es o%

reso!rces and competence will compel !s to consider the act!al %orms o% ine,uality that

characterize lang!age in the era o% globalization. The patterns o% mobility will show #ario!s

problematic aspects that are d!e to the partic!lar str!ct!re o% the localities between which

reso!rces tra#el. -ll o% this will %!rthermore ha#e to be demonstrated not as an e%%ort o%

theory b!t as one o% analysis that is as a practical research problem %or which partic!lar types

o% research design and data can be !sed. 4 try to be #ery genero!s with e+amples and analyses

and many i% not most o% the theoretical points are based on e+tended case st!dies. 5owe#er

gi#en the #ast panorama o% iss!es and phenomena that go !nder the !mbrella o% globalization

4 cannot possibly aspire to o%%er a comprehensi#e analytical tour de table. My treatment will

necessarily be selecti#e and eclectic. 4 hope the reader will show tolerance %or mani%est gaps

in my approach = 4 see this book as an in#itation o%%ered to others to participate in this

e+ercise and 4 hope others will %ill the gaps.

hile 4 sketched the phenomenology o% lang!age in the era o% globalization in the

most general terms here introd!cing the notion o% s!per"di#ersity to describe the conditions

!nder which lang!age occ!rs in contemporary !rban centers in the est 9and elsewhere; 4 try

to del#e deeper into this 6!estion in the chapter 2. Starting %rom a n!mber o% obser#ations

%rom Aapan 4 show that mobility a%%ects the nat!re and %!nction o% the con#entional

conception o% Hlang!age( in ling!istics calling %or a di%%erent #ocab!lary to describe the way

in which it is li#ed and practiced presently. 4 o%%er three theoretical concepts %or consideration

Hsocioling!istic scales( Horders o% inde+icality( and Hpolycentricity(. Together they pro#ide a

descripti#e %rame lang!age 9here seen as the mobile reso!rces mentioned earlier; needs to be

seen as a phenomenon that occ!rs 9or has the potential to occ!r; at di%%erent scale le#els.

Mobility across these di%%erent scales in#ol#es important shi%ts in %!nction str!ct!re and

meaning@ and since globalization introd!ces the global as a rele#ant le#el o% conte+t we can

e+pect s!ch shi%ts to occ!r generally. The shi%ts are shi%ts that in#ol#e the reordering o%

normati#ity ling!istic reso!rces mo#e thro!gh di%%erent orders o% inde+icality and e#ery

mo#e in#ol#es a di%%erent set o% inde+ical potential %or the reso!rces. hat works well in one

conte+t may not work at all in another. The reason is that s!ch orders o% inde+icality need to

be seen as organized in polycentric systems in which di%%erent centers = ?akhtinian Hs!per"

addressees( %rom which real or percei#ed norms emanate = co"occ!r in comple+ 9and o%ten

opa6!e; sim!ltaneo!s relationships.

3:



This is a di%%erent %rame %or !nderstanding lang!age and globalization than the more

common ones s!ch as that o% Hling!istic imperialism(. The localism that is central to m!ch

disco!rse on ling!istic rights and ling!istic imperialism will be e+amined and opposed to a

socioling!istics o% mobile reso!rces. The %rame 4 o%%er is based on mobility and on act!al

Hbits( o% lang!age and 4 will ill!strate some o% its p!rchase by means o% a small st!dy o%

4nternet lang!age co!rses in -merican accent. S!ch co!rses make !se o% the de%ining

technology o% globalization 9the 4nternet; and they constr!ct s!rprisingly strict and p!niti#e

orders o% inde+icality that co"occ!r alongside those o% 9state"sponsored; ed!cation systems.

,eople in 4ndia learn 8nglish at school and that 8nglish is per%ectly ade6!ate %or most o% their

b!siness. ?!t i% they want to >!mp %rom the localInational scale to the transnational one %or

instance by applying %or work in the international call centers that are a booming ind!stry in

4ndia they need to Hgo pri#ate( and learn an -merican accent %rom an 4nternet company. The

r!les %or learning 8nglish at school and those o% learning -merican accent are di%%erent and

both now co"occ!r in a polycentric en#ironment %or H8nglish(.

Selling -merican accent means selling an image o% -merica the world and one(s own

position therein and chapter 3 elaborates this iss!e %oc!sing on iss!es o% locality and taking

the perspecti#e o% the periphery. The world is di%%erent when seen %rom the periphery rather

than %rom the center and two pieces o% analysis attempt to demonstrate this. 4 %irst e+amine

the way in which in a Hglobalized( Tanzanian no#el characters and elements o% the plot are

de#eloped on the basis o% a local topography o% places and associati#e 6!ali%ications. The

characters o% the region mo#e thro!gh Tanzanian physical and social space and the a!thor

skil%!lly e+ploits the inde+ical nat!re o% place names and geographical locations in his no#el.

The a!thor himsel% prod!ces a strongly local no#el written in Swahili altho!gh his writing is

%!lly globalized. 5e himsel% is a pro%essor at an -merican !ni#ersity and his no#el

instantiates m!ch o% what globalization is abo!t the mobility o% signs across time and space

combined with a strong sense o% the local. Mobility is the r!le b!t that does not precl!de

locality %rom being a power%!l %rame %or the organization o% meanings. ocality and mobility

coe+ist and whene#er we obser#e patterns o% mobility we ha#e to e+amine the local

en#ironments in which they occ!r.

e see this clearly in the second analysis 4 o%%er in this chapter. *n the basis o%

material gathered in a secondary school in a peripheral township in So!th -%rica 4 arg!e that

the teaching o% 8nglish there needs to be !nderstood as proceeding within a strongly local

economy o% lang!age and literacy not in terms o% !ni#ersal standards o% 8nglish. Teachersand learners all commit gra#e and %re6!ent errors in their writings i% these are assessed %rom a

31



strictly normati#e and absol!tist #iewpoint o% 'orth -merica or the Cnited Kingdom. The co"

occ!rrence o% the same de#iations howe#er shows that they are systemic and belong to a

system o% Hperipheral normati#ity( which has its historical roots in the deep class and ethnic

di#isions that dominated So!th -%rica !ntil recently and these are played o!t now against the

backdrop o% pro%o!nd %orms o% social ine6!ality in contemporary society. This analysis shows

the power o% locality. The world has not become a #illage b!t a network o% #illages and the

#illages are organized #ery m!ch like indi#id!al #illages with their own relati#ely

a!tonomo!s and sel%"regenerating r!les and codes. 4 see this obser#ation as ca!tionary %or

o#er"enth!siastic people %or whom globalization means %irst and %oremost Hglocalization( the

making o% global localities with connotations o% !ni%ormization 9so"called McBonaldization;.

There is an in%l!ence %rom the global and to be s!re places do change b!t the local is 6!ite

resilient as well and local criteria and norms de%ine the processes o% change. Global in%l!ences

become part o% the conte+t"generati#e aspect o% the prod!ction o% locality they become part

o% the ways in which local comm!nities constr!ct a social c!lt!ral political and economic

en#ironment %or themsel#es 9-ppad!rai 1 1</;.

The act!al materials with which s!ch conte+t"generati#e dimensions o% locality

operate change howe#er and chapter $ del#es into 6!estions o% reso!rces and competence.

Ee%erring back to the disc!ssion o% 8nglish literacy reso!rces in the township we can see that

m!ch o% the comm!nication in 8nglish there had an H!n%inished( character to the comple+ity

o% which traditional approaches to m!ltiling!alism 9which ass!me the possibility o%

coordinated co"e+istence o% Hlang!ages(; cannot do >!stice. 4 there%ore propose a #iew o%

Htr!ncated( m!ltiling!alism repertoires composed o% o% specialized b!t partially and !ne#enly

de#eloped reso!rces. e ne#er know Hall( o% a lang!age we always know speci%ic bits and

pieces o% it. This co!nts %or o!r Hmother tong!e( as well as %or the lang!ages we pick !p in the

co!rse o% a li%etime and this is per%ectly normal. 4 contend that s!ch Htr!ncated( repertoires

are a better diagnostic o% what real m!ltiling!al competence means in an age o% globalization

as they e+plain the !n%inished character o% comm!nication as well as the n!mero!s problems

that can occ!r in processes o% mobility. The tr!ncated repertoires are gro!nded in people(s

biographies and in the wider histories o% the place where they were composed. They are

Hplaced( reso!rces some o% which will allow mobility while others won(t and repertoire

analysis can e+plain what goes on when people carrying their lang!age l!ggage so to speak

mo#e aro!nd or when their messages mo#e aro!nd.

4 ill!strate s!ch processes with an e+tended analysis o% a globalized genre with whichmany o% !s are %amiliar email messages in%orming !s that we are abo!t to recei#e #ery large

32



s!ms o% money. S!ch messages are sent %rom the periphery o% the world system %rom places

s!ch as 'igeria to addressees in the center o% the world system people s!ch as me. Their

act!al constr!ction and composition raise a n!mber o% %!ndamental 6!estions with regard to

competence in the age o% globalization and it is clear that statements abo!t how Hwell( one

Hknows a lang!age( are !nin%ormati#e in this respect. The people prod!cing s!ch messages

display #ario!s %orms o% competence and these competences are !ne#enly de#eloped = they

are tr!ncated so to speak. The a!thors display a pro%o!nd and amazingly sophisticated

!nderstanding o% the comp!ter hardware and the techni6!es %or s!r%ing the 4nternet h!nting

%or %ree and anonymo!s email pro#iders and email addresses o% addressees. -n analysis o% the

genre %eat!res shows that they also display a degree o% what we co!ld call c!lt!ral

competence they ha#e a clear i% incomplete awareness o% the genre %eat!res that are

e+pected by their addressees in messages s!ch as these. The messages display a canonical

genre str!ct!re which mirrors that o% b!siness letters personal narrati#es and so %orth = genres

that ha#e a recognizable place in the repertoires o% their addressees. ?!t the act!al

implementation o% s!ch genres in %l!ent 8nglish te+t is 6!ite problematic. hile we saw a

#ery highly de#eloped technological competence and a moderately de#eloped c!lt!ral

competence we see a weakly de#eloped ling!istic competence artic!lated in many o% these

messages. These di%%erences between speci%ic %orms o% competence seem to re#eal di%%erent

degrees o% accessibility o% comm!nicati#e reso!rces technical reso!rces being more

democratically accessible than c!lt!ral ones and certainly than ling!istic ones. The di%%erences

in the messages may there%ore re#eal ine6!alities and 4 ret!rn to this later on.

,rior to that howe#er the iss!e o% history needs to be more %!lly de#eloped. Mobility

is something that has spatial as well as temporal %eat!res and mobile te+t is te+t that has the

capacity to tra#el thro!gh time and space. 4n chapter & 4 emphasize and ill!strate some o% the

points made at se#eral places thro!gho!t the pre#io!s chapters. hen 4 disc!ssed the iss!e o%

locality and arg!ed that we need to see the world as a system o% relati#ely a!tonomo!s local

systems we sho!ld also realize that s!ch systems ha#e their own historicity. This idea is

cr!cial %or !nderstanding contemporary globalization beca!se o% the s!per%icial !ni%ormity

that is sometimes discerned 9and emphasized; in c!lt!ral globalization phenomena = the so"

called HMcBonaldization( o% the world. 8#en i% similar %eat!res occ!r all o#er the globe the

local histories which they enter can be %!ndamentally di%%erent and so create #ery di%%erent

e%%ects meanings and %!nctions. This is an instance o% what 5ymes 91@ also ?lommaert

2::& /:; called Hsecond ling!istic relati#ity( e#en when ling!istic str!ct!res are identicaltheir %!nctions can di%%er depending on the place o% the ling!istic reso!rces in the repertoires.

33



4 gi#e an e+ample o% two similar images o% gol% disc!ssing the way we sho!ld !nderstand

both images in terms o% local historical conditions and en#ironments. This leads to some

re%lections on di%%erences between long and short histories = ?ra!del(s 91$ 1;

distinction between slow intermediate and %ast time is not too %ar away = and on

synchronization. 4 arg!e there that socioling!istic reality is ne#er synchronic b!t always made

synchronic. 4n act!al %act what we see in a Hsynchronic( socioling!istic obser#ation is a

patchwork o% composite parts that ha#e #ery di%%erent origins and %ollowed #ery di%%erent

tra>ectories into people(s repertoires. Cnderstanding socioling!istic reality as s!ch a

che6!ered pattern helps !s pro#ide better descriptions o% change and the chapter concl!des

with an e+ample o% how mass to!rism a%%ects the socioling!istic en#ironment in a small town

in 'orthern Finland.

ith the iss!e o% history most o% the theoretical points in the book ha#e been

addressed. hat is missing is a perspecti#e something that gi#es direction to socioling!istic

work and determines why we sho!ld do a partic!lar kind o% socioling!istics. 4ne6!ality is the

theme o% chapter and m!ch o% what has been said in the %irst %i#e chapters needs to be

reread thro!gh the specter o% ine6!ality. e already saw how 5obsbawm warned !s against

the ways in which globalization has deepened ine6!ality both within and across di%%erent

societies and we also know that allerstein de%ined the contemporary world"system as dri#en

by ine6!ality. There is as we know a widespread pop!lar disco!rse that sees globalization as

the spread o% prosperity aro!nd the globe@ the price to pay %or this prosperity is allegedly

c!lt!ral !ni%ormization. hile chapters 3 and & pro#ide conditions %or the aspect o% c!lt!ral

!ni%ormization arg!ing that processes o% change need to be !nderstood primarily %rom the

#iewpoint o% locality this chapter now responds to the claims abo!t the prosperity" and

opport!nity"generating %eat!res o% globalization. 4t also responds to another widespread image

o% globalization that it !nderc!ts the power o% the nation"state. 4n the two analyses 4 o%%er in

this chapter we will see that globalization is a problem and a threat %or many people and that

these problems are #ery o%ten generated or acerbated by the workings o% modern states.

The two analyses both %all within the domain o% immigration. 4 open with an analysis

o% an asyl!m application case in the CK by a man %rom Ewanda. The man(s application was

t!rned down beca!se his socioling!istic pro%ile did not match the one the CK 5ome *%%ice

deemed Hnormal( %or a Ewandan. My analysis shows that the applicant(s socioling!istic

pro%ile was %!lly realistic at least i% one abandons pristine images o% a national order and

accepts the chaos o% ci#il war displacement and destroyed li#es in regions s!ch as Ewanda.The analysis shows how the applicant = by de%inition a transnational deterritorialized s!b>ect

3$



= was cast in a #ery modernist imagery o% the nation"state by the 5ome *%%ice. 5e was

s!pposed to speak the Hnational( lang!ages o% Ewanda 9i.e. Kinyarwanda and French; and to

know the things a Hnormal( citizen o% any co!ntry is s!pposed to know abo!t hisIher co!ntry

the %lag the landmarks and so on. Th!s we see how this re%!gee is s!pposed to answer as a

national s!b>ect %rom within a s!pposedly stable and !ntro!bled national order. The state =

the 5ome *%%ice in this case = %orm!lated a #ery Hmodern( response to the #ery Hpostmodern(

phenomenon o% s!per"di#ersity.

The persistent !se o% %rames deri#ed %rom the modern nation"state to address

transnational displaced migrants is a %eat!re o% ine6!ality which de%ines many o% the

common responses to migration in central states o% the world"system. -ss!mptions o%

!ni%ormity categorizability transparency %i+edness and so on 9the machinery o% modernist

b!rea!cracy in short; !nderlie meas!res to accept or re>ect and to Hintegrate( migrants in their

host societies 9?lommaert and Dersch!eren 1<;. e see this in the second analytical

#ignette in this chapter where data %rom a B!tch immersion class in ?elgi!m are being

disc!ssed. Migrant children enter s!ch classes with tr!ncated m!ltiling!al repertoires which

o%ten re#eal important traces o% pre#io!s learning processes they speak 9o%ten standard;

#arieties o% se#eral lang!ages and are o%ten literate. These reso!rces howe#er are dis6!ali%ied

on the basis o% a #ery modernist ideal o% the monoling!al state i% they don(t know B!tch they

don(t know any lang!age beca!se no lang!age other than B!tch will allow them to Hintegrate(

in their host society. e already saw abo#e that the s!per"di#erse neighborhoods in which

s!ch children as a r!le reside o%%er p!rchase %or a whole range o% lang!ages b!t the modernist

imagination o% monoling!alism and social !ni%ormity dominates the ed!cation system.

0onse6!ently the learning process is slowed down beca!se lang!age learning is seen as a

condition %or any other learning and the act!al ways in which children !se lang!age9s; to

comm!nicate their 9migrant; e+periences are not !sed in the learning process.

?oth analyses show that globalization is a process which apart %rom people who

bene%it massi#ely %rom it also co!nts losers and #ictims people %or whom globalization is

one more obstacle in li%e. They also show how the state is a critical %actor in creating s!ch

problems. The state imagines itsel% in #ery modernist terms and increasingly !ses the

modernist image o% lang!age as a tool to di#ide and discriminate migrants 9c%. ?a!man and

?riggs 2::3;.

The storyline o% the book has so %ar taken !s %rom mobility and locality to reso!rces

and competence and thence to history and ine6!ality. e can see how mobility starts tore%orm!late classical socioling!istic topics locality reso!rces competence ine6!ality all

3&



belong to the stock themes o% socioling!istics. hen we see these themes %rom the

perspecti#e o% mobility howe#er they are trans%ormed into theoretical territory %or which we

ha#e as yet no so!nd and detailed map. 4 try to pro#ide a sketch o% s!ch a map in chapter /

taking stock o% the preceding disc!ssions and s!mmarizing what co!ld be !se%!l %or a

socioling!istics o% globalization and pointing towards some e%%ects and implications %or

scholarship. The p!rchase o% my own proposals will be tested by applying them to the

de%initional topic o% globalization 8nglish in the world. Taking the way in which this iss!e is

c!rrently %ramed in socioling!istic work within the ling!istic rights paradigm 9in which

indigeno!s lang!ages are Hthreatened( when 8nglish enters their space; 4 disc!ss the case o%

8nglish in Tanzania again a co!ntry in the periphery o% the world"system. 4 %irst highlight the

comple+ position o% the Tanzanian state as one scale le#el ca!ght between others and then 4

e+amine some o% the di%%erent %orms in which 8nglish occ!rs in Bar es Salaam. e will see

that rather than an oppressi#e %orce 8nglish enables people to constr!ct meanings and

%!nctions that are new and creati#e. -nd at the same time their 8nglish is local and it

operates within a local scale"le#el as part o% the prod!ction o% locality. This %inal e+ample

sho!ld ill!strate the potential o% a new socioling!istics to o%%er new perhaps better answers to

iss!es that hitherto were addressed !nder the banners o% oppression and imperialism s!ch as

the relati#e position o% Hsmall( lang!ages #is"R"#is Hbig( ones lang!age loss and lang!age

re#italization. 4t is essential especially in light o% what is co#ered in chapter that

socioling!istics gi#es pla!sible and precise answers to lang!age iss!es that can endanger

indi#id!als. 4 s!bmit that only a partic!lar kind o% socioling!istics can do that the

socioling!istics o% reso!rces7.

4 ha#e now described how 4 will take on the challenge 4 ha#e set %or mysel% and 4 am

ready to go. 4 will ha#e to start by de%ining the socioling!istic world in which we li#e and this

world = alas = is messy comple+ and rather !npredictable.

3



2. A messy new marketplace

Socioling!istics is the st!dy o% lang!age as a comple+ o% reso!rces o% their #al!e

distrib!tion rights o% ownership and e%%ects. 4t is not the st!dy o% an abstract lang!age b!t

the st!dy o% concrete lang!age reso!rces in which people make di%%erent in#estments and to

which they attrib!te di%%erent #al!es and degrees o% !se%!lness. 4n the conte+t o% globalization

where lang!age %orms are perhaps more mobile than be%ore s!ch patterns o% #al!e and !se

become less predictable and pres!pposable. 8conomic metaphors s!ch as those de#eloped by

?o!rdie! 911; are partic!larly !se%!l %or a socioling!istics o% globalization. Eecall that

?o!rdie! saw lang!age as a market o% symbolic capital and power with people >!ggling %or

pro%it and with some people str!ct!rally ha#ing less capital than others. ?o!rdie! and his

contemporaries ?ernstein 91/1; and 5ymes 91<: 1; all drew o!r attention to the same

phenomenon that the world o% lang!age is not >!st one o% di%%erence b!t one o% ine6!ality@

that some o% that ine6!ality is temporal and contingent on sit!ations while another part o% it is

str!ct!ral and end!ring@ and that s!ch patterns o% ine6!ality a%%ect and artic!late aro!nd

act!al concrete lang!age %orms s!ch as accents dialects registers and partic!lar stylistic

9e.g. narrati#e; skills.

The symbolic marketplace described by ?o!rdie! and others was a local and relati#ely

closed one. 4ts patterns o% #al!e attrib!tion and the logic o% the economic game were clear to

most o% the people in#ol#ed in the transactions = the speaker %rom la pro!ince knew 6!ite well

that his speech was Hin%erior( to that o% the ,arisian and this awareness acco!nted %or his

tendency towards hypercorrection. hen we address globalization howe#er we address

translocal mobile markets whose bo!ndaries are %le+ible and changeable. -nd this is the

theoretical challenge now to imagine ways o% capt!ring mobile reso!rces mobile speakers

and mobile markets. - socioling!istics o% globalization is per%orce a socioling!istics o%

mobility and the new marketplace we m!st seek to !nderstand is conse6!ently a less clear

and transparent and a messier one. So let !s engage with this iss!e now and see where it

brings !s theoretically.

2.1. (ina0s errire

3/



- %ew years ago 4 was #isiting an !p"market department store in 0entral Tokyo and in the

#ery e+cl!si#e and e+pensi#e %ood section o% that store 4 noticed a chocolate shop which bore

the name -ina*s Derriere.

9F4GCE8 1 58E8. 0aption H'ina(s derri)re(;

The stylized lettering and the choice o% French betray an aspiration to considerable chic and

the prices o% the chocolate on sale materialized that aspiration. ?!t the name o% the shop was

let(s say a rather !nhappy choice and 4 hoped that not too many Aapanese c!stomers wo!ld

know eno!gh French to !nderstand the meaning o% the name. 4 con%ess that 4 mysel% %o!nd the

tho!ght o% o%%ering someone a chocolate obtained %rom 'ina(s b!m intensely entertaining. 4t

was also intensely !se%!l in bringing an important point home to me. 'his %as not )rench. -t

least while the origins o% HBerriere( are clearly French and while its !se in the shop(s name

drew on inde+icals o% French chic the word did not %!nction as a ling!istic sign.

ing!istically it was only French in a minimal sense as a word whose origins lie in the stock

#ocab!lary o% the lang!age we con#entionally call French. 4ts Frenchness was semiotic rather

than ling!istic important was not its ling!istic %!nction as a denotational sign b!t the

emblematic %!nction it had in signaling a comple+ o% associati#e meanings the things 4

capt!red !nder the term French chic. This is why the chocolate shop was still in b!siness in

spite o% its dramatically inappropriate name the sign did not %!nction ling!istically in the

conte+t o% a Tokyo department store = ling!istic knowledge o% French being a #ery rare

commodity in Tokyo = b!t it %!nctioned and %!nctioned well emblematically. The sign

s!ddenly becomes a linguistic sign only when someone like me who has ling!istic

competence in French sees it and reads it as an instance of .linguistic/ )rench. ,rior to that

the sign is not HFrench( b!t HFrenchness(. -t least as long as the sign remains in its partic!lar

en#ironment. hen it is He+ported( so to speak to the en#ironment that someone like me

brings along it changes.

The world is %!ll o% e+amples o% signs that shi%t %!nctions depending on who !ses

them where and %or what p!rpose. e see the same phenomenon in %ig!re 2 a phone card

%rom Tokyo that ad#ertises the Keiky! %ast rail connection between 5aneda -irport and

0entral Tokyo.

9F4GCE8 2 58E8. 0aption HKeiky! phone card(;

3<



This simple and m!ndane ob>ect 9a typical instance o% the m!ltit!de o% H!nimportant(

lang!age ob>ects that litter o!r world; is amazingly comple+ both ling!istically and

semiotically. e see three writing systems = Kan>i characters Katakana script and Eoman

alphabet = and three Hlang!ages( = Aapanese 8nglish and French. The French Le'rain is

accompanied by a Katakana transliteration that instr!cts Aapanese c!stomers to read it as

rutoren 9PUVtorWnQ;. 4nterestingly the French here is meant to be spoken and spoken correctly.

The 8nglish is con%ined to one word %ith. 4t connects two Kan>i words and i% we translate the

whole phrase it reads 5aneda %ith Keiky!N. The 8nglish here is strange. There are per%ectly

ade6!ate Aapanese e6!i#alents %or s!ch a %!nction word as %ith and e#en icons s!ch as

arrows co!ld ha#e worked. The choice howe#er was %or 8nglish and there it stands %ith.

The problem howe#er is that !nless yo! know the two Kan>i words on either side o% it %ith

has no meaning or %!nction. 4t is not 8nglish ling!istically beca!se 8nglish competence

doesn(t allow yo! to !nderstand what %ith stands %or there. Oo! need to know Aapanese in

order to make sense o% %ith in this phrase and so somewhat pro#ocati#ely one co!ld say that

%ith is ling!istically not 8nglish b!t Aapanese. 4t is 8nglish emblematically like -ina*s

derri0re was French emblematically and 9one wo!ld certainly hope; not ling!istically.

4n both e+amples we see how lang!age material shi%ts meanings and %!nctions when it

is mobile. The French and 8nglish elements considered here were mobile semiotic rather than

linguistic reso!rces. 4n mo#ing %rom a space where people ha#e s!%%icient ling!istic

competence to pro>ect ling!istic %!nctions onto the signs 9e.g. France in the case o% French; to

a space where s!ch competences cannot be pres!pposed 9e.g. Aapan; the sign changes %rom a

ling!istic sign to an emblematic one. 4t ceases to be something that prod!ces ling!istic

meanings beca!se the ones cons!ming it cannot e+tract s!ch meanings %rom the sign. hen

someone like me then in Aapan comes across s!ch signs they re"become ling!istic signs.

*r the sign can tra#el. Globalization in#ol#es delocalized prod!ction in ma>or

ind!stries incl!ding printing and %ig!re 3 shows !s an instance o% delocalized printing work.

The pict!re was taken in ondon 0hinatown. e see a biling!al poster ad#ertising in

0hinese and 8nglish a range o% cold drinks.

9F4GCE8 3 58E8. 0aption Hced 0o%%ce(;

3



hereas the 0hinese is correctly written the 8nglish contains 6!ite spectac!lar typos Lced

Hiced( dlrin& Hdrink( coffce Hco%%ee( and so %orth. Since written signs are always traces o%

h!man acti#ity one can spec!late abo!t the processes that generated this poster. 4magine a

print shop in 0hina where a handwritten te+t is handed down to a typesetter. The typesetter

does not know 8nglish and so while the handwritten 0hinese characters do not present any

di%%ic!lties the 8nglish handwritten te+t is not language but a meaningless design a set o%

%orms to be copied in print. ,oor handwriting s!ch as not closing the %irst e in coffee can

res!lt in it being read as c instead o% e and th!s emerges the printed %orm coffce. 'he te$t only

becomes "nglish %hen it is transferred to London and posted there against the window o% a

grocery store in 0hinatown. 4t is in ondon that people can detect the de#iations in spelling

6!estion them or %ind them am!sing. S!ch #al!e >!dgments were impossible in the printing

shop in 0hina. -t the same time o% co!rse %or many c!stomers in 0hinatown the 0hinese in

the poster is >!st a meaningless design. 4n its trans%er to ondon it ceased to be a ling!istic

representation and it became a set o% %orms signaling 0hineseness and th!s %itting in

0hinatown.

4 am deliberately o#erstating my case here beca!se 4 wish to emphasize a point that

semiotic mobility has all sorts o% e%%ects on the signs that are in#ol#ed in s!ch mobility. S!ch

processes need to be !nderstood beca!se they are at the heart o% globalization as a

socioling!istic phenomenon. 4n the conte+t o% globalization ling!istic reso!rces change #al!e

%!nction ownership and so on beca!se they can be inserted in patterns o% mobility. For this 4

wo!ld s!ggest we need a partic!lar set o% concept!al tools and in the remainder o% this

chapter 4 will introd!ce three central concepts scales orders o% inde+icality and

polycentricity.

2.2. +ociolinguistic scales

e ha#e seen in o!r disc!ssion o% Fairclo!gh 92::; how the notion o% Hscale( was !sed

essentially to denote spatial scope. e ha#e also seen how this raised se#eral problems the

most important o% which was that a p!rely spatial !se o% the term de"historicizes the processes

it is s!pposed to capt!re. So let !s see what better !se we can %ind %or a notion s!ch as Hscale(.

e said abo#e that when people or messages mo#e they mo#e thro!gh a space which is %illed

with codes norms and e+pectations. Scale is a metaphor we can !se to imagine s!ch mo#es.

The metaphor o% scale is borrowed %rom %ields s!ch as history and social geography9Swyngedo!w 1@ Citermark 2::2;. Scales and scaling processes are an important part o%

$:



the theoretical toolkit o% orld"Systems -nalysis 9allerstein 1<3 2:::;. -ccording to

orld"Systems -nalysis social e#ents and processes mo#e and de#elop on a contin!!m o%

layered scales with the strictly local 9micro; and the global 9macro; as its e+tremes and

se#eral intermediary scales 9e.g. the le#el o% the state; in between 9e%eb#re 2::3@ also Geertz

2::$;. 8#ents and processes in globalization occ!r at di%%erent scale"le#els and we see

interactions between the di%%erent scales as a core %eat!re o% !nderstanding s!ch e#ents and

processes. -ppad!rai(s 91; notion o% H#ernac!lar globalization( is a case in point %orms o%

globalization that contrib!te to new %orms o% locality. This locality howe#er is destabilized =

the immigrant neighborhood no longer looks like the Htraditional( neighborhood = beca!se o%

in%l!ences %rom higher"le#el scales migration and diaspora neighborhood m!ltiling!alism

the presence o% the homeland in economies o% cons!mption and in p!blic identity display

9Mankekar 2::2;.

The point of departure: horizontal and vertical metaphors

The point o% depart!re %or what %ollows is the non"!ni%ied nat!re o% socioling!istic

phenomena. The point has o%ten been noted acts o% comm!nication are all !ni6!ely

conte+t!alized one"time phenomena@ yet we !nderstand them beca!se o% their mani%est lack

o% a!tonomy their constistence with pre#io!s traditions o% making sense their connection to

shared perd!ring 9i.e. historical; patterns o% !nderstanding s!ch as %rames. This d!al nat!re o%

lang!age practices both as an indi#id!al one"time and !ni6!e phenomenon and

sim!ltaneo!sly as a collecti#e and relati#ely stable phenomenon has o%ten been capt!red

!nder labels s!ch as Hmicro( and Hmacro(. The connection between s!ch le#els has o%ten been

described as comple+ di%%ic!lt !n%athomable. Oet se#eral #ery !se%!l theoretical tools ha#e

been de#eloped e+plicitly identi%ying the instantaneo!s transition %rom one le#el to another in

comm!nication G!mperz( 91<2; notion o% Hconte+t!alization( Go%%man(s 91/$; H%rames(

the ?akhtinian concept o% Hinterte+t!ality( 9as %!rther de#eloped e.g. by Fairclo!gh 12;

and ?o!rdie!(s 91:; Hhabit!s( = to name >!st the most widely recognized ones.

4n all cases the concepts identi%y the 1ump from one scale to another %rom the

indi#id!al to the collecti#e the temporally sit!ated to the trans"temporal the !ni6!e to the

common the token to the type the speci%ic to the general. -nd the connection bet%een such

scales is inde$ical it resides in the ways in which !ni6!e instances o% comm!nication can be

capt!red inde+ically as H%ramed( !nderstandable comm!nication as pointing towards sociallyand c!lt!rally ordered norms genres traditions e+pectations = phenomena o% a higher scale"

$1



le#el. The capacity to achie#e !nderstanding in comm!nication is the capacity to li%t

momentary instances o% interaction to the le#el o% common meanings and the two directions

o% inde+icality 9pres!pposing = the retrie#al o% a#ailable meanings = and entailing = the

prod!ction o% new meanings@ Sil#erstein 2::a 1$; are at the heart o% s!ch processes.

Ee#iewing c!rrent theorizing abo!t s!ch scalar phenomena we see that a lot o%

thinking has gone into the connections and mo#ements = sophisticated concepts s!ch as

Hinterte+t!ality( and Hente+t!alization( are res!lts o% that. hat e+actly it is that is connected

and mo#ed between howe#er has by and large been neglected as an area o% theorizing. *ne

e%%ect has been that notions o% Hconte+t!alization( 9the process o% con#ersion; ha#e been better

de#eloped than notions o% Hconte+t( the spaces in and between which conte+t!alization

happens. 9See 5anks 2:: %or a recent s!r#ey.; 4 ha#e been !sing the term scale here as an

attempt to at least pro#ide a metaphor that s!ggests that we ha#e to imagine things that are o%

a different order that are hierarchically ranked and strati%ied. The metaphor s!ggests spatial

images@ howe#er these images are !ertical metaphors of space rather than horizontal ones

which are implicit in terms s!ch as distribution spread and e#en community and culture

among others. Scales o%%er !s a #ertical image o% space o% space as stratified and there%ore

power"in#ested@ b!t they also s!ggest deep connections between spatial and temporal %eat!res.

4n that sense scale may be a concept that allows !s to see socioling!istic phenomena as non"

!ni%ied in relation to a stratified2 non3unified image of social structure4 'ote that the

introd!ction o% Hscale( does not re>ect horizontal images o% space@ it complements them with a

#ertical dimension o% hierarchical ordering and power di%%erentiation. et !s look at these

aspects o% scales in some detail.

Scales as semiotized space and time

To be s!re a notion s!ch as Hscale( is the constr!ction o% an analytic image = something o%

which allerstein warns !s is an in#ention o% social"scienti%ic traditional tho!ght

9allerstein 1/ 2::1 chapter 1:;. 4n partic!lar o!r c!rrent attempt at Hspatializing(

socioling!istic theory risks being %lawed by that instit!tional problem inscribed in the di#ision

o% labor between the social sciences the separation o% time and space as di%%erent aspects o%

social li%e and social phenomena. -gainst this separation allerstein pits the notion o%

TimeSpace = a single dimensionN which locks together time and space 9allerstein 1/ 1@

also Fals ?orda 2:::;. 8#ery social e#ent de#elops sim!ltaneo!sly in space and in time o%tenin m!ltiply imagined spaces and time %rames. So here is one critical 6!ali%ication a notion

$2



s!ch as scale re%ers to phenomena that de#elop in TimeSpace. Scale is not >!st a spatial

metaphor.

Talk abo!t Htime( and Hspace( howe#er is slippery and we m!st add a second

necessary 6!ali%ication. The phenomena that de#elop in TimeSpace are social phenomena

and the TimeSpace in which they de#elop is conse6!ently an Hob>ecti#e( 9physical; conte+t

made social . 4t is an o%ten repeated assertion people make physical space and time into

controlled regimented ob>ects and instr!ments and they do so thro!gh semiotic practices@

semiotized TimeSpace is social c!lt!ral political historical ideological TimeSpace

9e%eb#re 2::3@ also 5a#iland 2::3@ Goodwin 2::2;. - third necessary 6!ali%ication to be

added %ollows %rom the pre#io!s one. The semiotization o% TimeSpace as social conte+ts

always in#ol#es more than >!st images o% space and time. -s we shall see a mo#e %rom one

scale"le#el to another in#okes or inde+es images of society thro!gh socially and c!lt!rally

constr!cted 9semiotized; metaphors and images o% time and space. The general direction o%

s!ch mo#es can be %orm!lated as %ollows

Lower scale igher scale

Time Momentary Timeless

+pace ocal sit!ated Translocal widespread

4n social interaction s!ch TimeSpace mo#es = Hscale">!mping( as they are called by

Citermark 92::2 /&:; = are con#erted into interactional patterns that inde+ norms

e+pectations and degrees o% generalness o% positions. They are con#erted in other words into

statements that inde$ social order and the TimeSpace imagery pro#ides rich inde+icals

9sometimes iconically; %or aspects o% a real or imagined social order. 0onsider by way o%

ill!stration the %ollowing bit o% 9imagined; interaction between a t!tor 9T; and a ,hB st!dent

9S;

S 4(ll start my dissertation with a chapter reporting on my %ieldwork

T e start o!r dissertations with a literat!re re#iew chapter here.

The t!tor per%orms a scale">!mp here in which he mo#es %rom the local and sit!ated to the

translocal and Hgeneral( in#oking practices that ha#e #alidity beyond the here"and"now =

normati!e !alidity. This H!pscaling( is artic!lated thro!gh a change %rom personal and sit!ated

to impersonal and general = compare S(s !se o% I and my as well as his !se o% the %!t!re tense

with T(s %e and our T(s !se o% the timeless present and his in#ocation o% here a comm!nity

$3



larger than >!st the st!dent and the t!tor. The st!dent(s !tterance was centered on his own

work and plans@ the t!tor(s response re"centers it on a higher scale"le#el that o% the larger

academic comm!nity and instit!tional en#ironment o% which both are part. The indi#id!al

plan o% the st!dent is co!ntered by an in#ocation o% general r!les and norms #alid Hhere( 9i.e.

#alid %or the partic!lar st!dent as well;. The t!tor(s mo#e is a #ertical mo#e per%ormed in a

strati%ied hierarchically layered system in which higher scale"le#els 9instit!tional and

comm!nity norms and r!les; pre#ail o#er lower scale"le#els 9the indi#id!al concerns o% the

st!dent;. 4t is o% co!rse a power mo#e in which a higher le#el o% rele#ance tr!th #alidity or

#al!e is called in to cancel the s!ggestion made by the st!dent in which indi#id!als ha#e been

replaced by instit!tionally circ!mscribed roles and in which the specific case is meas!red

against categories o% cases %rom token to type %rom conte+t!alized to deconte+t!alized. The

scale">!mp th!s made is a comple+ one in which #ario!s kinds o% semiotic trans%ormations

occ!r

Lower scale igher scale

Momentary Timeless

ocal sit!ated Translocal widespread

,ersonal indi#id!al 4mpersonal collecti#e

0onte+t!alized deconte+t!alized

S!b>ecti#e ob>ecti#e

Speci%ic General categorial

Token type

4ndi#id!al role

Bi#ersity #ariation Cni%ormity homogeneity

-nd all o% this is prod!ced thro!gh simple grammatical stylistic and generic operations in the

!tterance small %ormal c!es that release dense inde+ical meanings.

The %act that these operations are per%ormed here by the t!tor and not by the st!dent is

o% co!rse not accidental. -s Citermark 92::2; notes some people or gro!ps can >!mp scales

while others cannot and Ho!tscaling( is a %re6!ent power tactic li%ting a partic!lar iss!e to a

scale"le#el which is inaccessible to the other aswhen a lawyer shi%ts into legalese or a doctor

into medical >argon. A!mping scales depends on access to disc!rsi#e reso!rces that inde+ and

iconicize partic!lar scale"le#els and s!ch access is to be s!re an ob>ect o% ine6!ality. -s

0onley and *(?arr(s 91:; work on small claims co!rts demonstrated some time ago

disc!rsi#e reso!rces that are empowering at one scale"le#el 9e.g. iss!e"centered emoti#e

disco!rses; can be disempowering at higher scale le#els 9where a law"centered rational

$$



disco!rse dominates;. ,ower and ine6!ality are %eat!res o% scaling o% the asymmetrical

capacity to in#oke partic!lar scale"le#els in the interpretation o% an act@ scales pro#ide

conte+ts with possible reg!lations o% access.

The simple le+ical and grammatical operations per%ormed by the t!tor th!s trigger a

whole range o% inde+ical shi%ts rede%ining the sit!ation the participants the topic the scope

o% Hacceptable( statements on the topic and so %orth@ they also %irmly set the e#ent in a

normati#e general norm"oriented %rame. This comple+ inde+ical shi%t can now be described

not as a series o% indi#id!al operations b!t as one !ertical mo!e %ithin a stratified social

meaning system enabling and mobilizing the #ario!s %orms o% inde+ical re"ordering o% the

statement. 4ntrod!cing a notion s!ch as Hscale( %or describing c!rrent phenomena in

comm!nicati#e action has the ad#antage o% introd!cing a layered strati%ied model o% society

as a %rame %or the interpretation o% s!ch phenomena. ,ower and ine6!ality th!s become

incorporated into o!r ways o% imagining s!ch phenomena and rather than seeing them as an

e+ceptional aberration in social li%e 9as in many analyses %oc!sed on power; they can be seen

as an integral %eat!re o% e#ery social e#ent. 4t is the new image o% society introd!ced by the

t!tor(s statement that organizes the new inde+ical order he introd!ces a rigid norm"oriented

trans"personal social space = a di%%erent power regime %or the interaction which reorganizes

the H%ooting( 9Go%%man 1<1; on which the participants can interact with one another.

4n s!m scales need to be !nderstood as Hle#els( or Hdimensions( 9e#eb#re 2::3 13"

1&:; at which partic!lar %orms o% normati#ity patterns o% lang!age !se and e+pectations

thereo% are organized. Scalar processes are processes o% shi%ts between s!ch scales and we

sho!ld recall that s!ch shi%ts in#ol#e comple+ re"semiotizations o% TimeSpace new images o%

time and space new patterns o% acting !pon them. 4n this more comple+ !nderstanding the

notion o% Hscale( may allow !s to !nderstand the dynamics between local and translocal %orces

disc!ssed in chapter 1 as well as in the e+amples gi#en earlier in this chapter. Bi%%erent scales

can interact collaborate and o#erlap or be in con%lict with one another beca!se each time

there are iss!es o% normati#ity at play. To these iss!es we now need to t!rn.

2.3. %rers of )ne*icality

Bi%%erent scales organize di%%erent patterns o% normati#ity o% what co!nts as lang!age. This

may 6!ickly be t!rned into an image o% chaos and o% %ragmentation 9and 6!ite a lot o%

postmodernist literat!re wo!ld make this interpretation; b!t %or reasons that are disc!ssedlater in this book s!ch interpretations are not help%!l. The processes we see are not chaotic

$&



b!t ordered altho!gh they are o% considerable comple+ity. 'ormati#ity is by its #ery essence

a %orm o% organization and order. So we need to look %or concept!al tools that help !s imagine

this comple+ %orm o% organization and order and 4 will t!rn to the notion o% Horders o%

inde+icality( %or that 9c%. ?lommaert 2::& %%;.

The point o% depart!re is 6!ite simple inde+icality e#en tho!gh largely operating at

the implicit le#el o% ling!isticIsemiotic str!ct!ring is not !nstr!ct!red b!t ordered . 4t is

ordered in two ways and these %orms o% inde+ical order acco!nt %or Hnormati#ity( in semiosis.

The %irst kind o% order is what Sil#erstein 92::3a; called Hinde+ical order( the %act that

inde+ical meanings occ!r in patterns o%%ering perceptions o% similarity and stability that can

be percei#ed as Htypes( o% semiotic practice with predictable 9pres!pposableIentailing;

directions 9c%. also -gha 2::3 2::&;. HEegister( is a case in point cl!stered and patterned

lang!age %orms that inde+ speci%ic social personae and roles can be in#oked to organize

interactional practices 9e.g. t!rns at talk narrati#e; and ha#e a prima facie stability that can

sometimes be !sed %or typi%ying or stereotyping 9e.g. Hposh( accents = see Eampton 2::3;.

Speaking or writing thro!gh s!ch registers in#ol#es insertion in recognizable 9normati#e;

repertoires o% H#oices( one then speaks as a man a lawyer a middle"aged 8!ropean and

asyl!m seeker and so %orth and i% done appropriately one will be percei#ed as speaking as

such 9-gha 2::&;. Th!s inde+ical order is the metapragmatic organizing principle behind

what is widely !nderstood as the Hpragmatics( o% lang!age.

S!ch %orms o% inde+ical order sometimes ha#e long and comple+ histories o%

becoming 9Sil#erstein 2::3a and -gha 2::3 o%%er e+cellent ill!strations;. These histories are

o%ten connected to the histories o% becoming o% nation"states and to their c!lt!ral and

socioling!istic paraphernalia = the notion o% a Hstandard lang!age( and its deri#ati#e a

partic!lar Hnational( ethnoling!istic identity 9Sil#erstein 1 1<@ 8rrington 2::1;. Oet

they also display a signi%icant degree o% #ariability and change they can er!pt and %ade !nder

press!re o% macro"de#elopments s!ch as capitalist cons!mer %ashions as is e#ident %rom

Sil#erstein(s 92::3a 2::b; oenologia = the register o% contemporary wine connoisse!rs 9see

also -gha 2::& 2::/;. 4nde+ical order o% this sort is a positi#e %orce it prod!ces social

categories recognizable semiotic emblems %or gro!ps and indi#id!als a more or less coherent

semiotic habitat.

4t does so howe#er within the con%ines o% a strati%ied general repertoire in which

partic!lar inde+ical orders relate to others in relations o% m!t!al #al!ation = higherIlower

betterIworse. This is where we meet another kind o% order to inde+icalities one that operateson a higher plane o% social str!ct!ring an order in the general systems o% meaning%!l semiosis

$



#alid in gro!ps at any gi#en time. This kind o% ordering res!lts in what 4 call orders o%

inde+icality = a term ob#io!sly inspired by Fo!ca!lt(s Horder o% disco!rse(. Eecall that

Fo!ca!lt was interested in the general r!les %or the prod!ction o% disco!rses their positi#e

emergence as well as their eras!re and e+cl!sion. 5e started %rom the hypothesis

that in e#ery society the prod!ction o% disco!rse is at once controlled selected

organized and redistrib!ted by a certain n!mber o% proced!res whose role is to ward

o%% its powers and dangers to gain mastery o#er its chance e#ents to e#ade its

pondero!s %ormidable materiality. 9Fo!ca!lt 1<$ P1/1] 1:@ see also his notion o%

Harchi#e( Fo!ca!lt 2::2 P1] chapter &;

4% we now paraphrase Fo!ca!lt(s hypothesis we see that ordered inde+icalities operate within

large strati%ied comple+es in which some %orms o% semiosis are systemically percei#ed as

#al!able others as less #al!able and some are not taken into acco!nt at all while all are

s!b>ect to r!les o% access and reg!lations as to circ!lation. That means that s!ch systemic

patterns o% inde+icality are also systemic patterns o% a!thority o% control and e#al!ation and

hence o% incl!sion and e+cl!sion by real or percei!ed others. That also means that e#ery

register is s!sceptible to a politics o% access. -nd it also means that there is an economy o%

e+change in which the #al!es attached by some to one %orm o% semiosis may not be granted

by others the 8nglish spoken by a middle"class person in 'airobi may not be 9and is !nlikely

to be; percei#ed as a middle"class attrib!te in ondon or 'ew Oork.

H*rder o% inde+icality( is a sensitizing concept that sho!ld inde+ 9Hpoint a %inger to(;

important aspects o% power and ine6!ality in the %ield o% semiosis. 4% %orms o% semiosis are

socially and c!lt!rally #al!ed these #al!ation processes sho!ld display traces o% power and

a!thority o% str!ggles in which there were winners as well as losers and in which in general

the gro!p o% winners is smaller than the gro!p o% losers. The concept in#ites di%%erent

6!estions = socioling!istic 6!estions on inde+icality = and sho!ld open empirical analyses o%

inde+icality to higher"le#el considerations abo!t relations within socioling!istic repertoires

the 9non";e+changeability o% partic!lar ling!istic or semiotic reso!rces across places

sit!ations and gro!ps and so %orth. 4t in#ites in s!m di%%erent 6!estions o% a!thority access

and power in this %ield.

2.!. Polycentricity

$/



*ne s!ch 6!estion is how do we imagine these patterns o% a!thority and power7 *ne way o%

answering that 6!estion is to s!ggest that a!thority emanates %rom real or percei#ed Hcenters(

to which people orient when they prod!ce an inde+ical tra>ectory in semiosis. That is at

whene#er we comm!nicate apart %rom o!r real and immediate addressees we orient towards

what ?akhtin 91<; called a Hs!per"addressee( comple+es o% norms and percei#ed

appropriateness criteria in e%%ect the larger social and c!lt!ral body o% a!thority into which

we insert o!r immediate practices #is"R"#is o!r immediate addressees. -nd #ery o%ten s!ch

a!thorities ha#e names %aces a reality o% their own@ they can be indi#id!als 9teachers

parents role models the coolest g!y in class; collecti#es 9peer gro!ps s!bc!lt!ral gro!ps

gro!p images s!ch as Hp!nk( Hgothic( etc.; abstract entities or ideals 9ch!rch the nation"state

the middle"class cons!mer c!lt!re and its many %ashions %reedom democracy; and so on

the macro" and micro"str!ct!res o% o!r e#eryday world. The point is we o%ten pro>ect the

presence o% an e#al!ating a!thority thro!gh o!r interactions with immediate addressees we

beha#e %ith reference to s!ch an e#al!ati#e a!thority and 4 s!bmit we call s!ch an e#al!ating

a!thority a Hcenter(.

The a!thority o% centers is e#al!ati#e and it o%ten occ!rs as an a!thority o#er cl!sters

o% semiotic %eat!res incl!ding thematic domains2 places people 9roles identities

relationships; and semiotic styles 9incl!ding ling!istic #arieties modes o% per%ormance etc.;.

Th!s broaching a partic!lar topic will trigger a partic!lar semiotic style and s!ggest

partic!lar roles and relationships between participants and certain types o% comm!nicati#e

e#ents re6!ire appropriate places and occasions = not here5 -ot no%5 -ot %hile the children

are listening5 9Scollon and Scollon 2::3 ?lommaert 0ollins and Slembro!ck 2::&a;. *ne

speaks di%%erently and as a di%%erent person abo!t cars or m!sic than abo!t the economy or

abo!t se+. 4n one instance one can speak as an e+pert !sing a partic!lar register inde+ing

membership o% e+pert gro!ps in other instances one can speak as a no#ice@ one can shi%t %rom

a #ery masc!line #oice on a partic!lar topic 9e.g. se+ or cars; to a gender"ne!tral #oice 9e.g.

when disc!ssing the war in 4ra6; each time also shi%ting registers o%ten e#en accents pace

tone and rhythm 9a declarati#e tone on one topic a hesitant one on another;. -nd topics styles

and identities belong to speci%ic places and are e+cl!ded %rom other places 9a thing that

becomes apparent d!ring a%ter"ho!rs escapades at scienti%ic con%erences;. 8ach time one

orients towards other centers o% a!thority o%%ering ideal"types o% norms or appropriateness

criteria as it is called in pragmatics the places where Hgood( disco!rse abo!t these topics is

made.

$<



4t is the packaging o% topic place style and people that makes !p the inde+ical

direction o% comm!nication the %act that certain topics re6!ire speci%ic semiotic modes and

en#ironments and so organize identities and roles 9-gha 2::&;. Go%%man 91<1; as we

already saw called s!ch patterns Hshi%ts in %ooting( delicate changes in speaker position that

were accompanied by shi%ts in ling!istic and semiotic modes and rede%ined the participant

roles in the interaction. e are now in a position to empirically Hdissect( %ooting and bring it

in line with larger organizational %eat!res o% li%e in society.

4t is ob#io!s that e#en tho!gh places impose r!les and restrictions on what can happen

in comm!nication there e#ery en#ironment in which h!mans con#ene and comm!nicate is

almost by de%inition polycentric in the sense that more than one possible center can be

disting!ished. *ne can %ollow norms or #iolate them at any step o% the process and

sometimes this is will%!lly done while at other occasions it comes abo!t by accident or

beca!se o% the impossibility to beha#e in a partic!lar way. -gain Go%%man(s descriptions o%

the m!ltiple layers that characterize m!ndane interaction scenes are in%ormati#e. For instance

Go%%man disting!ishes between H%ocal( and Hnon"%ocal( acti#ities occ!rring in the same e#ent =

as when a p!pil in class prod!ces an o%%ensi#e reaction to a teacher(s 6!estion gi#ing o%%

negati#e impressions 9%ocal %or the teacher; as well as positi#e ones 9non"%ocal towards his

peer gro!p who st!dio!sly try to a#oid being 6!ali%ied as Hnerds(;. 4n o!r own research on

asyl!m seekers( narrati#es we o%ten %o!nd that Htr!th%!l( acco!nts by the applicant were

interpreted as Himpla!sible( 9i.e. !ntr!th%!l; by the inter#iewers beca!se describing the

chaotic and o%ten parado+ical realities tr!th%!lly o%ten iconically res!lted in a chaotic and

parado+ical story. 4nter#iewees oriented towards Hthe tr!th( as de%ined by sit!ated densely

conte+t!alized realities in e.g. -%rica while inter#iewers oriented towards a partic!lar te+t!al

9b!rea!cratic; ideal o% deconte+t!alizable coherence linearity and %act!ality 9?lommaert

2::1a@ chapter below;. ?oth centers were always present in s!ch a polycentric inter#iew

sit!ation altho!gh the inter#iewers( center was o%ten Hnon"%ocal( kept in the backgro!nd

d!ring the inter#iew itsel%. Th!s in telling Hthe tr!th( the applicants were o%ten Hwrong"

%ooted( by the inter#iewers@ in the real world the dominant order o% inde+icality is that o% the

inter#iewer and hisIher b!rea!cratic apparat!s.

,olycentricity is a key %eat!re o% interactional regimes in h!man en#ironments e#en

tho!gh many interaction e#ents look Hstable( and monocentric 9e.g. e+ams wedding

ceremonies; there are as a r!le m!ltiple = tho!gh ne#er !nlimited = batteries o% norms to

which one can orient and according to which one can beha#e 9as when the bride winks at thegroom when she says H4 do(;. This m!ltiplicity has been pre#io!sly capt!red !nder terms s!ch

$



as Hpolyphony( or Hm!lti#ocality(. - term s!ch as Hpolycentricity( mo#es the iss!e %rom the

descripti#e to the interpreti#e le#el. -gain my attempt here is towards sensitizing others to

the %act that behind terms s!ch as Hpolyphony( social str!ct!res o% power and ine6!ality are at

work. S!ch str!ct!res = orders o% inde+icality = acco!nt %or the %act that certain %orms o%

polyphony ne#er occ!r while other %orms o% polyphony mirac!lo!sly seem to ass!me similar

shapes and directions. The bride can wink to her groom b!t baring her breasts wo!ld be

highly !n!s!al. 0ertain #oices like the b!rea!cratic one in the asyl!m system systemically

pre#ail o#er others beca!se the impact o% certain centers o% a!thority is bigger than that o%

others. The m!ltiplicity o% a#ailable batteries o% norms does not mean that these batteries are

e6!i#alent e6!ally accessible or e6!ally open to negotiation. *rders o% inde+icality are

strati%ied and impose di%%erences in #al!e onto the di%%erent modes o% semiosis systematically

gi#e pre%erence to some o#er others and e+cl!de or dis6!ali%y partic!lar modes.

?oth concepts Horder o% inde+icality( and Hpolycentricity( th!s s!ggest a less innocent

world o% ling!istic social and c!lt!ral #ariation and di#ersity one in which di%%erence is

6!ickly t!rned into ine6!ality and in which comple+ patterns o% potential"#ers!s"act!al

beha#ior occ!r. They also enable !s to mo#e beyond the !s!al socioling!istic !nits =

homogeneo!s speech comm!nities = and to consider sit!ations in which #ario!s Hbig(

socioling!istic systems enter the pict!re as when people migrate in the conte+t o%

globalization or when in the same conte+t messages start mo#ing across large spaces. 4n both

cases people do not >!st mo#e across space@ gi#en what has been said abo#e we also realize

that they mo#e across di%%erent orders o% inde+icality. 0onse6!ently what happens to them in

comm!nication becomes less predictable than what wo!ld happen in Htheir own( en#ironment.

Socioling!istics in the age o% globalization needs to look way beyond the speech comm!nity

to socioling!istic systems and how they connect and relate to one another. ?ig things matter i%

we want to !nderstand the small things o% disco!rse.

2.!. A sociolinguistics of mobile resources

Power and mobility

Scales orders o% inde+icality polycentricity we now ha#e the basis %or a little #ocab!lary that

will enable !s to talk abo!t lang!age in globalization in a di%%erent way. The three concepts 4

introd!ced had se#eral things in common. *ne s!ch thing was their emphasis on power all o%the concepts s!ggest layering and strati%ication in hierarchical systems o% #al!e %or semiotic

&:



reso!rces. 4n any and e#ery social interaction specific ling!istic %orms will be e+pected and

be #al!ed as the Hbest possible( reso!rces. 4n pragmatics s!ch phenomena o% selection %or

pre%erence ha#e been described %or decades in terms ranging %rom H%elicity conditions( to

Happropriateness criteria( 9see e.g. e#inson 1<3; and let !s not %orget Hpoliteness( research

as a c!lmination point in s!ch st!dies 9c%. 8elen 2:::;. ikewise the 5ymesian notion o%

Hcomm!nicati#e competence( has o%ten been described as the capacity %or Hade6!ate(

ling!istic per%ormance in a gi#en social sit!ation. Cnderstanding what s!ch %orms o%

ade6!acy and appropriateness can be in a conte+t which we are now compelled to imagine as

comple+ and mobile re6!ires a new #ocab!lary. The three terms 4 propose here can be

assessed with regard to !se%!lness.

- second %eat!re shared by the three concepts is their spatiotemporal sensiti#ity. They

need to be read in se6!ence to be clearly !nderstood like that. 4n other words socioling!istic

phenomena in a globalization conte+t need to be !nderstood as de#eloping at se#eral di%%erent

scale le#els where di%%erent orders o% inde+icality dominate res!lting in a polycentric

Hconte+t( where comm!nicati#e beha#ior is sim!ltaneo!sly p!shed and p!lled in #ario!s

directions. The French on the Keiky! phone card was both strictly local 9a Tokyo sign; as well

as translocal 9a French sign;@ the translocal scale"le#el howe#er was not e6!ally accessible to

e#ery cons!mer o% the sign. For local people operating within a local order o% inde+icality the

French made good sense as an emblem o% HFrenchness( with its connotations o% chic. For

people s!ch as me who bro!ght along a practical ling!istic competence in French it made

sense in a #ery di%%erent way it became a Htypically Aapanese( way o% !sing French that is a

%orm that is detached %rom its con#entional HFrench( 9i.e. translocal and ling!istic; %!nctions

and is relocated in a local Tokyo semiotic economy. 4t became in short an e$otic French

%orm and note that the 6!ali%ication o% He+otic( is an assessment made at one partic!lar scale"

le#el and within one partic!lar order o% inde+icality = that o% the translocal scale. Ee"setting

this Keiky! phone card %rom its local Tokyo conte+t to its translocal HFrench( conte+t

in#ol#ed an operation in which the sign was resemiotized s!b>ect to #ery di%%erent proced!res

o% meaning attrib!tion. The sign was made to tra#el it was mobilised by a %eat!re o%

globalization a to!rist 9me; picking it !p in its place o% origin 9Tokyo; and s!b>ecting it to my

own 9Francophone; proced!res o% Hreading( and Hdecoding(. ?y doing so 4 li%ted the sign o!t

o% its TimeSpace %rame and bro!ght it into 6!ite a di%%erent TimeSpace %rame one %or which it

was not intended and one in which it co!ld conse6!ently ac6!ire He+otic( meanings.

4t sho!ld be clear that we are relati#ely %ar remo#ed %rom a traditional socioling!isticdisco!rse o% lang!age mi+ing and shi%ting here. 0on#entional approaches to code"switching

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wo!ld not be able to tell !s m!ch on signs s!ch as the H5aneda %ith Keiky!( or the HeTrain(

e+amples gi#en here. For one thing there is %ar more than Hlang!age( 9in the sense o%

HAapanese( H8nglish( and HFrench(; at play here. -s 4 noted in the beginning the Keiky!

phone card contains three s!ch Hlang!ages( 9e#en i% in minimal one"word %orms; as well as

three scripts and a compo!nd image o% a plane and a train. 4t is o% co!rse a m!ltimodal sign

and shi%ts occ!r here in a #astly more comple+ %ield than that o% Hlang!age( alone. 4n addition

what we obser#e is clearly not >!st a linguistic problem it is a semiotic one. 0onse6!ently we

need to look at reso!rces act!al sit!ated reso!rces as deployed by real people in real conte+ts

and reconte+t!alized by other real people s!ch as mysel%. e are witnessing repertoires here

constr!cted o!t o% bits and pieces o% con#entionally de%ined Hlang!ages( and concretely

ass!ming the shape o% registers and genres o% specific patterns o% lang!age in comm!nicati#e

shapes s!ch as a phone card a poster or a shop sign. The target o% o!r analysis is reso!rces

and e#en i% s!ch reso!rces can be con#entionally tagged as Hbelonging( to lang!age X or O it

is good to remember that the whole point is abo!t the dislodging o% s!ch reso!rces %rom their

con#entional origins. The French on the Keiky! phone card becomes a problem not beca!se

o% its ling!istic %eat!res = not beca!se it is HFrench( = b!t beca!se o% the partic!lar ways in

which it has penetrated the semiotic repertoire o% people in Tokyo and has ac6!ired meanings

and %!nctions there. This 4 wo!ld say is a socioling!istics o% mobile reso!rces no longer a

socioling!istics o% immobile lang!ages.

Locked in space: on linguistic rights

'at!rally this theoretical stance comes at a price. S!ch %orms o% inter"lang!age penetration

ha#e o%ten been capt!red in a totalizing b!t com%ortable disco!rse o% lang!age9s; with which

we now ha#e to disagree. There is by now a well"entrenched and #ery respectable branch o%

socioling!istics which is concerned with describing the world o% globalization %rom the

perspecti#e o% ling!istic imperialism and Hling!icide( 9,hillipson 12@ Sk!tnabb"Kangas

2:::; o%ten based on partic!lar ecological metaphors. These approaches start %rom a

socioling!istics o% distrib!tion and oddly ass!me that where#er a Hbig( and(power%!l(

lang!age s!ch as 8nglish Happears( in a %oreign territory small indigeno!s lang!ages will

Hdie(. There is in this image o% socioling!istic space place %or >!st one lang!age at a time. 4n

general there seems to be a serio!s problem with the ways in which space is imagined in s!ch

work. 4n addition the act!al socioling!istic details o% s!ch processes are rarely spelled o!t =lang!ages can be !sed in #ernac!lar or in ling!a %ranca #arieties and so create di%%erent

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socioling!istic conditions %or m!t!al in%l!encing@ 8nglish sometimes Hthreatens( other %ormer

colonial lang!ages s!ch as French Spanish or ,ort!g!ese rather than the indigeno!s

lang!ages 9a phenomenon noted primarily in %ormer e+ploitation colonies and less prominent

in %ormer settlement colonies@ see M!%wene 2::& 2::<;@ or sometimes the Hthreat( to

indigeno!s lang!ages can come %rom dominant local 9Hindigeno!s(; lang!ages rather than

8nglish as we shall see %!rther in this book. So there are se#eral ma>or problems with the

literat!re on ling!istic rights.

*ne ma>or problem is the way in which a!thors appear to ass!me the spatial

H%i+edness( o% people lang!ages and places. The disco!rse o% minority rights is in general a

disco!rse o% strict locality and the %irst lines o% the C' Beclaration on the Eights o% ,ersons

?elonging to 'ational or 8thnic Eeligio!s and ing!istic Minorities read States shall

protect the e+istence and the national or ethnic c!lt!ral religio!s and ling!istic minorities

%ithin their respecti!e territories and shall enco!rage conditions %or the promotion o% that

identityN 96!oted in Sk!tnabb"Kangas and ,hillipson 1;. This Beclaration is an agreement

between states which are here presented as territorially bo!nded entities in the space o% which

a partic!lar regime can and sho!ld be de#eloped with respect to Hminorities( de%ined in the

same mo#e as minorities within that partic!lar 9Hstate(; territory. The rights granted by this

Beclaration are territorially bo!nded and organized rights and distinctions between gro!ps

e#ol#e along the classic 5erderian triad o% territory"c!lt!re"lang!age 9?lommaert and

Dersch!eren 1<;.

This disco!rse o% locality is !s!ally co!ched in en#ironmental"ecological metaphors a

partic!lar place is characterized by speci%ic %eat!res ranging %rom climate thro!gh biodi#ersity

to people c!lt!res and lang!ages. The relationship between these di%%erent components is

seen as a %orm o% synergy it is thro!gh h!man #ariability that di#ersity in the en#ironment is

s!stained %or the lang!ages and c!lt!res o% local people pro#ide !ni6!e #iews on this

en#ironment and help s!stain it. See %or e+ample the point o% #iew artic!lated by one o% the

most #ocal ad#ocates o% ling!istic rights 'erralingua 91 %rom their website

httpIIco!gar.!cda#is.ed!InasIterralinIlearn.html;

e know that a di#ersity o% species lends stability and resilience to the world(s

ecosystems. Terraling!a thinks that a di#ersity o% lang!ages does the same %or the

world(s c!lt!res " and that these mani%estations o% the di#ersity o% li%e are interrelated.

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http://cougar.ucdavis.edu/nas/terralin/le

http://cougar.ucdavis.edu/nas/terralin/le



This di#ersity is in#ariably seen as something that needs to be preser#ed conse6!ently. 4t

literally needs to be Hkept in place(. To go by the words o% Sk!tnabb"Kangas and ,hillipson

91& <$; PtQhe perpet!ation o% ling!istic di#ersity can 9...; be seen as a recognition that all

indi#id!als and gro!ps ha#e basic h!man rights and as a necessity %or the s!r#i#al o% the

planet in a similar way to biodi#ersityN 9see also Sk!tnabb"Kangas and ,hillipson 1@

'ettle and Eomaine 2:::@ see May 2::1 ?lommaert 2::1b and M!%wene 2::2 %or a

criti6!e;.

There is a ling!istic"ideological dimension to this in which it is ass!med that lang!age

%!nctions in a comm!nity beca!se it pro#ides local meanings meanings that pro#ide %rames

%or !nderstanding the local en#ironment to categorize and analyse the 9strictly; local world.

Ee%erences to the !ni6!e world#iews enshrined in these lang!ages o%ten re#ol#e aro!nd local

%!nctionality as well the world#iews are e+pressed in terms and grammatical relations that

address or artic!late a local decoding o% the world. et !s ret!rn to Sk!tnabb"Kangas and

,hillipson 1& <;

ing!istic di#ersity at local le#els is a necessary co!nterweight to the hegemony o% a

%ew Hinternational( lang!ages. The Horld ang!ages( sho!ld >!st as roads and

bridges be seen as tools %or comm!nication o% ideas and matter b!t the creation o%

a!thentic ideas and prod!cts 9instead o% mass"prod!cts; is in most cases necessarily

best done locally.

The world#iews are in#ariably local 9or territorialized; world#iews linked to partic!lar

regional s!rro!ndings. - people(s lang!age localizes these people it sets them within a

partic!lar spatially demarcated ecology.

4t is this #iew o% local %!nctionality that !nderpins the strong claims cited abo#e that

the s!r#i#al o% minority lang!ages is cr!cial %or the s!r#i#al o% the planet %or with e#ery

lang!age that disappears a !ni6!ely %!nctional local set o% meanings abo!t the en#ironment is

lost. ang!ages are seen as local repositories o% knowledge and s!ch local %orms o%

knowledge are essential %or !nderstanding the 9local; world. 0onse6!ently when people are

mo#ed into a di%%erent en#ironment the lang!age may lose 9part o%; its %!nctions. 0on#ersely

when another lang!age is introd!ced in a partic!lar en#ironment it may as well be

dys%!nctional %or it does not artic!late the partic!lar local meanings re6!ired %or the

s!stenance o% this en#ironment. This idea in t!rn !nderpins the idea o% ling!istic imperialismin#ariably concei#ed as a non"local lang!age 9!s!ally the e+"colonial lang!age and !s!ally

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8nglish; penetrating or in#ading local spaces and dist!rbing the ecological balance that

e+isted between people their lang!age and c!lt!re and their en#ironment 9Sk!tnabb"Kangas

2:::@ Sk!tnabb"Kangas and ,hillipson 1& 1 and 5e!gh 1 pro#ide e+amples;.

4n s!m what we see here is how lang!age %!nctions are territorialized tied to

partic!lar local en#ironments apparently constr!cted as static. ang!age apparently works

e+cellently in its own original place and it loses %!nctions as soon as the stable original

Ha!tochtono!s( 9or Hnati#e( Haboriginal(; link between lang!age and place is broken.

0onse6!ently a program aimed at stim!lating or promoting these local lang!ages 9in#ariably

mother tong!es o% apparently inherently monoling!al and monoc!lt!ral people; ties the

speakers o% these lang!ages to a place and rein%orces the pres!med %i+ed connection between

people and their en#ironment = a clear re%le+ o% the Sa!ss!rean synchrony.

-ll o% this so!nds more or less acceptable at least when some aspects o% reality are

con#eniently o#erlooked. - rather dist!rbing aspect o% contemporary reality as we know is

mobility. 4n contemporary social str!ct!res people tend to mo#e aro!nd both in real

geographical space and in symbolic social space. -nd all o% these processes o% mobility

appear to display comple+ connections with lang!age 9Eampton 1& 1; incl!ding

lang!age attit!des and lang!age planning.

ang!age as a social thing i.e. something in which people ha#e made in#estments and

to which they ha#e attrib!ted #al!es seems to ha#e awkward relations to space the main a+es

o% which are those o% territorialization and deterritorialization. Territorialization stands %or the

perception and attrib!tion o% #al!es to lang!age as a local phenomenon something which ties

people to local comm!nities and spaces. 0!stomarily people(s mother tong!e 91; is

percei#ed as Hterritorialized lang!age( alongside orality and the !se o% dialects. -ll o% these

%orms o% lang!age emanate locality. 0on#ersely deterritorialization stands %or the perception

and attrib!tion o% #al!es to lang!age as something which does not belong to one locality b!t

which organizes translocal tra>ectories and wider spaces 9Hscale >!mps( in the terminology

de#eloped earlier in this chapter;. Second or other lang!ages 92; as well as ling!a %rancae

and diaspora #arieties standardized #arieties and literacy are seen as Hdeterritorialized

lang!age( lang!age that does not e+cl!si#ely belong to one place 9Aac6!emet 2::: 2::&@

Maryns and ?lommaert 2::1;.

ang!age #ariation allows de%ines and organizes spatial tra>ectories. iteracy allows a

te+t to be mo#ed both physically across spaces in the world as well as symbolically across

social spheres and scales. - standard #ariety o% a lang!age allows mo#ing to ad>acent placeswhere people speak similar dialects as well as across social spaces into the elite.

&&



4nternational lang!ages s!ch as French or 8nglish allow insertion in large transnational spaces

and networks as well as access to the elites. The di%%erent Htypes( o% lang!ages in short allow

access to di%%erent scales. -ll o% these scalar patterns o% mobility are real they re#ol#e o%ten

aro!nd li%e"chances and opport!nities and conse6!ently people o%ten artic!late relations

between lang!age or code choices and spaces. The choice %or 8nglish or French rather than

indigeno!s lang!ages in ed!cation is at the grassroots le#el o%ten moti#ated by means o%

disco!rses o% Hgetting o!t o% here( and towards partic!lar centers = metropolitan areas = where

!pward social mobility at least looks possible.

Mo#ing thro!gh the #ario!s le#els o% ed!cation o%ten in#ol#es mo#ing thro!gh

layered scaled regimes o% lang!age each time seen as enabling deterritorialization and hence

social as well as geographical mobility. Senses o% belonging into a partic!lar comm!nity

con#ersely o%ten go hand in hand with the creation 9or re"creation; o% partic!lar #arieties that

tie people to that comm!nity while at the same time inde+ing displacement and

deterritorialization. HGangsta( 8nglish %or instance is widespread in -%rican !rban centers as

a lang!age o% the townships and the sl!ms where partic!lar o%ten imaginarily #iolent yo!th

c!lt!res de#elop 9see chapter / below %or a more e+tensi#e disc!ssion;. S!ch ling!istic

ideologies connecting lang!age #arieties to dynamics o% locality and mobility acti#e both at

the %olk and at instit!tional le#els o%ten %oster resistance to the promotion o% indigeno!s

minority lang!ages = a point o%ten reported by %ieldworkers b!t rarely written down in

p!blications.

Tho!gh one might deplore this the reasons are !s!ally so!nd eno!gh. Symbolic

marginalization is o%ten >!st one correlate o% real material marginalization 9Fraser 1&

Stro!d 2::1;@ 1 promotion is a %orm o% symbolic !pgrading o% marginalized reso!rces and

resistance is o%ten based on an ac!te awareness o% the persistence o% real marginalization. 4%

per%ormed within a monoglot strategy 9i.e. a strategy aimed at constr!cting H%!ll

monoling!alism( and re>ecting biling!alism as a road to lang!age attrition or lang!age death;

1 promotion is th!s seen as an instr!ment pre!enting a way o!t o% real marginalization and

amo!nting to keeping people in their marginalized places and locked into one scale"le#el the

local. 4magine a %amily in the #ery marginalized and poor 'orth"8astern parts o% So!th

-%rica speaking Denda. 8d!cation in Denda is likely to be percei#ed as keeping people in the

marginalized region as long as good white"collar >obs and higher ed!cation are in e%%ect

concentrated in places like Aohannesb!rg = and re6!ire access to 8nglish andIor -%rikaans. 4%

the %amily wants to o%%er its children !pward social mobility then it needs to o%%er themgeographical mobility and conse6!ently ling!istic mobility as well. ang!age shi%t !nder

&



s!ch conditions is a strategy %or s!r#i#al. 4n the eyes o% the speakers the !pgrading o%

marginalized symbolic goods may still be seen as less empowering than the creation o% access

to the real prestige goods. M!%wene 92::2 3//; capt!res the core o% this wicked problemN

well PiQt sometimes boils down to a choice between sa#ing speakers %rom their economic

predicament and sa#ing a lang!age.N

The cr!+ o% the matter is that we need to think o% iss!es s!ch as ling!istic ine6!ality as

being organized aro!nd concrete reso!rces not aro!nd lang!ages in general b!t speci%ic

registers #arieties genres. -nd s!ch concrete reso!rces %ollow the predicament o% their !sers

when the latter are socially mobile their reso!rces will %ollow this tra>ectory@ when they are

socially marginal their reso!rces will also be dis6!ali%ied. 4n both cases the challenge is to

think o% lang!age as a mobile comple+ o% concrete reso!rces. 4% we %ail to do that we risk

drawing a caricat!re o% social realities and becoming #ery !pset abo!t that caricat!re rather

than abo!t an acc!rate replica o% social processes. This needless to say is a pointless

e+ercise. The matter is o% %!ndamental importance and is easily mis!nderstood and this is

why 4 am emphatic abo!t it. 4n what %ollows 4 will try to pro#ide a clear ill!stration o% what

we are talking abo!t the mobility o% concrete semiotic reso!rces 9not Hlang!ages(; in a

globalized conte+t. There is always a tension between an ideologically percei#ed Hlang!age(

and socioling!istically percei#ed Hreso!rces( as we shall see presently@ globalized economic

%orces acerbate and e+ploit s!ch tensions.

2.#. +elling accent

ang!age policy re#ol#es aro!nd the prod!ction and en%orcement o% norms %or lang!age !se

and its s!ccess is meas!red by the degree to which policy"pre%erred norms are accepted and

spread. Traditionally the state is the ma>or player in the %ield o% lang!age policy. 4t reg!lates

which lang!age9s; and %orms o% literacy are Ho%%icial( and Hnational( and it imposes r!les and

constraints on the !se o% lang!ages and scripts in its realm. Cs!ally the state was and is

concerned with standardized Hlang!ages( that is with one layer o% ling!istic #ariation. The

state howe#er always had to share the space o% norm de%inition and normati#e cond!ct with

other actors = the %amily is one #ery important s!ch actor while ci#il society actors s!ch as

ch!rches are others. Media traditionally by and large s!pported the Ho%%icial( norms imposed

by the state. 4ntralang!age #ariation = dialects accents = was and is within the p!r#iew o% the

indi#id!al citizens or o% gro!ps !sing them to %lag partic!lar identities. -t the national le#el

&/



they are #ery o%ten seen as the %abric o% national identity and local 9s!b"state; a!thenticity and

o%ten cherished as s!ch 9see e.g. 8lmes 2::&;.

4 ha#e to c!t 6!ite a %ew corners here b!t the point 4 wish to make is that 91; the state

is traditionally a #ery power%!l actor in the %ield o% lang!age norms and traditionally has the

monopoly o% %ormal policy making@ b!t 92; the state has ne#er been the only player in the

%ield o% lang!age norms. 4t has always been a ma>or player b!t ne#er a completely hegemonic

player@ there is always a %orm o% polycentricity a di#ision o% labor between the state and other

actors in this %ield and %ormal lang!age policies compete with the lang!age politics o% other

actors in comple+ webs o% lang!age policing acti#ities. 93; The lang!age policies o% the state

are traditionally aimed at Hlang!ages( only@ the state is !s!ally tolerant when it comes to the

coe+istence o% a m!ltit!de o% dialects and accents in the national lang!age9s; on its territory.

4n ?elgi!m %or instance the state makes no e%%ort to combat regional #ariation in the national

lang!ages French B!tch and German e#en i% the ed!cation system %orce%!lly promotes

standard #arieties o% these lang!ages and e#en i% a modest complaints c!lt!re e+ists abo!t the

!se regionalisms and dialects in the media.

4 will !se these general introd!ctory remarks as the backdrop %or an arg!ment that r!ns

as %ollows. The traditional tolerance o% state policies towards intralang!age #ariation s!ch as

dialects and accents is not matched by the politics o% lang!age o% globalized pri#ate

enterprise actors. hile the state %oc!ses on lang!age new actors o% lang!age

commodi%ication %oc!s on accent and disco!rse th!s creating a market in which sharp

distinctions between speaking right and speaking wrong are artic!lated. S!ch distinctions

draw on globalized orders o% inde+icality normati#e comple+es in which imageries o% global

s!ccess and %ail!re are !sed and 8nglish = the lang!age that de%ines globalization = is o%

co!rse the core o% s!ch orders. The o!tcome o% this is a competiti#e market not >!st o% 8nglish

b!t o% 8nglish accents which de%ies the traditional tolerance o% the state policies as well as

pop!lar 9and academic; perceptions o% accent as prod!cing a!thenticity. 4t creates a new

commodi%ied dialectology and raises 6!ite comple+ iss!es on normati#ity and identity as well

as on the shi%ting balance between %ormal lang!age policies and e6!ally %ormalized lang!age

politics in an age o% globalization. 4t is an instance o% Fo!ca!ltian Hpolicing( = the rational

prod!ction o% order = and it works thro!gh an in%initely detailed attention to cond!ct 9what

Fo!ca!lt P2::& 2::/Q called Hthe care o% the sel%( the perpet!al micro"practices o%

s!b>ecti#ity;. -ccent co!rses prod!ce a regimented s!b>ect that is s!b>ected to r!les o%

Hnormal( speech = speech that is in#isible beca!se it is !ni%orm and homogeneo!s. et !s nowe+amine the proced!res by means o% which this s!b>ecti%ication is e%%ected.

&<



The internet and the commodification of accent

Eeplacing to some e+tent the older ind!stry o% correspondence co!rses the 4nternet o%%ers a

wide and #irt!ally !ncontrolled space %or lang!age learning packages. They come in all

shapes and sizes and 4 will %oc!s on websites o%%ering co!rses in -merican accent. 4 do this

beca!se they mani%estly bank on two di%%erent things 91; the worldwide Hstampede towards

8nglish( 9de Swaan 2::1; inspired by the global perception o% 8nglish as the lang!age that

de%ines !pwardly mobile tra>ectories@ 92; a partic!lar imagery o% the CS and -merican

c!lt!ral symbols as being in the %ore%ront o% globalization and o% !pward global mobility. 4n

other words we get the so"called HMcBonaldization( o% the world ca!ght metonymically in

packages %or ac6!iring an -merican"so!nding #ariety o% 8nglish. hat is spread is o% co!rse

not >!st the prod!ct b!t also the ad>ecti#es !sed to 6!ali%y it not >!st the lang!age as ling!istic

str!ct!re b!t the lang!age as a densely loaded ideological %ormat something that is %ar more

than a lang!age b!t also an ac6!irable imagery o% the Sel% as being Hin the world(.

et me note %rom the o!tset that altho!gh -merican accent websites may o%%er !s the

most o!tspoken e+amples o% s!ch dense ideological packaging websites o%%ering packages in

other lang!ages and #arieties do the same be it slightly less e+plicitly. They all o%%er lang!age

and the social tra>ectories it is s!pposed to pro#ide or open. -merican accent websites are not

!ni6!e b!t ill!strati#e o% a broader pattern o% ideological packaging o% commodi%ied

lang!ages and #arieties. e sho!ld also obser#e right %rom the start that these websites ne#er

o%%er Ha( lang!age in its totality. hat they o%%er is a register = a speci%ic bit o% lang!age

tailored to the immediate needs or desires o% the c!stomers. hat is o%%ered is something that

gi#es the impression o% lang!age a pragmatic and metapragmatic component to lang!age

competence that inde+ically emanates the right ideological package. The point is not to learn

-merican 8nglish b!t to sound like an -merican. The lang!age policing here operates on

s!b"lang!age ob>ects.

'ote that the real CS society is o% co!rse #ery m!ch a Hm!lti"accent( society. -part

%rom the well"known regional #arieties 9e.g. Te+an -ppalachian; a #isit to any big hotel in the

CS teaches !s that atino 8astern"8!ropean and -sian accents are #ery m!ch accepted as

working #arieties o% -merican 8nglish. The H-merican accent( sold by the 4nternet companies

we consider here is o%ten based on the 8ast"Midwest 9Michigan 4llinois; accent presented

here as the ne!tral Haccent"less( -merican accent. That in itsel% deser#es more disc!ssionspace than what 4 can spend on it here. The point is 4nternet pro#iders sell a Hstandard9ized;

&



accent( a regional accent 9H-merican(; that carries all the ideological %eat!res o% a

standard9ized; lang!age. ith these two ca#eats in mind let !s now t!rn to the websites

themsel#es.

0onsider %ig!re $ taken %rom a website called H-merican -ccent 'ow(

9www.-merican"accent"now.com;1

9F4GCE8 $ 58E8. 0aption H-merican -ccent 'ow(;

e see se#eral things here. First o% co!rse we see two %ig!res a mani%estly happy yo!ng

white man and a mani%estly %r!strated -sian woman. e can ass!me that the man has

ac6!ired an -merican accent 9or had one right %rom the start; and that the -sian woman

hasn(t. The reason why she is %r!strated can be read %rom the bo+es one can check to

demonstrate the ways in which a non"-merican accent pre#ents yo! %rom achie#ing yo!r

pro%essional and personal goals.N Eespondents = prospecti#e c!stomers = are re6!ested to

identi%y the single biggest problem with yo!r accent.N The two categories can be di#ided as

%ollows

,ro%essional

"4 ha#e been denied a >ob promotion

"My clients 9or patients or colleag!es; o%ten mis!nderstand me

" 4 %ailed to get a >ob 4 was 6!ali%ied %or

"My boss 9or teacher; doesn(t gi#e me the respect 4 deser#e

"4 make less money than less e+perienced people who ha#e a better pron!nciation

,ersonal

",eople think 4(m less smart than 4 am

"4 %ind it #ery hard to socialize with -mericans in personal and b!siness settings

",eople sometimes la!gh at the way 4 talk

e now begin to disco#er the strange world we ha#e entered. 4t is a world in which inde+ical

#al!es and social e%%ects o% lang!age = !s!ally tacit ideological %eat!res o% lang!age !se = are

made #ery e+plicit both in te+t and in images. The key to getting the >obs one deser#es and to

earning the money one is entitled to is pron!nciation. -n image o% personality is in#oked thatmakes this red!ction possible the prospecti#e c!stomer is already smart entitled to better

:

http://www.american-accent-now.com/

http://www.american-accent-now.com/



>obs and a s!perior income and entitled to respect %rom one(s s!periors. So ac6!iring the

accent will so to speak release all o% these 6!alities to be seen %or e#eryone. -c6!iring an

-merican accent will in the eyes o% the interloc!tors t!rn yo! into the person yo! really are.

'ot e#eryone is a prospecti#e c!stomer o% co!rse. -s we co!ld see in the images !sed

by -merican -ccent 'ow the %r!strated s!b>ect was -sian and the happy one was what is

known in the CS as a H0a!casian(. ebsites make general targeted statements abo!t Hstrong

%oreign accents(

- strong %oreign accent can pre#ent yo! %rom achie#ing yo!r pro%essional or personal

goals and reaching yo!r %!ll potential. ,eople sho!ldn(t ha#e to ask yo! to repeat what

yo! said. 4n today(s competiti#e corporate en#ironment clear pron!nciation and

correct grammar are a m!st. 9-cc!rate 8nglish www.acc!rateenglish.com;

-nd what is meant by Hstrong %oreign( accent is o%ten doc!mented in the F-Y or Testimonials

pages o% s!ch websites and almost in#ariably this is done by re%erence to Hnational( accents.

Some 8!ropean accents s!ch as French German and e#en ?ritish accents are seen as

partic!larly prone to mis!nderstanding -sian accents s!ch as 4ndian 0hinese and Aapanese

accents nat!rally mo#e in the danger zone o% globalized comprehensibility and Middle

8astern accents are problematic thro!gho!t. They are problematic in contacts with Hnati#e

speakers(

*!r accent red!ction and -merican pron!nciation co!rses will teach yo! to create the

so!nds o% Standard -merican 8nglish and gi#e yo! greater con%idence in yo!r

comm!nication skills with nati#e speakers o% 8nglish. 9-cc!rate 8nglish;

PTestimonial %rom an H4ranian dental st!dent(Q 5i my name is Sanaz. -bo!t a year ago

when 4 came to the C.S. 4 was #ery con%!sed. 4 was in c!lt!re shock. Thanks to God

it happened to me to meet #ery lo#ely people. They ga#e me co!rage to deal with all

new things as well as they helped me to impro#e my 8nglish and ga#e me con%idence

to speak 8nglish. -mong them two people were so special %or me" Sheri and Mark

Pthe -ccent orkshop trainersQ. 'ot only they were %ab!lo!s teachers they were #ery

help%!l %riends. Oo! can always tr!st their opinion. 4Zll ne#er %orget the great in%l!ence

that Sheri and Mark ha#e on my 8nglish. 4Zm really happy to meet them. 9The-merican -ccent orkshop www.accentworkshop.com;

1

http://www.accurateenglish.com/

http://www.accentworkshop.com/

http://www.accurateenglish.com/

http://www.accentworkshop.com/



Sanaz e+perienced Hcon%!sion( and Hc!lt!re shock( !pon his arri#al in the CS and the

-merican accent co!rse ga#e him Hco!rage( and Hcon%idence( to speak -merican 8nglish and

this capacity clearly helped him o#ercome his initial %eelings. 'ote the %re6!ent re%erences to

H%eelgood( %actors s!ch as Hcon%idence(.2 Speaking in an -merican accent makes people more

con%ident in contacts with their -merican nati#e"speaker co!nterparts

PTestimonial %rom a Spanish male aboratory managerQ The -cc!rate 8nglish accent

red!ction co!rses sho!ld be a [m!st[ %or all pro%essionals whose %oreign accent gets in

the way o% clear comm!nication. Taking the co!rses has greatly impro#ed my

pron!nciation o% -merican 8nglish so!nds and made a big di%%erence in my speech.

My presentations at work are m!ch better. 4 speak with more con%idence and

a!thority. 9-cc!rate 8nglish;

PTestimonial %rom an 4sraeli male comp!ter cons!ltantQ ?e%ore 4 started taking the

classes 4 co!ldnZt prono!nce certain #owel so!nds correctly. isa Pthe trainerQ

identi%ied the iss!es and ta!ght me to listen and to e+press mysel% in a nati#e way. 5er

c!stomized method allowed me to 6!anti%y my weekly impro#ements. -%ter a

relati#ely short time 4 noticed ma>or progress in the way 4 speak. This lead PsicQ to an

!ne+pected increase in my con%idence when comm!nicating. 4 highly recommend the

-merican ,ron!nciation co!rse. 9-cc!rate 8nglish;

The bene%its o% accent modi%ication can be yo!rs

"0lear !nderstandable speech

"8%%icient e%%ecti#e comm!nication

"0areer opport!nities

"4mpro#ed >ob per%ormance

"S!ccess%!l p!blic speaking

"More con%idence 9-d#ance -merican -ccent Training www.ad#anceamericanaccent.com;

The Hcon%idence( promised or reported in these e+amples is a mi+t!re o% personal and

pro%essional %eat!res. ,eople are more con%ident in general they %eel better a%ter ha#ing taken

the co!rses and they also per%orm better in their >obs as well. The Spanish aboratory

2

http://www.advanceamericanaccent.com/





Manager reported signi%icant impro#ements in his presentations at work and -d#ance

-merican -ccent Training promises not >!st Hmore con%idence( b!t also Hcareer opport!nities(

as well as Himpro#ed >ob per%ormance(. The implicit image is that o% a Hpro%essional(

someone whose >ob is a central part o% hisIher li%e and %or whom pro%essional !nhappiness is

e6!al to personal !nhappiness. Most websites th!s wo!ld s!ggest mi+t!res o% pro%essional

and personal res!lts %or their accent co!rses and we see a sort o% contin!!m here with some

websites s!ggesting more pro%essional bene%its than personal ones. 0onsider the ne+t

e+ample %rom the -ccent Eed!ction 4nstit!te 9www.lessaccent.com; a website that sho!ts

ose yo!r accent in 2< daysN

The -ccent Eed!ction 4nstit!te 9-E4; is the ind!stry leader in -merican -ccent

Training pro#iding non"nati#e 8nglish speakers with pro#en techni6!es to 6!ickly

master 8nglish pron!nciation. -E4 pro#ides the tools to help people maintain their

!ni6!e c!lt!ral identity while

← 8liminating lang!age barriers and miscomm!nications

← 4ncreasing sales and pro%itability

← 0omm!nicating e+pertise to c!stomers

← ?!ilding strong teams

← 4ncreasing e%%iciencies

← Eaising sel%"con%idence

HSel%"con%idence( has been p!shed into a small corner here and the main ad#ertisement claims

are abo!t pro%essional aims. 'ote howe#er that c!stomers can maintain their !ni6!e

c!lt!ral identity.N 4 shall come back to that below. 0omm!nicaid 9www.comm!nicaid.com; in

the meantime is clear abo!t its b!siness"oriented e%%iciency

hy -merican -ccent Training7 ith the proli%eration o% o%%shore operations in

locations as di#erse as 4ndia the ,hilippines So!th -%rica and 0hina organizations

need to ens!re that their o%%shore employees are able to comm!nicate e%%ecti#ely with

c!stomers and colleag!es alike. - #ital ingredient o% s!ccess%!l comm!nication %or

yo!r o#erseas sta%% is their accent when speaking 8nglish.

3

http://www.lessaccent.com/

http://www.communicaid.com/

http://www.lessaccent.com/

http://www.communicaid.com/



The impact o% First ang!age 4n%l!ence 9F4; on an o%%shore employee(s accent can

not be !nderestimated. -merican -ccent training %rom 0omm!nicaid will help yo!r

o#erseas sta%% to minimise the in%l!ence o% their %irst lang!age while ma+imising their

comm!nication with yo!r c!stomers thro!gh a ne!tral accent. hether thro!gh online

-merican -ccent Training co!rses #irt!al -merican -ccent training or %ace"to"%ace

accent instr!ction 0omm!nicaid o%%ers scaleable -merican accent training sol!tions

%or yo!r organization(s o%%shore operations.

- 0omm!nicaid -merican -ccent Training co!rse will pro#ide yo!r o%%shore

personnel with the ability to

" 0omm!nicate more e%%iciently and e%%ecti#ely with c!stomers and colleag!es by red!cing their %irst lang!age in%l!enced accent

" ?!ild rapport and empathy and strengthen relationships with c!stomers and

colleag!es thro!gh more s!ccess%!l comm!nication

" 8nhance yo!r c!stomer e+perience and satis%action

The target gro!ps are here clearly the e#er"increasing work%orce o% international call centers

and most o% the -merican accent websites wo!ld make e+plicit or implicit re%erence to call

centers as a target or a s!ccess story. Th!s the Testimonials page o% the ,ron!nciation

orkshop 9www.pron!nciationworkshop.com; reports

This is by %ar the M*ST 8FF80T4D8 8nglish ,ron!nciation program 4 ha#e e#er

seen. 4 am an -merican -ccent Trainer in 4ndia and ha#e trained 22::: agents. -%ter

taking this program 4 wish there was a way to go back and start all o#er again.

" %or/ak* oyce -merican -ccent Trainer = 4ndia

4 am the 5ead o% the Training Bepartment o% the orldZs Second argest 0all 0enter

0ompany in 4ndia. e ha#e %ootprints in o#er $: co!ntries aro!nd the world

incl!ding many centers in Cnited States as well. 4 ha#e been working in the 0all

0enter 4nd!stry in 4ndia %or the past < years. ?eca!se we cater to -merica %or years

we ha#e been searching %or a cost e%%ecti#e training method to learn the -merican

style o% 8nglish ,ron!nciation howe#er ha#e had no l!ck...that is !ntil we %o!nd the

,ron!nciationorkshop program. hile searching thro!gh Google one day 4 came

$

http://www.pronunciationworkshop.com/

http://www.pronunciationworkshop.com/



across the ,ron!nciationorkshop website and watched the %ree demo LLe %o!nd

that demo to be S4M,O -M-\4'G STCFF 4nstead o% showing

diagrams #is!als combined with phonetics there was ,a!l.. - 4D8 TE-4'8ELL

S5*4'G 54S M*CT5 F*EM-T4*' and the T805'4YC8S to get a clearer

so!nd. 4 6!ickly showed it to my 08* and he was amazed as well. hatZs !ni6!e

abo!t ,a!lZs co!rse is how simple it is...as well as %!n to watch. My sta%% always looks

%orward to working on this program...e seem to learn something new e#ery time we

watch another #ideo and it has made remarkable changes in o!r speech and 8nglish

skills. e ha#e implemented this training appro+imately si+ months ago to impro#e

o!r c!stomer satis%action scores. 'ot only ha#e we seen signi%icant impro#ements

with o!r scores b!t o!r -#erage 0all 5andle Time per c!stomer has red!ced

appro+imately by 2] in the last $ months as the agents do not need to repeat

themsel#es. ooking into the s!ccess o% the program at o!r center we ha#e also asked

,a!l to de#elop a certi%ication program. 4 mysel% as well as members o% my sta%% ha#e

gone thro!gh telephonic training with ,a!l one"on"one. ,a!l makes learning so m!ch

FC' and has changed the way we speak 8nglish. Today 4 am pro!d to say that the

entire training department has become 0erti%ied by ,ron!nciation orkshop. 4 cannot

praise this co!rse eno!gh 9...; 4t is tr!ly 6!ite an achie#ement and 4 know yo! will be

e+tremely pleased as well." 4oy 5eb 6ukheree Birector o% Training = 4ndia

The tr!ly remarkable thing abo!t ,a!lZs Pthe trainerQ program is how simple and

e%%ecti#e it is...and his engaging persona really p!lls yo! in. 5ere in 4ndia !sing this

program we are able to take an indi#id!al who is C'8M,*O-?8 %or the o%%shore

booming call center ind!stry and make him 8M,*O-?8 with a good >ob which

pays well in less than two and hal% months... ThatZs the ,ower o% ,a!lZs program 5eis changing li#es on the opposite side o% the world " +anay 6ehta Managing

Birector Teleper%ormance 4ndia

-nd -merican -ccent 9www.americanaccent.com; sees a direct link between its online

teaching methodology and its prospecti#e c!stomers the call center workers

)t 7orks

8uick, 9asy an :ully Automate

Gi#en the power%!l combination o% high aptit!de and a pro#en methodology

&

http://www.americanaccent.com/

http://www.americanaccent.com/



designated trainees easily and ,uic&ly pick !p on the accent.

,eople !sed to think that classroom training is the best method b!t %or the ideal call

center candidate yo! %ant someone who is completely com%ortable in the #irt!al

en#ironment "" %rom initial training thro!gh to long"term >ob satis%action.

-ll o% this is in a way s!mmarized and hyperbolically ill!strated by the start page o% the

,ron!nciation orkshop 9%ig!re &;.

9F4GCE8 & 58E8. 0aption H,ron!nciation orkshop(;

lobal inde!icals of success

-merican accent personal happiness and sel%"con%idence smooth and e%%icient

comm!nication with -mericans >ob satis%action b!siness opport!nities and money this is the

package sold by these dot"com b!sinesses. The package consists o% Hlang!age( itsel% 9or

register"bits thereo%; as well as representations o% it and o% what it has to o%%er its speakers

and at a #ery implicit le#el representations o% H-merica( o% what -merica is as a society and

o% the socioc!lt!ral pre%erences and e+pectations o% H-mericans(.3 Following Sil#erstein

92::b $<&; we can call this Hsemiotic cons!bstantiality( yo! are 9or become; what yo!

speak and speaking it 9mysterio!sly; trans%orms yo! into what is inde+ically s!ggested by the

speech. The pro#iders sell these cons!bstantialities to the people who are at the heart o%

globalization processes e+patriate 9i.e. deterritorialized or peripatetic; pro%essionals h!ngry

%or s!ccess opport!nity and money and call center operati#es in Hdelocalized( and inherently

mobile areas o% the b!siness world. -nd they sell them by means o% that de%ining technology

o% globalization the 4nternet. The target a!diences %or these websites are not the masses o%

poor migrants %rom the margins o% the world not the ,hilippine domestic workers who ha#e

become one o% their nation(s main e+port ind!stries and not the ho!sewi#es who >oin their

e+patriate h!sbands. The target a!diences are the scale">!mpers who embody globalization as

a s!ccess story = they are in other words a #ery small segment o% the %lows o% people that

characterize contemporary globalization. -nd one o% the ad#antages o% these materials is that

they begin to show !s a pict!re o% what Hs!ccess( means within this imagery o% globalization.

For what the websites do is to ab!ndantly %lag what Sil#erstein 92::b $<; calls 9with

respect to dictionary ca!tions s!ch as Hslang( or Hobscene(; register alertsN. S!ch alerts



gi#e normati#e inde+ical properties o% a le+eme(s appropriateness"to and

e%%ecti#eness"in co9n;te+ts 9L; o% occ!rrence where to !se it and what socially

speaking will happen when yo! do.N

4% we replace Hle+eme( by Haccent( we ha#e 4 belie#e an acc!rate description o% what these

websites try to achie#e to o#ertly speci%y the rich inde+icals that come with the lang!age in

normati#e terms@ to e+plicitly describe in s!m an order o% inde+icality %or the !se o% s!ch an

accent yo! must !se this accent i% yo! want to become the person yo! intend to be. 'at!rally

there is a hierarchization in#ol#ed in this not e#ery kind o% speech is ade6!ate and only this

kind o% speech will do.

e see this clearly %rom the way in which the websites de%ine the e+ercise they e+pect%rom and o%%er to coach to their c!stomers. First it is not >!st abo!t ac,uiring a new accent

b!t e#en more abo!t getting rid of another accent 9ose yo!r accent in 2< daysN;. 5ence the

o%ten !sed label o% Haccent red!ction( as a descriptor o% the co!rses o%%ered. The e+isting

accents are wrong

e %oc!s on correcting yo!r biggest speaking errors %irst. -%ter the %irst lesson yo!

will already %eel more con%ident abo!t yo!r speechN 9-cc!rate 8nglish;

'obody had e#er been able to tell me what e+actly was wrong with my speech !ntil 4

took the -cc!rate 8nglish accent red!ction co!rse. There was a noticeable di%%erence

in my speech a%ter only a %ew lessons. 4 see this co!rse as an in#estment in my %!t!re.

4 learned how to strengthen my 0hinese tong!eN to create the so!nds o% good

-merican 8nglish. 9Testimonial page -cc!rate 8nglish;

They are also as we saw in se#eral o% the e+amples abo#e an obstacle to personal and

b!siness s!ccess a so!rce o% %r!stration 9recall the image o% the -sian woman; something

that can hamper indi#id!als and corporations in their ambition. So what is at stake is one

co!ld say ling!istic p!ri%ication as the %irst step to ling!istic readiness %or the globalized

world. -nd at the core o% this process o% p!ri%ication we see an image o% the regimented

s!b>ect someone who can %ace the challenges o% postmodern globalized e+istence pro#ided

heIshe s!bmits to the process o% p!ri%ication and conse6!ently sacri%ices hisIher indi#id!al

agency in a 6!est %or !ni%ormity and homogeneity.

/



-t this point the locality and a!thenticity we enco!nter in pop!lar political and

academic disco!rses on dialects and accents is %ar away. There is little #al!e to the ling!istic

signs o% belonging and a!thenticity that !s!ally go !nder the label o% Haccent(. *r at least

there is clearly a differential #al!e to di%%erent accents. hile %oreign accents are remarkable

a!dible and problematic and hence need to be red!ced or eliminated -merican accent itsel%

is !nmarked !nremarkable !nnoticed. *nce yo! ac6!ire -merican accent yo!r speech

becomes Hnormal( in#isible !nremarkable and can so become a #ehicle %or He%%icient(

Hsmooth( Hclear( Hcon%ident( and Hcon#incing( comm!nication 9see -cc!rate 8nglish(s

website banner 5elping %oreign pro%essionals to comm!nicate with confidence clarity and

accuracyN;. -merican accent is not really an Haccent( like e.g. a German"8nglish or 4ndian"

8nglish accent = it is a ne!tral tool a p!rely ling!istic"comm!nicati#e instr!ment. Th!s in

the e+amples abo#e we saw how 0omm!nicaid pro>ected trained employees as ma+imising

their comm!nication with yo!r c!stomers thro!gh a neutral accentN while they minimize the

in%l!ence o% their %irst lang!ageN 9italics added;. -nd in their F-Y section -merican -ccent

reass!res its c!stomers as %ollows$

4s this slang7

'o o% co!rse not. Standard -merican 8nglish pron!nciation is di%%erent %rom spelling

b!t it is not slang.

-merican accent th!s is the He+nominated( accent to !se a term coined by ?arthes

91&/; to denote the bo!rgeoisie. The bo!rgeoisie ?arthes said was so hegemonic that they

ceased to be percei#ed and named as bo!rgeoisie@ they were >!st Hthe people(. -merican

accent then is the accent that is no longer an accent b!t >!st a #ehicle %or doing st!%%. 4t is >!st

a Hnormal( e+pected c!stomary and e%%icient language. 9This is where we see how -merican

accent is ideologically represented as a standard9ized; lang!age.; 4% yo! !se it well it helps

yo! achie#e the goals yo! ha#e set in li%e prosperity s!ccess happiness. -nd while as the

-ccent Eed!ction 4nstit!te claims c!stomers can maintain their !ni6!e c!lt!ral identityN

when they wish to be the globalized actors they aspire to be they need to change and become

socioling!istically in#isible. Their !ni6!e c!lt!ral identityN sho!ld not transpire %rom their

speech. -s %or -merican c!lt!ral identities they can also be st!died in co!rses pro#ided by

the websites

<



The American Psyche

Typical c!lt!re pieces seek to in%orm a trainee o% %acts abo!t -merica. This

in%ormation howe#er is readily a#ailable #ia the media and the 4nternet and can be

easily ac6!ired once the st!dent has a standard accent. The --T c!lt!re piece on the

other hand deals with the -merican psyche. Trainees learn how -mericans think what

is important to them and how best to get them to respond in the desired way.

9-merican -ccent;

Th!s one remains H4ndian( while one can so!nd H-merican(. -nd to the e+tent that accents

betray the li%e"histories o% their !sers and in partic!lar the histories o% instit!tionalized and

m!ndane lang!age !sage and learning so!nding -merican means that all o% this has to be

backgro!nded. -n 4ndian accent in 8nglish is the res!lt o% lang!age learning processes in

4ndia and the accent displays all the socioling!istic diacritics we know age gender class

ed!cational backgro!nd and so on. -n -merican accent co!rse remo#es all o% this

identi%icatory !ni6!eness and replaces it by an e+nominated and translocal pres!med ne!tral

and !ni%orm accent.

The e%%ort that trainees sho!ld in#est in this process o% remo#al and replacement is

considerable. -part %rom a signi%icant %inancial di#estment in registering the co!rses they are

e+pected to b!y books 0Bs and BDBs ha#e telephone t!torials with their trainers record

their own speeches and listen to them seek in%ormal comm!nication opport!nities with

Hnati#e speakers( and e#en attenti#ely watch TD

hen yo! are watching TD look at the mo!th mo#ements o% the speakers. Eepeat

what they are saying imitating the intonation and rhythm o% their speech 9-cc!rate

8nglish;

?!t as we saw in an earlier e+ample the e%%ort pays o!r -#erage 0all 5andle Time per

c!stomer has red!ced appro+imately by 2] in the last $ months as the agents do not need to

repeat themsel#esN. e also saw in se#eral e+amples gi#en earlier that indi#id!als re%erred to

their e+perience with s!ch co!rses as e#ents that made them gain sel%"con%idence the respect

o% their peers or s!periors and !pward social mobility. 5ere is an ideologically rich and well"

mat!red sign the idea that hard work to change onesel% will res!lt in material as well as

symbolic rewards. The -merican dream is here pro>ected onto the symbolic c!rrencymarketed by these b!sinesses -merican accent.



S!mmarizing we see the %ollowing pict!re. 0!stomers who s!bscribe to these co!rses

b!y a package consisting o% lang!age as well as o% representations o% lang!age society and

sel#es. They are e+pected to change themsel#es by Hred!cing( their nonnati#e accents in

8nglish and by adopting with great in#estments o% e%%ort an accent that makes them

socioling!istically inconspic!o!s and changes their speech %rom something that contains side"

tracking Hnoise( 9their H%oreign accent(; to a normal !ni%orm !npec!liar and th!s no longer

distracting tool o% comm!nication. This e%%ort is rewarding beca!se it will remo#e the

%r!stration res!lting %rom 9repeated; mis!nderstandings d!e to the Hnoise( in their speech it

will allow -mericans th!s to see them %or what they tr!ly are and this then will o%%er

socially !pward mobility. This 4 wo!ld #ent!re is the c!lt!ral semantics o% these co!rses the

ordered comple+ o% inde+icals s!ggested by -merican accent co!rses as a way to global

s!ccess.

"iscussion

This c!lt!ral semantics is a bit disconcerting o% co!rse. e li#e in a world in which lang!age

learning en#ironments especially %or 8nglish become highly di#ersi%ied and now incl!de

p!rely %ormal en#ironments 9state"controlled o%%icial c!rric!la and school programs; as well

as p!rely in%ormal ones 9the global media and pop!lar c!lt!re empires; with se#eral hybrid

%orms in between s!ch as the websites e+amined here. 4n this highly polycentric learning

en#ironment some actors are s!b>ect to %ormal and sometimes rather rigid state policies = the

%ormal learning en#ironments typically are = while others escape s!ch %orms o% imposed

normati#ity. The websites disc!ssed here 4 s!ggest contain a #ery clear and rather transparent

lang!age policing which while being in%ormal 9in the sense o% Hnot controlled by e+ternal

a!thorities(; is stable predictable and hegemonic. 4t taps into widespread and #ery power%!l

images o% globalization as centered on the CS and re#ol#ing aro!nd 8nglish corporate c!lt!re

and indi#id!al spatial and social mobility. These images show traces o% one o% -ppad!rai(s

91; Hidioscapes( = globally distrib!ted socioc!lt!ral and ideological scenarios = notably o%

what Fairclo!gh 92::; called Hglobalizm(. This is an e%%ect !ndo!btedly o% the partic!lar

composition o% their pro>ected a!diences prospecti#e c!stomers as said earlier do not belong

to the Hlosers( o% globalization b!t rather to its Hwinners( globally mobile pro%essionals who

ha#e the wherewithal to make the best o% the opport!nities o%%ered by globalization processes.

?!t its remarkable !ni%ormity betrays the sel%"e#idence o% a strong hegemony %or s!ch #iewsamong the comm!nity o% !sers o% these websites.

/:



This o% co!rse sho!ld warn !s against making 6!ick generalizations abo!t lang!age

in globalization. e are not %acing the emergence o% a wholesale new global order o%

disco!rse here b!t rather a highly niched phenomenon that a%%ects the li#es o% relati#ely

restricted gro!ps o% people and that is an effect o% larger and slower globalization processes =

the dereg!lation o% international b!siness acti#ity and labor the de#elopment o% #irt!al spaces

%or comm!nication commodi%ication and learning s!ch as the 4nternet and the power o% more

general ideologies and disco!rses s!ch as globalizm. Socioling!istic globalization is not the

engine behind globalization b!t an epiphenomenon o% larger processes that are o% a %ar more

%!ndamental nat!re and ha#e a %ar greater historical depth. Most people in the world do not

want to spend money to learn -merican accents. 4n e%%ect most people co!ldn(t care less.

5a#ing said that phenomena s!ch as the ones e+amined here still do teach !s a thing

or two abo!t lang!age in globalization. *ne thing we see here is that the ob>ect o% globalized

commodi%ication is accent and not language. This is a commodi%ied dialectology not >!st

lang!age learning. 4n#estigations s!ch as the ones reported here pro#ide !s with a more %ine"

grained #iew o% socioling!istic globalization processes. They are de%initely not !ni%orm nor

are they e+cl!si#ely !ni%ormizing they are layered processes de#eloping at se#eral #ery

di%%erent scale"le#els. The global p!rchase o% 8nglish = what de Swaan 92::1; called the

Hstampede towards 8nglish( = is a phenomenon at one scale"le#el a #ery general one and

conse6!ently one that in act!al socioling!istic practice wo!ld appear as a relati#ely

widespread b!t s!per%icial phenomenon. The marketing o% -merican accents on the contrary

re#ol#es aro!nd speci%ic socioling!istic registers targeted at speci%ic 9rather small; gro!ps.

These gro!ps we can ass!me already Hknow 8nglish( b!t they re6!ire a more speci%ic set o%

ling!istic pragmatic and metapragmatic skills = to so!nd like an -merican. The scale o% s!ch

processes is %ar smaller than that o% Hglobal 8nglishes( b!t the process appears a lot more

de#eloped and ha#ing a more pro%o!nd impact. Gi#en the homogenizing Hsemiotic

cons!bstantiality( we witnessed in these dot"com 8nglishes we co!ld say that this 9rather than

the Himperialist( spread o% 8nglish tout court ; is real HMcBonaldization( c!stomers are

e+pected not >!st to b!y the lang!age b!t also the whole inde+ical 9that is ideological;

package it contains and to do so %rom within a narrowly de%ined Hglobalizt( world#iew. These

are di%%erent processes to be s!re = perhaps complimentary b!t of a different order . -nd 4

wo!ld s!ggest that a so!nd socioling!istics o% globalization sho!ld not >!st look at the world

and its lang!ages b!t also to the world and its registers genres repertoires and styles i% it

wants to ha#e any empirical gro!nding. 4t is in small"scale niched phenomena s!ch as thoseconsidered here that we see real lang!age lang!age that is in#ested by real"world interests

/1



and lang!age that matters to real people. This nat!rally is no longer the Hling!istic( lang!age

neither is it the lang!age !sed in o%%icial lang!age policies b!t it is the socioling!istic

lang!age and the lang!age o% the e#eryday politics o% lang!age prod!ced and artic!lated in a

polycentric en#ironment by a m!ltit!de o% 9o%ten ephemeral; actors.

This leads !s to a second point abo!t globalization. Gi#en the intense polycentricity o%

learning en#ironments and the %act that globalization processes de#elop at se#eral di%%erent

scale"le#els the iss!e o% normati#ity becomes 6!ite comple+. hat is the stat!s o% lang!age

norms who prod!ces them and who en%orces them7 These are 6!estions that now re6!ire a

detailed e+amination o% actors instr!ments goals and reso!rces. -merican accent websites

cater %or a market that is not ser#iced by the national %ormal learning systems. 4ndians who

ha#e ac6!ired 8nglish at school and seek employment in global call centers need to be

retrained in -merican accent beca!se their school 8nglish bears too many traces o% what in

o!r e+amples was called Hstrong %oreign accent(. The state o%%ers H8nglish( 9with an accent;

the 4nternet companies o%%er another 9a better ; accent. Th!s we see how actors collaborate in

the prod!ction o% lang!age norms in an interdependent comple+ o% actors the school system

prod!ces H8nglish( !sing its own pedagogies and orders o% inde+icality@ b!t in order to

ac6!ire the speci%ic kind o% 8nglish that o%%ers >obs in the globalized economy people need to

t!rn to pri#ate pro#iders who impose yet another set o% norms and r!les o% proper speech.

These pri#ate pro#iders are not tied to the national order o% things their acti#ities are Hborder

b!sting( in nat!re and interestingly their c!lt!ral semantics re#ol#es aro!nd !ni%ormity

homogeneity and s!bmission = a #ery modernist response to globalized post"modern

press!res.

-n important %eat!re o% globalization processes is the %act that they blend the local and

the translocal in comple+ networks 90astells 1;. ocal socioling!istic systems

conse6!ently are shot thro!gh by traces and %ragments o% translocal ones witho!t howe#er

becoming less local 9as we shall see in chapter 3;. -nd the lang!age that is Hgood( in the local

socioling!istic system may not be good eno!gh in the translocal ones = which is why 4ndian

call center workers need to learn American 8nglish and sho!ld not !se their local accents. e

th!s see #ario!s orders o% inde+icality operate in the same polycentric en#ironment o%ten

witho!t mani%est o#erlap or con%!sion b!t Hniched( and con%ined to partic!lar sets o%

comm!nicati#e tasks. 5ighly skilled indi#id!als s!ch as the globalized pro%essionals targeted

by the -merican accent marketeers ac6!ire and m!st ac6!ire the reso!rces that allow them

to operate within and across these di%%erent orders o% inde+icality. ,redictably lang!age th!s becomes something that re6!ires contin!o!sly more in#estment %rom its !sers and lang!age

/2



learning 9more speci%ically the learning o% speci%ic registers tailored to partic!lar

comm!nicati#e tasks; will increasingly become a balancing act between %ormal and in%ormal

learning processes. 4t becomes in e%%ect a permanent Hcare o% the sel%( in Fo!ca!lt(s 92::&;

sense a permanent 6!est %or order by attending to the small details o% ling!istic cond!ct.

5ighly specialized pro#iders s!ch as the ones described here capable o% o%%ering these

microscopic de%initional registers o% s!b>ecti%ication as operational 9ling!istic; and ideological

9inde+ical; packages may thri#e in this bra#e new world o% lang!age.

2.$. ;onclusion

So how messy is this new globalized marketplace now7 4n this chapter we ha#e co#ered 6!ite

a bit o% space starting %rom some strange phenomena in which we saw how Hlang!age(

s!rrenders 9or at least dramatically changes; its c!stomary %!nctions d!e to patterns o%

mobility. Mobility does some things to lang!age to be s!re. 4n an attempt towards str!ct!ring

o!r !nderstanding o% s!ch patterns o% mobility 4 then o%%ered a small #ocab!lary consisting o%

the concepts o% scale orders o% inde+icality and polycentricity. 4 s!ggested that we sho!ld

!nderstand comm!nication phenomena as de#eloping at di%%erent scales on which di%%erent

orders o% inde+icality operate res!lting in a polycentric conte+t %or s!ch comm!nication

phenomena = that is a conte+t in which m!ltiple normati#e comple+es are sim!ltaneo!sly at

work b!t are o% a di%%erent order. e saw s!ch %orms o% polycentricity in the #ario!s

e+amples gi#en in this chapter notably in the ways in which 4nternet lang!age"learning

pro#iders sell -merican accent they create an order o% inde+icality that operates alongside

b!t not necessarily in con%lict with state"organized normati#e comple+es #alid in %ormal

ed!cation systems. The local and the translocal appear together as di%%erent %orces operating

on the same ob>ect = lang!age.

The res!lt was comple+ity b!t it was not chaos. 4t is too easy to see the ate"Modern

globalized world as one in which order is lost and replaced by disorder %ragmentation and

chaos as a place where no single instr!ment o% power can %!lly dominate and impose its r!les

on the %ield. S!re instr!ments o% power now co"occ!r in comple+ patterns o% power"sharing

9as we saw in the case o% the internet -merican accent pro#iders; and s!re the simplicity o%

modernist !nderstandings o% the world can no longer be maintained. ?!t there is still order = a

more comple+ kind o% order b!t a real one. The %act that the state now competes with

n!mero!s other actors in the %ield o% lang!age normati#ity doesn(t abolish the state as arele#ant le#el o% power@ it co!ches the state in a wider %ield o% power relations in which its

/3



orders o% inde+icality now co"e+ist alongside n!mero!s others in a layered scaled

polycentric en#ironment. e shall ret!rn to the power o% the state in chapter . The analytical

task now is to describe and interpret polycentricity not simple dominance. e ha#e to come

to terms with notions s!ch as micro"hegemonies restricted Hniched( hegemonies that co"e+ist

with others in polycentric en#ironments. S!ch a #iew can pro%itably replace older #iews o%

hegemony artic!lated e.g. in ling!istic rights disco!rses where a single hegemony 9that o%

8nglish; and a single actor 9the state; is seen as de%ining the patterns o% socioling!istic li%e.

There is not m!ch p!rchase in these #iews in an age o% globalization 4(m a%raid.

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3. Locality, the periphery an images of the worl

The world has become a comple+ place = that was the main line o% arg!ment in the pre#io!s

chapter. 4n order to !nderstand that place we need to in6!ire into the way in which that place

is imagined represented and enacted by its inhabitants. This chapter will e+plore the

concept!al comple+ that is central in globalization st!dies and hinges on notions s!ch as

center and periphery locality %lows scales networks global economy and so %orth. -ll o%

these notions re%er to space and mo#ements inIthro!gh space and in partic!lar the notion o%

H%low( has already been prod!cti#ely adopted in socioling!istics as we saw earlier

9,ennycook 2::/;. Theoretically as we ha#e seen the main challenge %or disciplines s!ch as

anthropology sociology or socioling!istics consists in loosening the connection between

c!lt!re and a partic!lar territory. hereas more traditional approaches appeared to tacitly

ass!me that societies and their %eat!res Hbelonged( to one partic!lar geographical area 9think

o% o!r disc!ssion o% the ling!istic rights paradigm in the pre#io!s chapter; and th!s attrib!ted

an absolute spatiality to c!lt!re the emphasis on sit!atedness emphasizes ^ows tra>ectories

mo#ements and th!s the relati!e spatiality o% c!lt!re. 5annerz 911 11"11/; s!mmarizes

this as %ollows

The connection between c!lt!ral process and territory we sho!ld remind o!rsel#es is

only contingent. -s socially organized meaning c!lt!re is primarily a phenomenon o%

interaction and only i% interactions are tied to partic!lar spaces is c!lt!re likewise so.

Th!s whereas according to 5annerz traditional anthropology was concerned with c!lt!re as

a matter o% ^ow o% meaning in %ace"to"%ace relationships between people who do not mo#e

aro!nd m!chN 911 11/; it is one o% the main ass!mptions o% globalization st!dies that

m!ltiple c!lt!res can e+ist in one space and that con#ersely one c!lt!re can be prod!ced in

di%%erent spaces. The thematization o% space and place 9the latter denoting a space made

social hence becoming a space in which h!mans make social c!lt!ral political and historical

in#estments; is th!s a cr!cial ingredient o% the process o% coming to terms with globalization

90rang 1; o% prod!cing globalized locality o% H#ernac!larizing( globalization 9-ppad!rai

1 1:;.

/&



This is an elementary c!lt!ral acti#ity which we see artic!lated = in #ery hor%ian ways =

in lang!age str!ct!re and disco!rse. 4 will arg!e that doing so in a partic!lar lang!age re#eals

H#itality( in that lang!age in the sense that the lang!age reso!rces are pro#ed to be !p to the

task o% globalized meaning prod!ction. This will open !p a range o% iss!es related to Hbig( and

Hsmall( lang!ages lang!age choice and other matters that deser#e o!r attention beca!se as

we saw in the pre#io!s chapters they are o%ten ca!ght in totalizing disco!rses o%

Himperialism( and Hling!icide(. 4 will make my arg!ment with respect to Swahili. This is

somewhat o%%"mark in the literat!re on globalization which is strongly %oc!sed on Hbig(

globalized lang!ages s!ch as 8nglish French and 9increasingly; 0hinese and on

comm!nicati#e channels s!ch as electronic mass media and pop!lar c!lt!re. e sho!ld not

%orget that many 9indeed #ery many; Hsmaller( lang!ages are e%%ecti#ely globalized and

Swahili is one o% them as we shall see at present.

3.1. 7riting locality< a globalize Tanzanian no/el

4 will consider one partic!lar c!lt!ral %orm written literat!re %rom the Hperiphery(. 4n

partic!lar 4 will try to show how a no#el Miradi 6ubu ya (azalendo 9HThe in#isible

enterprises o% the patriots(; by Gabriel E!h!mbika carries #ario!s kinds o% spatial

semiotizations that point towards locally salient centre=#s"periphery models and towards

^ows and translocal transactions. These models remind !s o% allerstein(s 91<3; orld"

Systems analysis which hinges on a #iew o% the world as di#ided in s!ch centers semi"

peripheries and peripheries between which an intricate di#ision o% labor e+ists 9which is in

allerstein(s analysis global capitalism;. -t the micro"le#el o% the no#el itsel% space is !sed

as a power%!l literary=stylistic de#ice. 4t attrib!tes identities to the characters@ it casts their

actions and their biographies in a recognizable local social semiotic@ and spatio"semiotic

%eat!res organize the meta"story o% Tanzanian postcolonial politics. 4t is a %orm o% c!lt!ral

#ernac!larization o% the prod!ction o% locality. -t a macro"le#el 9the le#el o% the c!lt!ral act

o% writing itsel%; the no#el ill!strates the deterritorialized network and translocal nat!re o%

contemporary c!lt!ral and political processes as well as the capacity o% contemporary literacy

to Hrepatriate( meanings 9-ppad!rai 1: 3:/;. This latter dimension challenges established

#iews o% -%rican literat!re = here Swahili literat!re = as necessarily prod!ced in -%rica and

tied to a partic!lar place. Tho!gh by now it may so!nd rather e#ident that -%rican literat!re

can be diasporic the theoretical implications o% this may be %ar"reaching. ,recisely this

/



globalized dimension o% the no#el makes its strongly local %la#or pec!liar and demonstrates

the dynamics o% Swahili as a globalized #ital lang!age.

4 will start by pro#iding some backgro!nd in%ormation on the no#el. 'e+t we will mo#e

into an analysis o% spatial semiotics in the no#el itsel% showing how a partic!lar social and

political geography o% the co!ntry dominates the %raming o% characters and e#ents along a

centerIperiphery a+is. -%ter this 4 will ret!rn to the deterritorialized nat!re o% the act o%

writing itsel% and the e%%ect this has on the way in which we #iew Hlocal( literat!res and

literary actors.

The invisible enterprises of the patriots

Miradi 6ubu ya (azalendo was written in 12 and p!blished by Tanzania ,!blishing 5o!se

in Bar es Salaam Tanzania. 4t is written in the national lang!age o% Tanzania Swahili and it

adds to the impressi#e modern written literat!re in that lang!age 9see ?ertoncini 1< %or a

s!r#ey;. 8specially in the postcolonial era 9and notably !nder C>amaa socialism; writing in

Swahili was a densely symbolic act it carried meta"meanings that inde+ed patriotism loyalty

to the nation and its political doctrine and a democratic 9socialist; attit!de 9?lommaert 1b

chapter $;. riting a literary piece in the national lang!age was a political statement in its

own right and those doing it per%ormed a c!lt!ral politics as m!ch as prod!cing a c!lt!ral

prod!ct. This intense politics o% literary codes and %orms !ndo!btedly contrib!ted to the

#itality o% the lang!age a%ter 4ndependence it mobilized intellect!als and artists into

conscio!s ling!istic Hde#elopment( and it ga#e them a #oice o% their own as a national

intelligentsia a committed #ang!ard o% people who shaped the minds o% their people by

shaping their lang!age. The a!thor Gabriel E!h!mbika was #ery m!ch a member o% this

#ang!ard. 5e was born in 13< on Ckerewe 4sland in ake Dictoria in the ?ritish Mandate o%

Tanganyika. E!h!mbika was a pro%essor o% literat!re at the Cni#ersity o% Bar es Salaam

between 1/: and 1<& and he was one o% the co!ntry(s leading radical intellect!als 9see e.g.

Mb!g!ni and E!h!mbika 1/$;. -%ter 1<& he mo#ed to the CS and became a pro%essor o%

8nglish at 5ampton Cni#ersity Dirginia and a%terwards a pro%essor o% comparati#e literat!re

at the Cni#ersity o% Georgia. Miradi 6ubu ya (azalendo was written in the CS b!t p!blished

in Bar es Salaam.

The book is a political no#el and its title already anno!nces this. The term %azalendo

Hpatriots( was one o% the key terms in the le+icon o% Tanzania(s C>amaa socialism a partic!lar

//



brand o% socialism de#eloped and propagated as the state ideology by the _rst president o%

Tanzania A!li!s 'yerere.1 E!h!mbika(s no#el is hard to read witho!t any knowledge o% the

C>amaa socialist period in Tanzania %or it is intended as a retrospecti#e commentary on the

C>amaa political system and what it did to the co!ntry. Tanzania emerged o!t o% the !nion o%

Tanganyika and the %ormer ?ritish ,rotectorate o% \anzibar in 1$. Tanganyika had won its

independence a%ter a period o% peace%!l transition in 11 !nder the leadership o% A!li!s

'yerere(s T-'C party 9Tanganyika -%rican 'ational Cnion;@ \anzibar became independent

in 13 b!t the S!ltanate installed by the ?ritish was soon o#erthrown by a pop!lar

re#ol!tion the leaders o% which so!ght closer !nion with socialist Tanganyika. The !nion led

to a socialist radicalization within the new Eep!blic o% Tanzania and this radicalization was

codi_ed in 1/ in the so"called -r!sha Beclaration which proclaimed 71amaa na

8u1itegemea Hsocialism and sel%"reliance(. The main %eat!res o% this state ideology were

egalitarianism the absence o% e+ploitation political and economic non"alignment pan"

-%ricanism and sel%"reliant small"scale agric!lt!ral de#elopment 9in HC>amaa #illages(; as the

backbone o% the economy 9see ,ratt 1/;.

C>amaa was certainly in the years %ollowing the -r!sha Beclaration #ery pop!lar with the

yo!nger intelligentsia largely based at the Cni#ersity o% Bar es Salaam o% which E!h!mbika

was a member. The !ni#ersity was a center o% radical political acti#ity not only nationally b!t

also internationally 9*thman 1$; and many o% the yo!ng intellect!als saw themsel#es as

the leading #ang!ard in a socialist re#ol!tion 9see Shi#>i 1 %or e+cellent e+amples;.

0onse6!ently many intellect!als #igoro!sly s!pported T-'C 9which had become the single

party o% the co!ntry; tho!gh their emphasis on a radical socialist strategy was not always

welcomed by the T-'C leaders 9?lommaert 1b chapter 2;. The Tanzanian C>amaa

economy collapsed in the 1/:s and the co!ntry was %!rther impo#erished by a war against

4di -min(s Cganda in the late 1/:s. From that point onwards disill!sionment abo!t T-'C

and socialism was great. 'yerere #ol!ntarily stepped down as ,resident in 1<& and his

s!ccessor Mwinyi almost immediately signed a re"str!ct!ring agreement with the 4MF.

C>amaa was abandoned as a new o%%icial state ideology o% economic liberalism replaced

K!>itegemea 2 Hsel% reliance( and a m!ltiparty system was installed.

4t is against this backgro!nd o% general disill!sionment that Miradi 6ubu has to be set.

ritten by an erstwhile radical s!pporter o% C>amaa it re^ects on power"ab!se ine6!ality

class"determinism and in>!stice in socialist Tanzania. 4t does so by telling the story o% two

Tanzanians Saidi and 'zoka. They are the main characters in the no#el. ,art o% Saidi(s storyin#ol#es two other men Mzee Aabiri and M!n!bi whose li#es are s!b"plots in the no#el.

/<



The plot o% the book consists o% %i#e parts s!mmarized as %ollows.

,art 1 Mzee Aabiri

Mzee Aabiri li#es in Masasi in so!thern Tanganyika. 5e has two children late in li%e b!this da!ghter and wi%e die o% an !nknown disease. 5e lea#es Masasi with his only

s!r#i#ing child the boy Saidi. They tra#el to Tanga in the north and get a menial >ob in a

sisal plantation owned by a white man. Mzee Aabiri gets badly in>!red d!ring work in the

_elds. The s!per#isor M!n!bi %orces the white plantation owner to dri#e Mzee Aabiri to

a hospital. Aabiri dies be%ore they reach the hospital. The plantation owner d!mps Mzee

Aabiri(s body in a sewage pit.

,art 2 S!per#isor M!n!bi

M!n!bi lea#es the plantation with Saidi and tra#els to a relati#e(s ho!se in Mombo.

There he arranges %or Saidi to be bro!ght to relati#es o% his in Bar es Salaam. M!n!bi

himsel% _nds a >ob on a sisal plantation in Morogoro central Tanzania. The plantation is

owned by a white So!th -%rican and M!n!bi as a s!per#isor is s!pposed to administer

corporal p!nishment to the workers. hen he does so howe#er Mzee Aabiri(s ghost

appears in his sleep. M!n!bi ^ees to another place and he contin!es to mo#e %rom one place to another !ntil independence. -%ter independence he gets a >ob as a s!per#isor in

Kilosa on a %arm owned by an 8nglishman. M!n!bi marries a woman there and b!ilds

himsel% a ho!se o!tside the %arm compo!nd. The %arm owner disagrees with this and

_res M!n!bi. Mzee Aabiri(s ghost incites M!n!bi to correct this in>!stice and M!n!bi

kills the %armer. M!n!bi is tried and hanged %or this m!rder.

,art 3 'd!g! Saidi

Saidi has %o!nd his way to Bar es Salaam where he li#es with a relati#e o% M!n!bi(s.

5e _nds a >ob as a ho!seboy with an 4ndian %amily and then he works as a shopkeeper

in the 4ndian neighborhood %or nine years. 4n his spare time he is a #ol!nteer worker %or

T-'C the leading independence party. -%ter some time he gets hired by T-'C as a

messenger. 5is salary is lower than what he earned %rom the 4ndians b!t he is

committed to T-'C(s ca!se and accepts the bad labor circ!mstances. Saidi li#es in a

one"room ^at in Kariakoo the market area o% Bar es Salaam. hen 'yerere becomes president in 12 Saidi >oins his personal sta%% as a messenger. 4n the meantime he has

/



let his %riend and colleag!e 'zoka mo#e into his ho!se. Saidi marries 0hik! and

between 12 and 1/ the co!ple ha#e three children. 4n 1/ with the -r!sha

Beclaration T-'C installs a n!mber o% o%_cial commissions and 'zoka becomes the

leader o% one s!ch commission. 5e appoints Saidi as a messenger to the commission.

Saidi decides to b!ild a ho!se o% his own in Manzese and the %amily mo#es into the hal%"

_nished ho!se witho!t electricity or r!nning water in 1/:. ?y 1<1 Saidi has nine

children and is str!ggling to make ends meet. The co!ntry is economically de#astated

and things get worse a%ter the liberalization o% 1<& and 1<. Saidi(s two oldest

da!ghters become prostit!tes. 5is oldest da!ghter 4daya m!rders her child and is

imprisoned. hen 'yerere steps down in 1<& Saidi is made red!ndant. 5e recei#es a

#ery small s!m o% money and some praise %or his patriotism b!t li#es in ab>ect po#erty

in Manzese.

,art $ 8+ec!ti#e Birector 'zoka

'zoka was born in the Mwanza region o% northern Tanzania. 5e %ails to 6!ali%y in a state

e+am and is not eligible %or st!dies abroad. 4nstead he organizes a trade !nion and

manages to impress 'yerere beca!se o% his organizational and propaganda skills.

'yerere hires him to can#ass pop!lar s!pport. 5e >oins the T-'C head6!arters in Bar es

Salaam in 1& mo#es into Saidi(s apartment and becomes 'yerere(s personal

assistant. 5e marries ?eatrice and earns eno!gh to mo#e to the 8!ropean 6!arter in

*yster ?ay. 'yerere sends him to #ario!s international colleges to complete his training.

5e tra#els to Ghana and 4srael and then to E!skin 0ollege *+%ord to !m!mba

Cni#ersity Moscow and to the Cni#ersity o% S!sse+. 4n 1/ 'zoka has _#e children.

5e becomes the e+ec!ti#e director o% the State 0ommission %or ,lanning ealth

Sa#ings and ,rogress. This ends his %riendship with Saidi as well as his marriage with

?eatrice. 'zoka had committed ad!ltery. 5e remarries and di#orces se#eral times

incl!ding a woman called Eosemary a German %emale pro%essor and an 4ndian woman

9who con#erts him to 4slam;. 5e becomes 5ead o% the -rmed Forces. 5e %alls in lo#e

with a prostit!te b!t marries her da!ghter and con#erts to 0atholicism. ?y 1<& 'zoka

has 32 children all o% whom are _nishing their st!dies or are being taken care o% by

nannies. 5e li#es in l!+!ry while the co!ntry has become one o% the poorest in the

world.

<:



,art & 8pilog!e

Saidi decides to make the in>!stices he has e+perienced p!blic at a ceremony at which he

is thanked %or his years o% ser#ice. 5e walks !p to 'yerere the %arewell gi%ts in his hand

b!t the latter doesn(t recognize him despite the many years o% contact. 'zoka who is

also present senses Saidi(s plan and anno!nces to 'yerere that Saidi intends to o%%er him

the gi%ts he has >!st recei#ed o!t o% gratit!de %or what he 9'yerere; has done %or the

co!ntry. Saidi is praised %or his patriotism b!t is not gi#en the opport!nity to speak o!t.

The social semiotics of Tanzanian space

,eople attrib!te meanings to the spaces they know and !se 9see e.g. Feld and ?asso 1ow 2::1;. S!ch spaces are _lled with symbols and attrib!tes and !sing them creates

inde+ical ties to them. The symbols and attrib!tes not only re%er to the ob>ecti#e place b!t

also to a partic!lar atmosphere associated with it incl!ding the people li#ing in it as well as

their class and other c!lt!ral pec!liarities.2 Th!s a 0ockney accent does not only identi%y one

as being %rom ondon@ it also carries class gender and other c!lt!ral inde+icalities.

0odeswitching may inde+ the partic!lar ^a#or o% a place and may th!s Hmake a person speak

%rom that place( as it were 9see Eampton 2::1 Maryns and ?lommaert 2::1@ ?lommaert

2::& chapter <;. 4nhabitants o% a partic!lar place disting!ish between Hgood( and Hbad(

neighborhoods or parts o% a co!ntry and !pward social mobility is o%ten associated with 9and

practically e%%ected by; mo#ing %rom a Hbad( to a Hgood( place. Feat!res o% partic!lar places

s!ch as the 8i%%el Tower in ,aris or the Stat!e o% iberty in 'ew Oork Hcan be !sed to de%end

local identity sell de#elopment sites comment ironically on local trans%ormations or simply

sit!ate a plot de#elopment in _lms( 9ong and McBonogh 2::1 <;. They can conse6!ently

also be !sed to sit!ate a plot de#elopment in a no#el. *b#io!sly some o% the inde+icalities

carried by places are meaning%!l only to Hlocals( some are to o!tsiders too.

E!h!mbika !ses places and spatial tra>ectories that are inde+ically highly salient to

Tanzanians 9see also ewinson 2::3;. 4n#estigating them may lead !s to a local perception o%

centers and peripheries a world"systems model transposed to one partic!lar area. Eecall that

allerstein(s model operated at the global le#el@ we see here a H%ractal( replication o% this

model at a lower = national = scale"le#el. This %ractal phenomenon may direct !s to c!lt!ral

and social patterns in which social beha#ior appears to be organized on the basis o%

perceptions o% opport!nities 9generally located in Hcenters(; and o% social mobility and

<1



ambition. Foc!sing on how %or instance opport!nities and social mobility are percei#ed it

may also direct !s at empirically graspable %orms o% transnational ^ows -ppad!rai(s H"scapes(

91;. e will now e+amine the way in which s!ch patterns are !sed in Miradi 6ubu@ we

will %irst artic!late some o% the widespread attrib!tes and associations tied to partic!lar places

and regions in Tanzanian pop!lar imagery.

Tanzania is an o#erwhelmingly r!ral co!ntry with one big !rban center Bar es Salaam.

The o%%icial state capital is Bodoma a small city in the geographical center o% the co!ntry b!t

all ma>or ser#ices are concentrated in Bar es Salaam the harbor the international airport the

,arliament ministries embassies the Cni#ersity the most prestigio!s schools head6!arters

o% b!sinesses and international organizations big international hotels and so %orth. Bar es

Salaam also hosts a small comm!nity o% e+patriates %rom the est as well as an older

pop!lation o% 4ndian descent who ha#e traditionally controlled retail b!siness and parts o% the

local ind!stry international trade and banking. The city is the center o% Tanzanian c!lt!ral li%e

and it is the home o% most prominent m!sic bands a!thors and artists. Bar es Salaam is the

prestige place in Tanzania white"collar careers are in#ariably made there money and

opport!nities %or obtaining money are concentrated in Bar es Salaam. The city is associated

with highli%e 9in#ol#ing both its >oys and #ices; access to international contacts and power

an imagery that has deeply penetrated pop!lar conscio!sness and has been artic!lated in songs

and pop!lar no#els 9?lommaert 1<@ 1b chapter $;. 4t is in short a scale"le#el o% its

own.

There are no other cities that can compete with Bar es Salaam. -r!sha in the north is an

important city and so is Mwanza on ake Dictoria b!t none o% them comes close to Bar es

Salaam in the terms sketched abo#e. 4n general the northern part o% the co!ntry aro!nd ake

Dictoria and the Kiliman>aro region are Hbetter( regions with some degree o% economic

prosperity. The inhabitants o% these regions and notably the 0hagga the 5aya and the

S!k!ma ethnic gro!ps are o%ten seen in pop!lar imagery as being shrewd b!sinesspeople and

capable organizers #ery o%ten holding positions o% considerable power. The so!thern and

central parts o% the co!ntry are Hbad( regions. ,eople %rom those regions are economically

#ery poor and politically they are less weighty than their northern co!ntrymen. The Makonde

Mak!a 5ehe Gogo and other inhabitants o% the so!thern and central regions are o%ten

percei#ed as among the poorest and most disen%ranchised Tanzanians. -dopting world"

systems terminology we arri#e at this pattern Bar es Salaam is the absol!te center o% the

co!ntry the northern regions are semi"peripheral while the central and so!thern parts are peripheral.

<2



Bar es Salaam is as noted abo#e the most prestigio!s place in Tanzania. ?!t Bar es

Salaam itsel% is di#ided into se#eral areas many o% them carrying the same kind o%

associations as the ones attached to 9semi"peripheral; regions. The city is located on a lagoon

with a nat!ral harbor and the city center itsel% borders this lagoon and is 6!ite old. The city

center is a%%l!ent and dominated by m!lti"storey bank and hotel b!ildings. 4t is s!rro!nded by

old densely pop!lated areas and the bo!ndary o% central Bar es Salaam is %ormed by a

largely dried"o!t ri#er bed Msimbazi 0reek r!nning %rom north to so!th. The main a+es o%

the city center are two big roads -li 5assan Mwinyi Eoad coming %rom ?agamoyo in the

north and ending at the water%ront and Morogoro Eoad connecting with -li 5assan Mwinyi

Eoad at the water%ront and mo#ing west in the direction o% Morogoro and Tabora. The

northern and western a+es are the main tra%_c arteries b!t also the main social=geographic

a+es o% the city.

The western a+is is the pop!lar lower"class a+is o% the city. Mo#ing west %rom the

water%ront close to the #ery centre o% town is Chindini = the 4ndian 6!arter littered with

oriental"style old stone b!ildings mos6!es small b!sinesses and shops. - bit %!rther west

and separated %rom Chindini by Mnazimo>a ,ark lies Cswahilini = the Swahili 6!arter a

h!ge collection o% small ho!ses with corr!gated iron roo%s pop!lated by -%ricans %rom all

o#er the co!ntry. The center o% this part o% town is Kariakoo the market area. 4t is a rather

poor b!t #ery li#ely area with lots o% shops bars and resta!rants and with dense tra%_c ca!sed

by the daladala small pri#ately operated b!ses. Kariakoo is the center o% highli%e and pop!lar

m!sic. -cross Msimbazi 0reek along Morogoro Eoad lie a n!mber o% o#ercrowded pop!lar

areas Magomeni Manzese and Cb!ngo. Manzese is the poorest o% them and Manzese is

o%ten associated with #iolence crime and ab>ect po#erty among the inhabitants o% Bar es

Salaam.

The northern a+is is the elite !pper"class a+is o% the city. The most prestigio!s 6!arter is

*yster ?ay a bea!ti%!l area along the shore with a concentration o% spacio!s detached gated

ho!ses embassies and _ne hotels and resta!rants. *yster ?ay is traditionally the home o%

e+patriates and a%%l!ent or prominent Tanzanians. The area is somewhat sheltered and

separated %rom downtown Bar es Salaam by Msimbazi 0reek. 86!ally prestigio!s are

Msasani %!rther north and recently also Mbezi ?each se#eral miles %!rther north along -li

5assan Mwinyi Eoad. 4n between lies Mwenge a pop!lar neighborhood located at an

intersection o% -li 5assan Mwinyi Eoad and a co!ple o% roads connecting the %ormer with

Morogoro Eoad. This connection between the western and northern a+es r!ns thro!gh Sinzaa middle"class neighborhood with some prestige and marked by bars resta!rants and hotels.

<3



*n the other side o% this connection lies the camp!s o% the Cni#ersity o% Bar es Salaam again

a rather prestigio!s area and home to the intellect!al elite.

e can now t!rn to the way in which these local social and socioc!lt!ral semiotics o% space

are applied in Miradi 6ubu. e can sketch two pro_les %or the main characters in the no#el on

the basis o% spatial associations and tra>ectories. 8n ro!te we will also see how partic!lar

acti#ities >obs and attrib!tes are attached to certain places.

+aii and his %ather come %rom the Masasi region in the so!th o% Tanzania and they are

Makonde people th!s %rom the periphery. Bisease strikes their region and they are

%orced to seek re%!ge elsewhere. Saidi tra#els to Tanga in the north 9a wealthy area; as a

migrant worker and _nds a >ob on a sisal plantation o%ten seen as one o% the Hlowest(

>obs. The Tanga sisal plantation is the site o% gross e+ploitation and ab!se and in order

to sa#e Saidi the s!per#isor M!n!bi sends him to Bar es Salaam where he li#es with a

Makonde %amily. M!n!bi himsel% tra#els on to 0entral Tanzania and _nds poorly paid

and e+ploitati#e >obs in Morogoro and Kilosa. Saidi _rst _nds >obs with 4ndian

employers. There is no mention o% ed!cation at all he embarks on a career o% low"paid

!n6!ali_ed menial >obs. hen he gets hired by T-'C it is as a messenger. 5e then

mo#es to an apartment in Kariakoo and later to Manzese. -ll o% his li%e is spent there

he hasn(t tra#elled apart %rom the mo#e %rom the local Tanzanian periphery to the local

center. ?!t in this center 9Bar es Salaam; he li#es in the periphery = the Manzese sl!m

where li%e is to!gh.

(zoka comes %rom the Mwanza region in the north and he is a S!k!ma %rom the semi"

periphery. 5e has had some ed!cation altho!gh he %ailed in a cr!cial state e+am. 5e

appears to be an e+cellent organizer and this b!ys him a ticket to the center Bar es

Salaam. 5e tra#els e+tensi#ely and to prestigio!s places either politically 9Ghana

!m!mba Cni#ersity; or academically 9*+%ord S!sse+ Cni#ersity;. 5e tra#els and he

ac6!ires ed!cational 6!ali_cations as well as ine#itably prestige. 5e _rst li#es in

Kariakoo with Saidi b!t then mo#es to *yster ?ay. 'zoka(s li%e is spent in the center in

two ways _rst as opposed to his region o% origin then as opposed to the co!ntry as a

whole when he tra#els abroad.

<$



e see how Saidi and 'zoka mo#e thro!gh these spaces _lled with symbols and attrib!tes.

e also see how %eat!re cl!sters emerge in ways that allow in%ormed readers to make all

kinds o% meaning%!l in%erences with respect to people places acti#ities and #al!e

attrib!tions. 4n a #ery sketchy way s!ch in%erences co!ld be represented as %ollows

+aii<

So!thern Tanzania Makonde ` po#erty no ed!cation lower class

Sisal plantations ` menial >obs

Bar es Salaam 4ndian 6!arter ` ser#ant lower employee

Kariakoo ` lower middle class messenger

Manzese ` po#erty prostit!tion crime

(zoka<

'orthern Tanzania S!k!ma ` relati#ely prospero!s ambitio!s ed!cated

,olitical acti#ism ` power ed!cation skills

Kariakoo ` lower middle class

Tra#els abroad ` elite go#ernment o%_cial intellect!al

*yster ?ay ` !pper class go#ernment o%_cial

M!ltiple marriages 9incl!ding %oreign spo!ses; ` wealth stat!s

0osmopolitanism

The connections that are made are connections between space acti#ities and attrib!tes and

stat!s or #al!e. e can identi%y two directions in this set o% connections ro!ghly de_nable as

Hmargin"directed( #ers!s Hcenter"directed(

Margin"directed the So!th lack o% ed!cation !nskilled >obs in someone(s ser#ice low

wages@ in Bar es Salaam Manzese@ no international contacts. ocality.

0enter"directed the 'orth ed!cation 6!ali_ed white"collar >obs international contacts@

in Bar es Salaam *yster ?ay@ abroad intellect!al and political centers o% e+cellence.

Mobility.

<&



Two partic!lar %eat!res stand o!t as critical in determining one(s position either in the margin

or in the centre ed!cation and international contacts or translocality. ?oth are closely

connected. 'zoka(s s!ccess appears to lie in his artic!lateness and he deri#es considerable

prestige %rom his ed!cation abroad. 'zoka is capable o% Hmo#ing aro!nd( both as a

pro%essional by tra#eling to prestigio!s international places and in his pri#ate li%e by crossing

ethnic racial and religio!s bo!ndaries in marriage and by li#ing among e+patriates in *yster

?ay. This howe#er appears not to be merely an indi#id!al accomplishment it is determined

by his backgro!nd. 'zoka comes %rom a part o% the co!ntry which is already close to the

socio"economic center. -s a 'ortherner he seems to ha#e been dealt the right hand o% cards

right %rom the start. Saidi in contrast has no ed!cation and grows !p in terrible

circ!mstances. 0onse6!ently he spends his li%e in H_+ed( places among members o% his

ethnic gro!p and in the socio"economic periphery e#en in Bar es Salaam. 5e comes %rom the

So!th the poorest region o% the co!ntry and he appears to be destined to remain in the

periphery.

The way in which thro!gh all this we see the emergence o% centre=periphery perceptions

at three le#els is interesting. -t each o% them we see a n!mber o% attrib!tions in action

The strictly local le#el in Bar es Salaam Manzese #ers!s *yster ?ay. hat Saidi is and

what happens to his %amily = po#erty a perpet!al str!ggle to s!r#i#e prostit!tion and

m!rder = is something that is not !ne+pected gi#en his location in Manzese@ con#ersely

'zoka(s wealth power and cosmopolitanism are things that come with his location in

*yster ?ay. Manzese is the periphery and *yster ?ay is the center.

The national le#el #ario!s parts o% the co!ntry and tra>ectories %ollowed by people allow

pres!pposable in%erences as to stat!s social class and opport!nities. The So!th is the

periphery the 'orth is the semi"periphery and Bar es Salaam is the center. 8d!cation is

not easily accessible in the So!th and more accessible in the 'orth@ these di%%erences

ha#e an impact on the opport!nities people get in Bar es Salaam.

The transnational le#el Tanzania #ers!s the rest o% the world. ,restige is deri#ed %rom

being able to lea#e Tanzania and #isit prestigio!s places and instit!tions o!tside -%rica@

po#erty and %ail!re are inde+ed by a li%e spent inside the co!ntry witho!t opport!nities

to tra#el.

<



From these perspecti#es we notice how strongly s!ch center"#ers!s"periphery perceptions

organize the description o% the characters and the str!ct!re o% the plot. The li%e histories o%

Saidi and 'zoka are deeply anchored in a set o% meaning%!l spatial associations that ha#e to

do with the opport!nities people ha#e and can ha#e in the Tanzanian world. *ne can become

a s!ccess story beca!se he is able to Hmo#e o!t( _rst to prestigio!s places in Bar es Salaam

then to 8!ropean and -merican prestigio!s places and in between as he crosses ethnic

racial and religio!s bo!ndaries. M!ch o% his ability to mo#e regionally and socially is

9pre;determined by his regional backgro!nd. The other character remains a poor man beca!se

his backgro!nd pre#ents him %rom Hmo#ing o!t(. Saidi %ollows a tra>ectory that brings him

%rom one periphery to another and the low stat!s and disen%ranchisement that he carries with

him %rom Masasi sticks with him all the way thro!gh. 4n a way he ne#er Hmo#es o!t( he

doesn(t mo#e o!t o% po#erty misery #iolence his co!ntry and his ethnic and social gro!p.

The characters e#ol#e in one o% -ppad!rai(s Hideoscapes( an ideology o% mobility and

adaptation to criteria established in the centers o% the world system = 8!rope and 'orth

-merica = as the key to s!ccess. 0on#ersely locality and localism stand here %or po#erty and

%ail!re. This is a widespread social and c!lt!ral script that probably acco!nts %or a lot o% social

processes in contemporary -%rica.

These social attrib!tions o% space and spatial tra>ectories ob#io!sly carry deep political

meanings. 4n e%%ect the kind o% tra>ectories sketched by E!h!mbika %orm an important part o%

his criti6!e o% C>amaa Tanzania. The promise o% C>amaa was to b!ild a classless society in

which e#ery -%rican wo!ld ha#e e6!al opport!nities and in which 7zungu 9Hthe ways o% the

est(; wo!ld no longer be the model %or s!ccess in society. 5is two protagonists inscribe

themsel#es in the C>amaa pro>ect both become acti#e in the str!ggle %or independence and

both become aides to 'yerere. 4n spite o% their #ery di%%erent regional origins and social

tra>ectories both also speak this emblem o% C>amaa Standard Swahili. ?!t the deep clea#ages

that characterized the co!ntry be%ore 4ndependence = regional di%%erences in wealth and

opport!nities and class di%%erences = persist a%ter 4ndependence. Those who pre#io!sly had

%ew opport!nities %or !pward social mobility still remain the losers@ those who were less

!nderpri#ileged and %ollowed the track o% ed!cation and internationalization 9i.e. opted %or

7zungu; are still the ones who make it. 0lass as inscribed in all these clea#ages persisted

thro!gho!t C>amaa and patriotism was not eno!gh to attain e6!ality as a citizen. So whereas

C>amaa was la!nched as a localizing political strategy = an African socialism emphasizing-%rican roots and #al!es = only those who got inserted in translocal globalized tra>ectories o%

</



ed!cation and mobility made it. The world system won. 0onse6!ently images o%

globalization and the way in which Tanzania is inserted in globalization processes are

power%!l organizing principles in Miradi 6ubu and we begin to see how a no#el written in an

-%rican lang!age is %!lly globalized. Bisco!rses o% globalization ha#e become part o% the

stylistic apparat!s that E!h!mbika can deploy in Swahili and while the semiotics o% space in

the no#el hea#ily draws %rom local images o% space these local images appear to be sat!rated

with globalized tropes o% locality and mobility. The reso!rces o% the lang!age ha#e changed.

The repatriation of criti#ue

'ot >!st the reso!rces ha#e changed the lang!age can be !sed in di%%erent networks as well.

e now mo#e into the other aspect o% o!r disc!ssion the way in which Miradi 6ubu is itsel% a

rather typical globalization phenomenon. e concl!ded o!r disc!ssion in the pre#io!s section

by stating that globalization was an important moti% in the no#el. Oet it is hard to characterize

the no#el as anything other than Hlocal( written %or Tanzanian readers in their national

lang!age and drawing on conte+t!al in%ormation m!ch o% which is only accessible to

Tanzanians. e also noted earlier that E!h!mbika wrote the no#el while he was a pro%essor in

the CS. So what we ha#e on o!r hands is a no#el prod!ced in the center o% the world system%or cons!mption in the periphery Tanzania and the choice o% lang!age as well as the c!lt!ral

semiotics o% space artic!lated in Swahili pro#ide e#idence %or this.

The no#el conse6!ently is a typical prod!ct o% contemporary globalized c!lt!ral

processes and we sho!ld heed 5annerz(s ad#ice 911 12; to think abo!t the ^ow between

places as well as within themN when st!dying s!ch prod!cts o% c!lt!re. 5annerz adds that the

comm!nities within which c!lt!ral prod!cts are prod!ced and circ!lated are more and more

Hec!menical( made !p by networks that are translocal and o%ten in#ol#e deep di%%erences in

o!tlook and %ramework. Th!s

thro!gh the operation o% the #aried %rameworks %or c!lt!ral process and the interaction

between them some meanings and meaning%!l %orms become m!ch more localized

m!ch more tied to space than others 9ibid.;.

0learly the comm!nity within which Miradi 6ubu is prod!ced and circ!lated is ec!menical

and diasporic we ha#e an e+patriate a!thor writing %or a readership which is per%orce largely

<<



made !p o% politically and artistically sensiti#e intellect!als most o% who are in his homeland

and in 8ast -%rica. So the ec!mene is restricted. The no#el is written in Swahili and it draws

hea#ily on Hlocal( Tanzanian meaning%!l %orms strongly Htied to space( in 5annerz(s terms.

0onse6!ently the comm!nity can sensibly be de_ned as E!h!mbika on the one hand 9and

perhaps some st!dents o% -%rican st!dies programs in the CS and 8!rope mysel% incl!ded;

and a small gro!p o% Tanzanian 9or 8ast"-%rican; intellect!als on the other hand. 4n that sense

Miradi 6ubu is a Hlocal( no#el destined %or circ!lation in a network which is con_ned to those

who are pri#y to the intricate local semiotics he !ses in his work as well as to the code in

which it is written. 4t is a Tanzanian no#el.

?!t things are ob#io!sly not that simple beca!se locality and mobility co"occ!r. e ha#e

seen in the pre#io!s section that E!h!mbika draws on local meanings against the backgro!nd

o% globalization imagery containing center"#s"periphery models. 5is Hlocal( criti6!e against

C>amaa is done by means o% Htranslocalization( i.e. by means o% arg!ments and tropes that

de_ne = anachronistically = the %ail!re o% C>amaa as a %ail!re to recognize the dynamics o% the

modern world system. 4t is a criti6!e which is b!ilt on cosmopolitanism as a world#iew an

awareness that localism in social organization is an error and that center=periphery patterns

are a reality. So in order to constr!ct a local criti6!e o% Tanzania Tanzania has to be li%ted o!t

o% its shell delocalized and placed into the world system. 'zoka is the key in this his

mobility and its res!lting prestige and s!ccess demonstrate how insertion into transnational

channels o% power and prestige shapes s!ccess in Tanzanian society. Th!s interestingly we

see how a no#el that is hard to read i% one does not ha#e access to the local semiotics o%

places people and acti#ities at the same time translocalizes this semiotics and place it in the

conte+t o% Tanzania"in"the"world.

4t is perhaps at this point that we can begin to !nderstand what globalization and its

re%le+es on literat!re in#ol#e. 4t in#ol#es dynamics o% semiotic localization and delocalization

in s!ch a way that 5annerz(s space to which meanings are tied can be seen as elastic space a

space that can be red!ced and e+panded almost line by line and episode by episode.

E!h!mbika speaks %rom %ithin Tanzania and %rom outside Tanzania at the same time. e get

images o% what it means to be %rom So!thern Tanzania both within Tanzania as %ell as in the

world the local periphery is also a global periphery %or peripheries and centers are relati#ely

stable while they operate at #ario!s le#els o% awareness and acti#ity. 0onse6!ently being

marginal in Tanzania is also meaningful in the %orld and this stretching o% local meanings

into translocal ones may o%%er !s a better !nderstanding o% po#erty and disen%ranchisement inthe periphery.

<



The message is howe#er primarily %or Tanzanians to pick !p. E!h!mbika(s diasporic act

o% comm!nication sho!ld be repatriated in -ppad!rai(s sense and th!s reconte+t!alized and

re"ente+t!alized in Sil#erstein and Crban(s 91; sense. ?!t repatriation does not necessarily

mean localization. The strength o% the moti% o% mobility both within and o!tside Tanzania

and its connection to s!ccess and %ail!re as well as to an assessment o% 71amaa make it hard

to read this book as other than a translocalization o% the history o% Tanzania. -s is perhaps the

case with all diasporic literat!re this may precisely be the no#el(s -chilles( heel. 4n the

process o% repatriation the localization o% the messages in the book may be challenged by the

translocal dimension it necessarily has that o% a criti6!e %rom a%ar by an o!tsider who doesn(t

s!%%er %rom the conditions o% li%e he criticizes in his book. -nd th!s whereas the book is by

all standards %!lly Tanzanian its stat!s as HTanzanian( may perpet!ally be challenged by

Tanzanian critics. The repatriation o% meanings prod!ced by e+patriates is always a political

iss!e and e#en at that le#el 5annerz(s ties between c!lt!ral prod!cts and space crop !p.

The cultural codes of globalization

E!h!mbika(s choice o% Swahili 9rather than 8nglish his working lang!age as a pro%essor in

the CS; encodes this comple+ semiotics. 4n itsel% the choice to write a no#el in Swahili is a

highly meaning%!l act it dramatically restricts the scope o% the readership to the gro!ps

described abo#e and this pre>!dices sales %ig!res international acclaim and other rewards o%

s!ccess%!l a!thorship. To some e+tent it Hhides( the no#el in a corner in the world it locks it

in a narrow space o% circ!lation and !ptake. -ll o% this is indisp!table e#en to many people

strongly interested in -%rican literat!re my disc!ssion here 9written o% co!rse in 8nglish;

will be their %irst enco!nter with E!h!mbika(s no#el. 4n that sense the dynamics o%

localization and trans"localization always come with a price the choice to a#oid the global

ling!ae %rancae seems to immediately marginalize c!lt!ral prod!cts and minimize the

symbolic bon!ses one co!ld get %rom c!lt!ral prod!ction.

4t is indisp!table howe#er to the e+tent that one #iews globalization as a process o%

!ni%ormization and to the e+tent that c!lt!ral globalization processes are seen as the

prod!ction o% a global monoc!lt!re. Things are di%%erent when we see globalization in the

terms sketched earlier in this book as a more Hniched( comple+ o% processes de#eloping at

se#eral di%%erent scale"le#els some o% them tr!ly global others regional national or e#en s!b"

national. -ppad!rai(s H#ernac!lar globalization( 4 wo!ld s!ggest is globalization at one partic!lar scale le#el lower than the %!lly global one it is the connectedness o% small pockets

:



o% people located 9and Hlocal(; in di%%erent parts o% the world sharing c!lt!ral prod!cts and

being in#ol#ed in processes o% >oint c!lt!ral prod!ction the Hnetworks( described by 0astells

91;. E!h!mbika(s book is globalized within s!ch a network it is globalized at a s!b"global

scale le#el within the comm!nities skteched abo#e. -t that scale"le#el a strong artic!lation o%

locality can be e+pected and the choice o% Swahili as well as the strongly local social

semiotics o% space contrib!te to that. There is nothing parado+ical to that = the seemingly odd

combination o% o!tspoken locality and o!tspoken globalization = i% one !nderstands the nat!re

and scope o% the partic!lar comm!nication network %or which this c!lt!ral prod!ct was

designed. 4t was designed %or a dispersed worldwide network in which this sense o% locality is

politically c!lt!rally and artistically meaning%!l %or a network that shares the inde+icals that

render it meaning%!l.

et me s!mmarize what we ha#e seen so %ar. e saw how an -%rican lang!age

Swahili co!ld become the #ehicle %or disco!rses o% translocality and locality in a comple+

balance which re%lected the partic!lar kind o% globalization in which it was !sed s!b"global

niched globalization within a partic!lar network o% comm!nicators.-n -%rican lang!age s!ch

as Swahili co!ld become the c!lt!ral code %or globalized c!lt!ral prod!ction at a partic!lar

scale le#el and that it e#en was the best c!lt!ral code %or this partic!lar network. This 4

wo!ld say is an aspect o% #itality these opport!nities %or !sing s!ch lang!ages in

globalization are relati#ely new 9they %ollow the increasing connecti#ity in diasporic

networks; there are plenty s!ch opport!nities and a 6!ick look at the 4nternet shows that they

are !sed by many people to artic!late the new c!lt!ral %orms o% #ernac!lar globalization.

E!h!mbika !ses an Hold( %ormat that o% the postcolonial Swahili no#el to artic!late a new

9translocal; criti6!e o% the 9local; past. The %ormat th!s becomes new and the lang!age

encodes this inno#ation. 4 %ind this a #ery hope%!l sign %or -%rican lang!ages and see this as a

necessary 6!ali%ication o% the more widespread #iews o% socioling!istic globalization in

which 8nglish is seen as a ling!icidal %orce. 4t no do!bt is b!t perhaps only at certain scale

le#els not at others and seeing globalization as something that operates at a #ariety o% le#els

can help !s !nderstand the real dynamics o% #itality and endangerment o% -%rican lang!ages.

This also co!nts %or other lang!ages that do not belong to the socioling!istic top o% the

world. 0!lt!ral prod!cts s!ch as m!sic art cinema and 9to a lesser e+tent; literat!re appear to

open new a#en!es to s!r#i#al %or lang!ages whose %ate wo!ld be otherwise pretty gloomy. e

see how %or instance 5ip5op appears to o%%er new opport!nities %or Hsmall( lang!ages to

artic!late globalized meanings in a new and in#ariably inno#ati#e c!lt!ral genre. ,ietikainen92::<; mentions the Sami rap artist -moc who makes widely sold and pop!lar records in the

1



4nari Sami lang!age = a lang!age that co!nts 9in optimistic acco!nts; abo!t 3:: speakers and

is solely spoken in one town in 'orthern Finland. 4nari Sami th!s gets a new lease o% li%e

thro!gh the globalized #ehicle o% 5ip5op. Similar phenomena can be obser#ed in #ario!s

places in -%rica and elsewhere where we see local lang!ages and lang!age #arieties being

!sed in rap m!sic and being disseminated #ia this medi!m to otherwise inaccessible

a!diences. The spread o% globalized c!lt!ral %ormats and the emergence o% globalized

comm!nities o% cons!mers th!s create new and positi#e opport!nities %or lang!ages to

circ!late = e#en i% the lang!ages are changed in the process and e#en i% the locality they

artic!late only makes sense in the conte+t o% the translocal circ!lation o% signs and meanings

in which the lang!age is in#ol#ed.

3.2. Locality an the periphery

The images o% the world that we saw in E!h!mbika(s work were local images they were

images o% and %rom the periphery o% the world"system. E!h!mbika drew on a local social

topography in which places and tra>ectories ac6!ire meaning and str!ct!re e#ents and

s!b>ects the same kind o% social topography that gi#es names s!ch as H,aris( or HThe hite

5o!se( m!ch more than >!st a geographical meaning. S!ch topographies belong to the local

c!lt!ral codes the comple+es o% local meanings that pro#ide rich inde+icals to place names.

The spaces they inde+ so begin to str!ct!re disco!rses o% ascriptions disco!rses in which

e#ents and people ac6!ire characteristics that are sensed to be attached to these places.

This is a rich %ield %or research on globalization processes beca!se whene#er people

comm!nicate they comm!nicate %rom and on partic!lar places. Their conte+t!al sit!atedness

as comm!nicators also incl!des spatiotemporal sit!atedness. This is not the same as

spatiotemporal %i+edness %or the patterns o% mobility we associate with globalization

ob#io!sly trigger e+pected and !ne+pected phenomena at this le#el. - Tanzanian %riend o%

mine who had st!died in ancaster CK sent home pict!res o% himsel% ne+t to a radiator = a

#ery m!ndane ob>ect %or people in ancaster so m!ndane that #ery %ew people wo!ld %ind it

worthy o% photographic recording. The pict!re 9in which he himsel% was tightly packed in

layers o% clothing; told a story howe#er the story o% how cold it was in ancaster so cold

that people had heating systems in their ho!ses and e#en with s!ch heating systems people

%rom Tanzania wo!ld ha#e to wear sweaters and scar#es = it was that cold. My %riend was

comm!nicating about ancaster b!t from Tanzania %rom within a %rame o% meaning%!lnessthat was Tanzanian. 4t was %rom within that Tanzanian %rame that the radiator in his st!dent

2



room ac6!ired the emblematic #al!e that it had in the pict!re. 5e was th!s translating one

%orm o% locality into another in a process o% mobility = the transport o% local 8nglish practice

into a local Tanzanian !ni#erse where it is assigned a localized Tanzanian interpretation.

0omm!nication th!s always in#ol#es iss!es o% transporting the signs or ob>ects attached one

place into those o% other places where they can be re"interpreted otherwise. 4t always in#ol#es

the mobilization o% meanings.

This is Htrans"localization( = a term 4 pre%er 9like -ppad!rai 1; o#er the more

common one Hglocalization( which is slightly misleading beca!se it s!ggests the global"in"

the"local. 4 see locality transported into locality and while s!ch a process is indeed

de%initional o% semiotic globalization processes the localities do not necessarily become more

Hglobal( or Hdeterritorialized( beca!se o% s!ch patterns o% trans"localization. They remain as

local as be%ore e#en when elements %rom a higher scale"le#el 9the trans"local; are being

imported 9Hre"territorialized( we co!ld say;. Meanings are primarily imported into local

systems o% meaning%!lness where they are changed and interpreted on the basis o% s!ch

systems = like when a ancaster radiator becomes an emblematic sign in Tanzania o% the

climate in 'orthern ?ritain. This point merits some emphasis beca!se while processes o%

global %low are by now 6!ite well described their !ptake has been less well !nderstood so %ar

and s!ch %orms o% !ptake need to be !nderstood in terms o% locality. e need to gain a clear

sight o% what locality means i% we want to !nderstand globalization. 4 am not happy with

#iews o% globalization in which the local is only seen as the stable and traditional and 4 am

e6!ally !nhappy with #iews in which locality is seen as the e%%ect o% deterritorialized Hplace"

making( 9c%. McKay and ?rady 2::&@ also ?!binas 2::&@ Mankekar 2::2;. S!ch #iews are

too m!ch tainted by e+isting emphases on globalization as primarily diasporic in nat!re while

more speci%ic %orms o% semiotic mobility = like the photos o% radiators mo#ing %rom ancaster

to Tanzania = are o#erlooked or neglected.

This is partic!larly at iss!e when we consider globalization processes %rom the center

to the periphery. There and rather persistently we see how global images disco!rses and

patterns o% cond!ct become relocalized into e+isting strong and perd!ring patterns. 8#en i%

s!ch peripheral local comm!nities are Hto!ched( by globalization they remain %irmly local in

str!ct!re sel%"presentation and image. 0hange is grad!al step"by"step and slow and the Hold

order( o% things persists while elements o% the new order creep in. This is what we saw in the

Tanzanian no#el the local semiotics o% space was !sed in a translocal globalized act o%

comm!nication which then became relocalized among the Tanzanian readers o% the no#el.The lang!age Swahili itsel% %!nctioned as the carrier %or this process o% blending the old and

3



the new and so became a #ehicle %or c!lt!ral inno#ation. ang!ages and disco!rses mo#e

aro!nd b!t they do so between spaces that are %!ll o% r!les norms c!stoms and con#entions

and they get adapted to the r!les norms c!stoms and con#entions o% s!ch places be%ore

mo#ing %!rther on their tra>ectories. This dynamic o% localization delocalization and

relocalization is essential %or o!r !nderstanding o% socioling!istic globalization processes.

This will also become clear when we engage with the ne+t series o% e+amples in which we

see the socioling!istic emblem o% globalization 8nglish make its way into a newly

democratic ed!cation en#ironment in the townships o% So!th -%rica.

3.3. The norms of the periphery

Societies marked by deep ine6!ality characteristically prod!ce di%%erent layers and niches in

which #ery di%%erent ways o% li%e are de#eloped on the basis o% r!les norms and opport!nities

not #alid elsewhere. The dynamics within s!ch spaces lead one to s!spect that they ha#e a

degree o% a!tonomy #is"R"#is the wider system@ yet they are o%ten seen only in relation to the

wider system as Hperipheries( Hmargins( Hbackward areas( Hpoor neighborhoods( and so

%orth. There is a politics o% semiotic strati%ication that ass!mes the e+istence o% a !ni%orm

system in which a ranking o% Hgood( and Hworse( places can be made. This mechanism is

homogenizing and it o%ten appears as a disco!rse o% standards Hnormalcy( and

monocentricity where the norms and c!stoms o% the Hcenter( 9i.e. !s!ally the middle class; are

taken to be the only #alid ones and the only ones g!aranteeing !pward social mobility and

s!ccess. Failing to meet s!ch norms is then seen as %ailing to meet the norms = %ailing to

comply with the only percei#ed possible tra>ectory %or s!ccess in society. -nd those who %ail

to meet the norm are in one mo#e rapidly 6!ali%ied as problems Habnormals( Hmarginals(

etc. 9Fo!ca!lt 2::3;. 8d!cation as a system designed %or c!lt!ral and social reprod!ction is

o% co!rse a case in point.

S!ch homogenizing approaches to di%%erences in an !ne6!al society 4 intend to

demonstrate obsc!re an acc!rate #iew and appraisal o% the local dynamics in parts o% the

system. The Hmargin( so to speak is not necessarily a space in which people fail to meet

norms b!t it can as well be seen as a space in which different but related norms are produced

responding = Hecologically( so to speak = to the local possibilities and limitations. S!ch

norms o% co!rse do not matter m!ch in the larger scheme o% things. i%ted o!t o% their local

conte+t they b!mp into the homogenizing sing!lar images o% normati#ity dominant in mostsocieties and get dis6!ali%ied witho!t m!ch ado 9?lommaert 0re#e and illaert 2::@ also

$



Milroy and Milroy 11@ Sil#erstein 1@ ?on%iglio 2::2;. This howe#er is a process that

deser#es s!bstantial attention beca!se it is a process o%ten only !nderstood not in its own

terms b!t in terms o% the homogenizing normati#ity itsel%. Bis6!ali%ying Hde#iant( norms

almost a!tomatically e%%aces these norms as e+isting socially and c!lt!rally #al!able and

abo#e all producti!e problem"sol#ing instr!ments. This is a classic problem o% hegemony in

social science emphasis on a limited n!mber o% categories and notions makes other categories

and notions in#isible e#en i% they might be cr!cial %or an acc!rate !nderstanding o% the #ery

social processes o% e+cl!sion and eras!re that made them in#isible 9c%. 4r#ine and Gal 2:::;.

4n#estigating de#iation is there%ore 9in an echo o% Fo!ca!lt; an in#estigation o% power.

4 will %oc!s here on literacy practices in esbank 5igh a township school in the 0ape

Town area So!th -%rica s!ggesting that Hde#iant( normati#ity in lang!age = speci%ically

orthographic Herrors( = becomes a producti!e instr!ment that allows teachers to work with

gro!ps o% learners displaying wildly di%%erent backgro!nds capacities and skills. 4 will

s!ggest that there is an ad"hoc consens!s o#er local normati#ity a normati#ity that relates to

the sociological and c!lt!ral en#ironment 9a Hrealistic( %orm o% normati#ity in other words;

and th!s creates opport!nities %or Hrealistic( appraisals o% learning tra>ectories. 4t has to be

seen in terms o% local = restricted = repertoires o% literacy an economy o% literacy in the

townships which e+ists alongside other economies in which more di#erse and e+tended

repertoires are a#ailable. S!ch ad"hoc norms there%ore do not co!nter the dominant

9c!rric!l!m; norms nor do they dis6!ali%y them@ they s!ggest a local le#el o% organization in

which di%%erent sol!tions are de#eloped to local problems. 4n that sense the prod!ction o%

local de#iant normati#ity is both a problem and a sol!tion as we shall see. 4t is a problem

beca!se it remains Hins!%%icient( in terms o% the dominant norms@ it is a sol!tion beca!se it

allows %or a prod!cti#e teaching practice in school as well as %or a degree o% comm!nity

de#elopment and identity constr!ction.

- detailed decoding o% the con%lict!al and ambi#alent nat!re o% s!ch processes may be

%!ndamental %or an !nderstanding o% patterns o% ine6!ality in societies s!ch as contemporary

So!th -%rica. 4magining literacy normati#ity not as one !ni%orm ob>ect b!t as an ecologically

and economically localized one is an important %irst step towards analysing it with more

sensiti#ity to local conte+t !se and %!nction. For a socioling!istics o% globalization it is

important to see the way in which globalized lang!age material = normati#e 8nglish literacy =

enters and becomes adapted to a local socioling!istic en#ironment and begins to %!nction

there as a local reso!rce only loosely connected to its globalized origins. This local reso!rce belongs to a lang!age 8nglish to be s!re b!t it is more prod!cti#e to see it as it is as a set o%

&



specialized localized semiotic reso!rces that is related to a local economy o% signs and

meanings. The ne+t chapter will %!rther elaborate on this theme b!t %irst we need to speci%y

the partic!lar processes we are considering here. 4n what %ollows 4 shall %irst pro#ide some

general conte+t!alizing remarks. 'e+t 4 shall engage with a n!mber o% iss!es emerging %rom

%ieldwork in esbank 5igh %oc!sing %irst on the density o% occ!rrences o% Hde#iant( literacy

%eat!res and then on local #iews o% %!nction and #al!e o% ling!istic reso!rces. 4 will then

sketch a pattern o% the prod!ction o% locality in esbank 5igh and what is commonly

regarded as Herrors( committed against a single norm will be con#erted into prod!cti#e

mechanisms %or the constr!ction o% peripheral normati#ity a normati#ity that relates to the

sociology o% the periphery. This then sho!ld ill!strate the dynamic o% localization

delocalization and relocalization in globalization processes and so show !s the core o%

socioling!istic globalization processes.

The field and the issues

The esbank settlement is by all standards a peripheral comm!nity isolated %rom

neighboring areas and plag!ed by a #ariety o% social and economic di%%ic!lties. esbank was

one o% the %irst post"apartheid ho!sing pro>ects. ,rior to the start o% the ho!sing pro>ect the

area was an in%ormal settlement 9i.e. a sl!m; known as 0amelot. 4n September 1& the

,ro#incial -dministration o% the estern 0ape decided that esbank sho!ld become an area

%or the relocation o% Hma+im!m s!bsidy( 9i.e. minim!m income; %amilies. Former place o%

residence color or other social diacritics did not play a role. The b!ilding works started in

1/ and gi#en the critical nat!re o% the ho!sing problems in the 0ape area proceeded at a

rapid pace and with a limited b!dget. The ho!ses were b!ilt with brick walls and corr!gated

iron roo%s witho!t thermal ins!lation. 8#ery ho!se has one toilet and one washing table. The

ho!ses are !ni%orm and e+cessi#ely simple in str!ct!re = people call them Hmatchbo+ ho!ses(.

The bright colors in which they were painted 6!ickly ga#e rise to another nickname

HSmarties town( a%ter the colored chocolate Smarties 9MandMs;.

,eople started mo#ing into esbank in 1 and at the time o% %ieldwork in 2::$ the

comm!nity consisted o% an estimated 2&::: people li#ing in &1$& ho!sing !nits. B!e to the

dominance o% socio"economic criteria in the selection o% inhabitants the pop!lation in

esbank was and is #ery di#erse esbank ho!ses people who li#ed in other townships in the

0ape Town area and in the n!mero!s in%ormal settlements m!shrooming aro!nd the city aswell as recent immigrants %rom the 8astern 0ape pro#ince and %rom %!rther a%ield. ?lack



colored and 9some; white people are li#ing in the same comm!nity. Most o% the inhabitants

are colored and -%rikaans"speaking tho!gh 2&] are black and Xhosa"speaking. The Xhosa

comm!nity li#es together in one section o% esbank 9Byers 2::$a 2::$b;. esbank is a

comm!nity with #ery limited p!blic in%rastr!ct!re and a serio!s degree o% spatial isolation

ca!ght between highways and an inade6!ately integrated in the local Hta+i( transport network

9Aonckers and 'ewton 2::$ 113"11<;. -part %rom Hshebeens( 9local illegal bars; and other

small"scale shops there was one s!permarket. There were one secondary and three primary

schools catering to many tho!sands o% learners only one open"air b!st"stop and no

comm!nity center or hospital. The !nemployment rate in esbank is #ery high perpet!ating

the po#erty which characterized the eligible pop!lation. *ne has to start one(s own small

b!siness or lea#e the comm!nity to %ind a >ob and comm!ting o!t o% esbank in#ol#es

considerable tra#el e+penses.

esbank 5igh is the only secondary school in the area and its new and well"

constr!cted %acilities rank among the best and most welcoming in the whole o% esbank. 4t is

sit!ated on the edge o% the settlement at a certain distance %rom the main road and is

there%ore shielded %rom b!sy tra%%ic and passage. The b!ilding is s!rro!nded by a high %ence

and a gate pro#ides access to the school gro!nds. The b!ilding is organized aro!nd a large

central patio. The school has an 9embryonic; library anne+ comp!ter"room@ there are some

9modest; sports %acilities at the back o% the b!ilding@ a #egetable garden is !nder constr!ction.

-part %rom daytime teaching acti#ities there are also e#ening ad!lt classes.

esbank 5igh is a d!al"medi!m school which means that s!b>ects are o%%ered in two

lang!ages 8nglish and -%rikaans. 4n 2::$ the school co!nted nine grade < classes nine grade

s and %i#e grade 1:s. 8#ery grade had two class gro!ps ha#ing 8nglish as the medi!m o%

instr!ction and it m!st be noted that only the rarest o% learners in these gro!ps had 8nglish as

their mother tong!e. The rest o% the classes had -%rikaans as medi!m o% instr!ction and

mostly this was the learners( mother tong!e. This distrib!tion can immediately ser#e as an

indicator %or the balance between black and colored learners in the school. The ma>ority was

colored and took -%rikaans"medi!m classes. Dery %ew black learners >oined them there as

most black learners attended 8nglish"medi!m classes where one %o!nd %ew colored learners.

-ltho!gh this seems a simple lang!age iss!e it had social and socioling!istic reperc!ssions

as we shall see %!rther on.3

The error as terror: "eviation and normativity in $esbank %igh

/



Teachers in esbank 5igh %ace a n!mber o% challenges big classes with a #ery heterogeneo!s

pop!lation 6!a backgro!nds capacity and le#els o% achie#ement@ a poor and marginalized

comm!nity@ an !nder"reso!rced school in which special ed!cational needs cannot beade6!ately addressed. et !s now ha#e a look at some classroom acti#ities in esbank 5igh.

4 will restrict mysel% to obser#ations on literacy practices and the way in which we see

comple+ relations towards norms there. This restriction is a matter o% space not o%

methodology and it is !se%!l to emphasize that the obser#ations on literacy are mirrored in

the spoken #arieties o% learners and teachers as well 9%or a detailed st!dy o% rele#ance to o!r

concern here see Kapp 2::1;.

Getting it right

-ll learners regardless o% their a#erage scores shared some problems and one ma>or problem

was command o% basic literacy skills. - close e+amination o% the data gathered among

learners re#eals that almost all o% them consistently 9and with amazing %re6!ency; prod!ced

partic!lar types o% writing %eat!res

9i; the erratic !se o% capitals 9not !sing them where needed !sing them where not

needed;@

9ii; di%%ic!lties with sing!lar and pl!ral marking@

9iii; di%%ic!lties with #erb in%lections esp. pl!ral marking and tense marking@

9i#; problems with the !se o% de%inite and inde%inite articles 9not !sing them where

needed;@

9#; a wide range o% spelling problems mostly a res!lt o% phonetic spelling 9writing

according to pron!nciation;@

9#i; a tendency to aestheticize writing e#en while str!ggling with basic writing skills =

writing as drawing.

These %eat!res occ!rred regardless o% the lang!ages !sed by learners 9we shall later see that

they also occ!r in the teachers( writing;. 4n addition many learners had more speci%ic

problems with completing relati#ely !ndemanding syntactic and grammatical tasks in 8nglish.

<



et !s look at a small random sample %rom the data gathered. First obser#e these e+amples o%

erratic capital !se

1. ?eca!se they tho!ght that is a G!n So!nd and the boy wasnZt back home.

2. 4% 4 lo#ed him 5e wo!ld marry me

3. >a 8k dink daar is toekoms ... 9yes 4 think there is a %!t!re...;

$. atte taal ho! >i> 'iks #an nie7 9hich lang!age do yo! dislike;

&. ?80-CS8 Oo! can 0omm!nicate with 8#eryone with it.

. Oo! can go to the %ar lands that they speek other lang!age lets say maybe they speek

%rench they may !nderstand english.

/. 8'Glish. beca!se itZs the oFFicial ang!age in So!th -%rica

8+ample already shows that apart %rom the erratic !se o% capitals learners also str!ggled

with spelling. 5ere is a sample o% the spelling problems we enco!ntered in o!r data and as

noted abo#e many o% them ha#e to do with phonetic writing. e see %or instance errors that

seem to ha#e their origin in Haccent"in"writing( local ways o% prono!ncing words re%lected in

writing 9c%. ?lommaert 2::<;.

Xhosh I Xhoza 9Xhosa; Fraans 9Frans; spesel 9special; dearist 9dearest; sewand

9selwand; emegency e+it 9emergency e+it; amtelle I amtelik 9amtelike; 8nglis

98nglish; de%%erent 9di%%erent; importend 9important; ne#e 9ne#er; disent 9decent;

ather 9other; whe 9when; hotal 9hotel; iconomy 9economy; tra#e egent 9tra#el

agent; trasport 9transport; eirs 9ears; anather 9another; pe%ect 9per%ect; merriage

9marriage; the 9there;

Eelated to the %ormer category some %orms betray interling!al in%l!ences %rom -%rikaans on

8nglish and #ice #ersa

-%ricaans -%rikans 9-%rikaans; Franch 9Frans; pop!lare 9pop!lar; beco!se

9beca!se; %inde 9%ind; importante 9important; %amile 9%amily; co!ntrie 9co!ntry;

somethinge 9something; 8ngilhs 98ngels;

e also see homophone spellings spelling a word in a way that allows homophono!s

realization in local #arieties o% speech

now 9know; noyse 9nose; a price hate I apesiheth 9appreciate; s!tch 9s!ch; mybe9maybe; eath 9earth; resta!rand 9resta!rant; -%rikaan 9-%rikaans; So!d"-%rica



9So!th -%rica; lang!age 9lang!age; meter 9matter; there leder 9their leader; leyzy

9lazy; !s 9!se; mothe lang!age 9mother lang!age; no 9know; learne 9learner; sow

9so; #erry 9#ery; e#erry 9e#ery; othe I ather I arther 9other; som 9some; b!sness

9b!siness; arwer I awer 9o!r; rase 9race; speek 9speak; l!rners 9learners;

Some errors might be based on the comple+ity o% the graphic %orm in#erted order o% symbols

con%!sion abo!t the graphic representation o% so!nds etc.

whit 9with; So!th -%ricka I So!d"-%ica 9So!th -%rica; peopel 9people; a noteher

9another; mith 9might; aers 9ears; cop!ter aided design 9comp!ter aided design;

pleke 9plekke; meste 9meeste; 'edelerlands 9'ederlands; %eel !nappreciatel 9%eel

!nappreciated; be!ty%!ll 9bea!ti%!l; bec!ase 9beca!se; langage I langa!ge I lang!ge

9lang!age; somethimes 9sometimes; liek I lick 9like; t!ong I to!nge I tog!e 9tong!e;

the want 9they want; speck 9speak; mo!st 9most; apro%% 9a proo%; peop I peaple

9people; respect%!ll 9respect%!l; leasten 9listen; weather 9wether;

Fig!re 1 is an e+ample o% a word order task in 8nglish@ %ig!re 2 is an e+ample o% an

orthographic 9spelling; correction task. Fig!res 3 $ and & show how all these isolated

di%%ic!lties combine in creati#e writing. Fig!re %inally shows another widespread %eat!re

the tendency to create an aesthetic te+t!al prod!ct in spite o% the di%%ic!lties in handling

literacy codes.

9F4GCE8S 1 2 3 $ & -'B 58E8;

Fig!re 1 0aption Hsynta+ assignment(

Fig!re 2 0aption Hspelling assignment(

Fig!re 3 0aption Hletter to the ,rincipal(

Fig!re $ 0aption Hthe lang!age 4 like most(

Fig!re & 0aption Hcomm!nicate(

Fig!re 0aption Hdecorated writing(

These %eat!res o% writing are not !ne+pected they are %eat!res o% Hgrassroots literacy(

and #ery widespread in -%rica and elsewhere. They can be enco!ntered in many places in the

world where people are inserted in s!b"elite literacy economies and ha#e restricted literacyrepertoires and o%ten ass!me the shape o% a skeleton writing competence in which aco!stic

1::



images o% words are noted in an !nstable spelling system. Grassroots literacy 4 insist need

not be seen as Hbad literacy( or Hrestricted literacy( in Aack Goody(s terms 9Goody 1<;. S!ch

terms s!ggest a partic!lar 9in%erior; position on one !ni%orm contin!!m o% H6!ality( in literacy

whereas it is %ar more !se%!l to see grassroots literacy as a partic!lar locally constr!cted and

constrained literacy 9culture* with a degree o% a!tonomy #is"R"#is related literacy c!lt!res

incl!ding that o% elite normati#e literacy. 4t is a %orm o% literacy which res!lts in #ery

restricted literacy repertoires and in which conse6!ently the norms and codes o% literacy are

deployed di%%erently in a di%%erent system o% #is!alization o% meaning. 4t is not ortho"graphy

b!t hetero3graphy the deployment o% literacy techni6!es and instr!ments in ways that do not

respond to instit!tional ortho"graphic norms b!t that ne#ertheless are not completely chaotic

e#en i% s!ch chaos appears to be the most conspic!o!sly %eat!re 9?lommaert 2::<@ see

,rinsloo and ?reier 1 and Thesen and Dan ,letzen 2:: %or st!dies o% contemporary So!th

-%rica;. There is order in the chaos and this order in#ites 9as yet !ne+plored; rich

comparati#e st!dy we see rec!rrent Herrors( widespread as types in the e+amples gi#en here

as well as in those %o!nd elsewhere and rather than seeing this as an absence o% order and

consistency one can also see it as the presence o% a di%%erent kind o% order operating within a

restricted repertoire. These %orms o% literacy respond to local iss!es o% %!nction and need@ they

are in other words ecologically embedded in the comm!nity in which they operate 9c%.

?arton 1$@ ?arton and 5amilton 1<@ Street 1&@ Aa%%e 2:::@ 0ollins and ?lot 2::3;.

This #iew in which s!ch %orms o% writing are seen as belonging to a partic!lar local

literacy c!lt!re complicates matters that otherwise might seem o#erly clear. For one thing it

does not help to dismiss the learners( writing as littered with orthographic errors there is a

more prod!cti#e hetero"graphic way o% seeing it. 4t does not only e+ist in relation to one

9instit!tional; norm o% writing b!t it e+ists in relation to a m!ltit!de o% s!ch norms. -lso and

conse6!ently s!per%icial comparison with similar %orms o% writing prod!ced e.g. in the CK

or the CS is not help%!l either as they wo!ld again s!ggest one !ni%orm literacy comple+ that

%!nctions as a yardstick %or assessing degrees o% 6!ality in literacy. 8#en i% we see similar

graphic realizations in contemporary and historical e+amples o% writing %rom the est the

partic!lar histories o% becoming o% s!ch %orms as well as their contemporary embeddedness in

socio"economic c!lt!ral and ideological conte+ts call %or deeper and more n!anced analyses.

4% %or instance someone in a literacy"sat!rated en#ironment writes Hl!#( it is likely that sIhe

also knows that there is an orthographically normati#e #ersion Hlo#e( and that sIhe wo!ld be

able to write this orthographically normati#e #ersion. riting Hl!#( then becomes an act o%wit skill and graphic creati#e display 9as well as a display o% some !nderstanding o% spelling

1:1



con#entions e.g. in identi%ying the #owel in Hl!#( as identical to the one in Hp!n(; something

that e+ists alongside normati#e writing and deri#es its inde+ical #al!es o% creati#ity and

wittiness %rom the contrast with an 9accessible; norm. hat we are %acing here is an interplay

between two di%%erent literacies both o% which are within reach o% the same !ser beca!se both

belong to the literacy repertoire o% the !ser. 4n contrast the learner who wrote Hdearist( instead

o% Hdearest( in her letter to the principal 9%ig!re 3; has no access to the orthographically

normati#e #ersion o% the word@ Hdearist( is her best possible graphic realization beca!se the

orthographically normati#e #ersion is not accessible in her partic!lar literacy repertoire. 8#en

i% %orms o% writing in So!th -%rica and the CK ha#e a prima facie similarity it is what lies

beneath the s!r%ace that co!nts when we want to address the roles and %!nctions o% these

%orms o% writing %or those who employ them.

S!mmarizing we ha#e seen that the learners( writing in esbank 5igh displayed

%eat!res o% grassroots literacy. The %eat!res are not gro!p"speci%ic b!t widespread %eat!res o% a

partic!lar %orm o% literacy and they occ!r regardless o% the ling!istic backgro!nds o% the

learners as well as o% their a#erage academic per%ormance. They are in other words a le#el o%

shared literacy c!lt!re in an otherwise e+tremely heterogeneo!s comm!nity.

'he teachers

The pict!re o% a shared literacy c!lt!re becomes partic!larly intrig!ing as soon as we start

looking at teachers( lang!age !sage. Many o% the %eat!res we detected in the learners( writing

also occ!r in the writing o% teachers. 0onsider the %ollowing e+amples taken %rom

6!estionnaire responses

91; 8nglish being an international lang!age wo!ld e6!ipt learner to be able to

comm!nicate e%%ecti#ely internationally4N

92; earners %eel shy to speak a minority lang!ge. Mostly make yo!se o% code

switching. -lso a%raid o% stereotyping.N

4n 91; we see a spelling error 9e6!iptN; and a missing article or a problem with pl!ral

marking 9the learnerN or learner sN;@ in 92; we also see spelling errors 9lang!geN yo!seN;

and two rather !ne+pected %orms o% s!b>ect and #erb ellipsis in the two %inal sentences. Thespelling errors in 92; are similar to those enco!ntered in the learners( writing abo#e. Fig!res /

1:2



and < pro#ide %!rther e+amples@ note again the typological similarity between the errors made

by the teachers and those made by the learners 9e.g. accent in a#angelistN and galariesN in

%ig!re /@ !nwarranted capitals and aco!stic writing in ell 8stablishN %ig!re <;.

9F4GCE8S / < 58E8;

Fig!re / 0aption Hteacher(s 6!estionnaire 1(

Fig!re < 0aption Hteacher(s 6!estionnaire 2(

So teachers and learners appear to share some o% the %eat!res o% writing and make

typologically similar errors = both gro!ps appear to di%%erent e+tents to be part o% a partic!lar

hetero"graphic literacy comple+ to the s!b"elite strat!m o% literacy. This is a sociologically

realistic %orm o% literacy in the sense that it mirrors the marginalized stat!s o% the comm!nity

in which it occ!rs. 4t is a %orm o% literacy that characterizes the place in which they operate

and in which access to elite 9hyper"normati#e homogenized; literacy is se#erely restricted. 4t

is not the case that teachers incorporate an abstract ideal and !ni%orm literacy norm which

wo!ld set them apart %rom their learners. The reason is again a historical one. The teachers in

esbank 5igh all belonged to the same Hracial( gro!ps as their p!pils colored and black. -nd

e#en i% in comparison with their p!pils they wo!ld be relati#ely well"o%% 9they are a salaried

pro%essional lower middle"class; being black or colored e6!alled str!ct!ral

disen%ranchisement !ntil #ery recently. 4n other words the esbank 5igh teachers come %rom

a similar s!b"elite strat!m in society in which the material and symbolic pri#ileges o% the elite

were and are rare commodities. Traces o% that str!ct!ral marginalization can be %o!nd e#en

today and they pro#ide a bedrock o% shared c!lt!re between teachers and learners.

The teachers deploy this sociologically real local %orm o% literacy as a normati#e tool

in teaching practice. This becomes clear when we look at the way in which teachers correct

and mark learners( assignments. 0onsider %ig!re an 8nglish writing assignment marked and

corrected by the teacher. 4n disc!ssing it we shall !se the term Herror( beca!se we are

addressing an e#al!ated e+ercise in orthographic correctness.

9F4GCE8 58E8. 0aption Hcorrected assignment(;

The teacher identi%ies and corrects < writing errors and marks the assignment with e+cellent

<$]N. The teacher howe#er does not spot the error in sentence 2 lo#e end careN nor thetwo errors in sentence $ somoneN and hen yo! lo#e her our himN 9note that the teacher

1:3



also let pass the di#ision o% 9$; in two separate sentences;. -nd in sentence the teacher

corrects two cases o% phonetic writing 9all so spesialeN; b!t does not spot and appraise the

initial intention o% the learner 9aborted while writing; to add a bene%iciary to the synta+ o% the

sentence 9%r!its are %or someone also #ery specialN;. - sel%"correction s!ch as in sentence

re#eals the learner(s str!ggle with literate narrati#ity the grammatical bl!eprint is there b!t

literacy obstacles pre#ent a smooth narrati#e realization o% it. The teacher(s enco!raging

marks and comments show that the %orm o% literacy displayed by the learner is positi#ely

#al!ed@ the teacher(s reading and assessment o% it is less than p!niti#e and o#erlooks se#eral

more errors as well as the general str!ggle with literate narrati#ity displayed in the learner(s

responses. *bser#e that the errors not sanctioned by the teacher belong to the types we

identi%ied earlier phonetic writing and Haccent( in writing = types o% errors also present in the

teachers( writing.

The teacher assessing the assignment in %ig!re o#erlooked se#eral rather se#ere

writing errors as well. The missing articles e.g. are not identi%ied as errors 9To!rist is

someoneLN 4t can be sportsman b!sines etc.N pro#ides place %or people to stayN = note

also the spelling error in Hb!sines(;@ and the in%lectional error in 4t s!pply transport %or

peopleIto!ristN is also not marked as an error. T!rning to %ig!re 3 %inally 9the letter to the

principal; we again see that the teacher does not inter#ene in the general !neasiness o%

e+pression in the letter 9the %re6!ent !se o% b!tN %or instance; and that #ery problematic

e+pressions s!ch as to thank yo! %or the doing us a big thing N are also allowed to pass. e

can go on o!r data contain n!mero!s e+amples o% teachers partially sanctioning and

correcting learners( transgression o% Hgeneral( 8nglish orthographic norms.

Peripheral norms

The shared literacy c!lt!re th!s a%%ects systems o% appraisal and marking by teachers. 4n other

words grassroots literacy becomes not only a practical code a tool %or e+pression b!t also an

e!aluati!e and hence normati!e code a code in which degrees o% correctness and H6!ality( can

be disting!ished. Th!s a local system o% di%%ering H6!alities( o% literate e+pression is created

which does not pre"empt serio!s and consistent e#al!ation = see the teacher(s marks and

corrections and the di#erging a#erage scores o% learners = b!t which shi%ts the yardstick o%

e#al!ation away %rom an !nattainable pres!med !ni#ersal and sing!lar norm to a local

realistic norm to which learners can aspire and towards which they can make impro#ements.This is not done on p!rpose = it is not the case that teachers percei#e themsel#es as lenient

1:$



towards learners 9on the contrary in o!r inter#iews with them most teachers characterized

themsel#es as demanding strict and rigoro!s towards their learners;. 4t is an e%%ect o% both

gro!ps being part o% the same s!b"elite literacy strat!m in society.

This normati#e yardstick conse6!ently is embedded in the local economies o%

semiotic reso!rces. 4t is in other words a normati#e comple+ with at least some degree o%

sociological and c!lt!ral reality in terms o% the le#els o% literacy pre#alent in esbank where

9as we saw earlier; low le#els o% ed!cation are the r!le rather than the e+ception and where

s!bstantial di#ersity in ling!istic social and c!lt!ral backgro!nds is the r!le as well.

0onse6!ently doing Hwell( at school means doing well by local standards@ it is abo!t doing

well in (esban& not in an abstract !ni#erse o% learning. The socioling!istic li%e o% the

comm!nity is dominated by this local normati#ity comple+. Globalization can spread a

lang!age b!t it does not spread the partic!lar %orms in which it occ!rs.

Cndo!btedly this has positi#e e%%ects. The teacher(s marks and comments s!ch as

e+cellentN m!st ha#e a stim!lating e%%ect on the learner who thanks to this realistic local

normati#ity has the opport!nity to per%orm better than when a p!niti#e e+ternal percei#ed

!ni#ersal normati#ity wo!ld be applied to hisIher assignments. That this m!st ha#e a positi#e

impact on the sel%"perception o% the learner and on hisIher moti#ation is more than an

ed!cated g!ess. The localization o% normati#ity probably also allows teachers to attain some

degree o% e%%ecti#eness in %ront o% the large and #ery heterogeneo!s classes that characterize

esbank 5igh. -gain an Habsol!te( 9e+ternal a"conte+t!al; norm wo!ld most probably lead

to no"passes %or almost e#ery learner whereas application o% the realistic norm allows %or

some degree o% di%%erentiation some degree o% identi%ication o% Hbetter( and Hworse( learners.

There is th!s a pedagogical and moral case to be made %or this proced!re. 8#en

tho!gh %rom one perspecti#e it amo!nts to li%ting Herrors( to the le#el o% norms 9and th!s

Hnormalizing( errors in writing; another perspecti#e s!ggests that it o%%ers interesting

pedagogical opport!nities and is th!s a prod!cti#e positi#e proced!re. 4t can be seen as the

localization o% ed!cation standards = something which probably occ!rs e#erywhere 9we ha#e

seen that all o#er the world 8nglish is learned %ith an accent ; b!t is rarely recognized and

acknowledged. 8d!cation certainly on literacy is #ery o%ten seen as de#eloping with

re%erences to indisp!table and a"conte+t!al codes and norms. hat happens in esbank 5igh

is the Hdownscaling( o% ed!cation bringing it down to the le#el o% the local or regional

comm!nity borrowing its norms and e+pectations and training learners in the local9ized;

codes and norms. The norms in esbank 5igh are !sed to include not >!st to e$clude.

1:&



*bser#e that this arg!ment rests on an approach in which we see the 8nglish literacy

skills o% the learning comm!nity in esbank as a localized set o% semiotic reso!rces which is

organized in a partic!lar way. Totalizing ideas o% lang!age and literacy are not help%!l here@

we need an ethnographic sensiti#ity to the ways in which in this comm!nity people ha#e

organized their semiotic reso!rces within local constraints and in #iew o% creating locally

#alid opport!nities %or them. e shall consider the iss!e o% how s!ch resor!ces are organized

in repertoires in greater detail in the ne+t chapter. The totalizing ideas o% lang!age and literacy

are not wholly absent howe#er. They belong to a lang!age"ideological layer o% socioling!istic

realities to which we can now t!rn.

Perceptions of the center

4n the practice o% teaching and learning we see that esbank 5igh has localized its normati#e

comple+es ad>!sting its e#al!ati#e schemes and scales and creating a #iable realistic

pedagogy practice in which local #arieties o% literacy are #al!ed. So %ar so good = we ha#e

identi%ied a set o% practices which 9perhaps co!nter"int!iti#ely; is a solution to otherwise

mon!mental obstacles to academic achie#ement the !nattainable nat!re o% Hideal( norms the

norms o% the center %or people in the periphery. 4n so doing we ha#e enco!ntered the core

process o% socioling!istic globalization a globalized lang!age standard becomes trans%ormed

into relocalized #ernac!lar #arieties.

4t is o% co!rse not only a sol!tion b!t a problem as well and in its most

straight%orward %orm!lation the problem is this while being able to de#elop a prod!cti#e and

stim!lating learning en#ironment which o%%ers new opport!nities to more learners in a

Hdi%%ic!lt( social en#ironment the localization o% norms also in#ol#es a mo#e away %rom the

norms o% the Hcenter(. -nd these norms as we know are hegemonic in the end. hen

esbank 5igh grad!ates intend to mo#e on to instit!tes o% higher learning the errors in their

essays will not be percei#ed as tokens o% local c!lt!ral creati#ity and peripheral normati#ity

b!t as inde+es o% poor academic literacy le#els. The %eat!res that were instr!ments o%

incl!sion and creati#ity at the local le#el o% esbank s!ddenly become ob>ects o% e+cl!sion

at a higher le#el. Their literacy skills are locked so to speak into one scale"le#el the local

one. This too is a core %eat!re o% socioling!istic globalization the relocalized #arieties may

get Hst!ck( at a local scale"le#el and o%%er little in the way o% mobility potential across scales

%or their !sers.

1:



-n o#erwhelming ma>ority o% learners and teachers saw 8nglish as the Hmost

important( lang!age in So!th -%rica = as the ling!istic reso!rce carrying most prestige and

promise o% social and spatial mobility 9Byers 2::$a 2::<@ see ?ekker 2::3 %or an insight%!l

historical analysis;. *% co!rse H8nglish( = as a tool %or social and spatial mobility = o%%ers

only a small margin o% negotiability as to norms and codes whene#er we %rame 8nglish in

terms s!ch as presented here we are talking abo!t prestige !arieties o% 8nglish. esbank

5igh learners howe#er e+pressed their belie% in the mobility"endowing potential o% 8nglish

in strongly Haccented( #arieties #arieties that displayed the peripheral normati#ity we

identi%ied in the pre#io!s section. et !s ret!rn brie%ly to %ig!re $ abo#e. This is what the 1"

year old learner writes

The lang!age that 4 like at school to learn 8nglish beca!se that 8#erybody

they lean 8nglish beca!se is a #ery nice lang!age to 8#eryone that they want

to speak 8nglish

0onsider also this e+ample %rom another learner(s lang!age"mind"map

ca!se o#er race in this co!ntry can !nderstand 8nglish and we can

comm!nicate with e#eryone whether in So!th -%rica or in any other

co!ntry.

4t is clear that the H8nglish( both learners ha#e in mind is not the H8nglish( they artic!late in

their answers@ there is a gap between Htheir( 8nglish and Hthe( 9normati#e and literate; 8nglish

considered to be the most important lang!age in So!th -%rica.

This 8nglish is an ob>ect o% considerable attention and learners str!ggle to ac6!ire it.

hat %ollows is a %ragment %rom an inter#iew between the researchers ' and M and learners

- and G

1. ' the rest yo! donZt like7 .. a%rikaans e!hm .. li%e orientation I

2. - no i donZt want to learn

a%rikaans I. i already know . how to talk a%rikaans I i want to learn english like i can

talk with yo! I

3. ' okayI beca!se yo! can already speak a%rikaans

$. - a%rikaans yes

1:/



&. M so yo! I yo! wo!ld pre%er to .. learn english instead o% a%rikaans I

. - yes iZ#e got one english book I

/. M yeah

<. - they .. they try to learn english and they .. they andand a%rikaans

. M yeah ..

9L;

22. M do yo! think it is important that yo! know . many lang!ages here in so!th a%rica I

or .. I to learn many lang!ages

23. G 9lo; to learn many lang!ages L is important seef P a lot o% noise in the back the

learners are coming o!t o% the classesQ

2$. - b!t the important lang!age %or me is english

2&. M thatZs the most important lang!age to yo! I and why I

93s;

2. - i donZt know why

2/. ' is it maybe beca!se most o% the people can !nderstand it

2<. - yes

*bser#e how - and G identi%y 8nglish as a target as something to be learned not as

something already ac6!ired 9e#en tho!gh they responded to the inter#iew 6!estions in

8nglish;. 'ote also that 8nglish is at the top o% a local ideologically in%ormed hierarchy o%

lang!ages in which respondents !s!ally disting!ish three elements 8nglish -%rikaans and

Xhosa. There is strong emotional a%%inity with -%rikaans and Xhosa 9the Hmother tong!es( o%

most children in esbank;. 8nglish is !s!ally speci%ied as to domain = interaction with

%riends or o!tsiders 9s!ch as the 8!ropean researchers; and class acti#ities = and as a prestige

reso!rce it is sit!ated outside o% esbank 8nglish 9that is the normati#e and literate #ariety

o% it; is the lang!age that will allow people to Hget o!t o%( esbank to better and more

prospero!s en#ironments 9c%. also Byers 2::$a 2< 2::<;. 4t is beca!se o% this connection between 8nglish and social and spatial mobility that 8nglish is gi#en its 96!ite common;

attrib!tion o% Hne!trality( a ne!tral medi!m allowing -%rikaans 9colored; and Xhosa 9black;

mother tong!e speakers to interact with one another witho!t acti#ating ethnoling!istic

sentiments.

Breams o% Hmo#ing o!t( are widespread. Many learners artic!late e+plicit desires to

mo#e on to higher learning tracks as in the ne+t %ragment where ' and M in6!ire into B(s

plans a%ter Hmatric( 9the 6!ali%ying e+am a%ter high school;

1:<



1. ' b!t do yo! wanna go to school a%ter matric7 to ehr

2. B i want to go to a college

3. ' college

$. M yeah

&. B or something

. M yeah

/. B engineering

?y absence o% s!ch rather precise tra>ectories o% %!rther learning the aspiration is !s!ally Hto

become rich(

1. F yo! see my dream is to ha#e a big ho!se2. ' mhm

3. M that(s yo!r dream

$. F yes beca!se .. ii always grow !p in those small ho!ses

&. M mhm

. F those shacks yo! see

/. ' mhm

<. F i want i want to impro#e my li%e I

. Mand' yeah

1:. F to ha#e a big ho!se and those bea!ti%!l cars I yo! see

*r in its most elementary %orm >!st to get o!t o% esbank

1. ' do yo! ha#e plans %or the %!t!re7 do yo! like . want to become something or a

pro%ession yo! wo!ld like to ha#e I

2. 8 ehr i ha#e like two di%di%%erent dreams I depends .. like my most dream is .to

totototo mo#e o!t with my %amily here in esbank yo! know I

3. M yeah

$. 8 and li#e ehr somewhere else I b!t that i donZt think that .ehr is a good thing e#en

tho!gh iZm still working on it yo! know I

-ll these dreams and imagined !pward 9and o!tward; tra>ectories are predicated on

knowledge o% the H8nglish( the learners described earlier as a prestige reso!rce. There is anawareness o% that and this 9sociologically #ery acc!rate; awareness e+plains the learners(

1:



desire to ac6!ire H8nglish(. Th!s learners in esbank appear to ha#e a rather precise idea o%

the Hcenter( o% society and o% the way in which tra>ectories %rom the periphery to the center

re6!ire access to and control o#er speci%ic symbolic goods s!ch as 9Hstandard(; 8nglish.

4t is in light o% this that the localization o% norms in teaching becomes slightly more

problematic. The gap we saw between the H8nglish( identi%ied as the reso!rce o% social and

spatial mobility and the H8nglish( in which they artic!lated this #iew is what we call a

prete$tual gap a gap between e+pected lang!age competence and really a#ailable lang!age

competence 9Maryns and ?lommaert 2::2;. S!ch prete+t!al gaps are systemic they do not

depend on the indi#id!al e%%orts 9or lack thereo%; intrinsic capacities and possibilities o%

s!b>ects b!t they are elements o% social str!ct!res o% ine6!ality and the reprod!ction patterns

o% s!ch str!ct!res. 0onse6!ently while the downscaling o% normati#ity to a realistic local

le#el o% possibilities and norms is s!rely a prod!cti#e and stim!lating pedagogical instr!ment

it is at the same time something that reprod!ces systemic ine6!alities in society the ri%t

between centers and peripheries.

The production of locality

,eripheral neighborhoods s!ch as esbank display what -ppad!rai called H#ernac!lar

globalization( = a grassroots dimension o% globalization e+pressed amongst other things in

dense and comple+ %orms o% neighborhood heterogeneity. This kind o% grassroots

globalization res!lts according to -ppad!rai in more comple+ and !nclear %orms o% locality

more than e#er shot thro!gh with contradictions destabilized by h!man motion and

displaced by the %ormation o% new kinds o% #irt!al neighborhoodsN 91 1<;. 4ts e%%ects

incl!de the destabilization and decentering o% norms and the creation o% spaces which tho!gh

they appear to operate within %i+ed sets o% instit!tional norms 9e.g. those o% the ed!cation

system; in e%%ect operate with considerable a!tonomy. This a!tonomy we ha#e seen may be

e+tremely !se%!l in sol#ing local problems. 4n this case it s!rely contrib!ted to the

constr!ction o% an ade6!ate learning en#ironment %or the challenging school conte+t o%

esbank 5igh. ?!t at the same time it does not address problems that arise translocally as

soon as the locally ac6!ired 9and locally ade6!ate; symbolic reso!rces are He+ported( so to

speak to other places and spheres o% society crossing di%%erent scale"le#els.

The dynamics o% e+cl!sion and marginalization in en#ironments s!ch as So!th -%rica

9b!t by the same token also elsewhere; in#ol#e comple+ scalar processes in which whatco!nts as ade6!ate and acceptable at one scale le#el can be dis6!ali%ied at another scale le#el.

11:



0oncretely what co!nts as Hgood 8nglish( in the township may be Hbad 8nglish( at the

regional or state le#el. 4ne6!ality occ!rs on the bo!ndaries between scales the points o%

transition %rom strict locality to translocality %rom a le#el de%ined by the r!les and codes o%

one place to a le#el de%ined by the r!les and norms o% di%%erent places. -t s!ch points o%

transition the iss!e is the mobility offered by semiotic resources s!ch as lang!age skills some

skills o%%er a #ery low degree o% mobility while others o%%er a considerably larger degree o%

mobility and trans%erability across social and spatial domains. HStandard( literacy !s!ally %alls

in the second category while Hnon"standard( literacy %alls in the %irst category e#en i% %rom

one perspecti#e it can be seen as H%!ll( de#eloped comple+ literacy within a restricted

repertoire o% literacy skills and reso!rces.

0learly s!ch a diagnosis casts a di%%erent light on iss!es too o%ten ca!ght in totalizing

images o% clashing lang!ages ling!istic imperialism and oppositions between Hlocal( and

Hinternational( lang!ages. 4n analyses drawing on s!ch images the socioling!istic process is

red!ced to a con%rontation between a lang!age %rom the o!tside 9e.g. 8nglish; and people

%rom the inside 9old"style Hnati#es( to some e+tent; who are %orced to !se the o!tside

lang!age 9e.g. ebb 1$@ Mazr!i 2::$;. The scheme th!s drawn is attracti#ely simple and it

in#okes moral and political %rames o% independence #ers!s oppression e+cl!sion #ers!s

incl!sion respect #ers!s re>ection. Socioling!istic reality = alas = is considerably more

comple+ and ambig!o!s. *ne o% the main %eat!res o% the lang!age regime in esbank 5igh

%or instance is the %act that H8nglish( is a m!ltiple+ item composed o% at least two di%%erent

ob>ects "nglish an ideologically concei#ed homogeneo!s and idealized notion o% H8nglish"

the"lang!age"o%"s!ccess( and "nglish; a sit!ationally and locally organized pragmatics o%

!sing H8nglish( in ways rather distant %rom 8nglish1. This is a dynamics o% re"appropriation

localization and relocalization in a repertoire in which an !nattainable 8nglish1 is trans%ormed

into an attainable reso!rce lowering the threshold o% access while maintaining its stat!s

appeal and percei#ed trans%erability into !pward and o!tward tra>ectories. 8nglish is th!s

both it remains a lang!age %rom the o!tside 98nglish1; b!t has sim!ltaneo!sly been made

into a lang!age %rom the inside 98nglish2;. 4t is not >!st a H%oreign( lang!age b!t it has become

Ho!r( lang!age as well.

8thnographic in6!iry into s!ch processes o% locality and trans%erability opens !p a

wide range o% iss!es and casts them in a %!ndamentally new light. The processes obser#ed in

esbank 5igh cannot be !nderstood when ass!ming the e+istence o% one stable sing!lar and

!ni%orm perception o% normati#ity in the %ield o% literacy nor in the %ield o% Hlang!age( ingeneral. 4nstead a more %ragmented conte+t!alized and localized perception is re6!ired in

111



which allowance is made %or !nderstanding practices in terms o% repertoires o% a local play"

o%% o% str!ct!re and agency o% determination and creati#ity.

3.!. )mages from the periphery

E!h!mbika as well as the people o% esbank 5igh artic!lated images o% the world = images

o% their own peripheral position in the world as well as images o% better places and o%

mobility o% tra>ectories towards these better places. 4n the case o% E!h!mbika s!ch images

were !sed ascripti#ely as a way o% de%ining and identi%ying characters in a no#el. 4n the case

o% the learners and teachers in esbank 5igh these images were inhabited they were the

Hlogic o% practice( 9in the sense o% ?o!rdie!; that organized their world#iew learning

proced!res and aspirations. 4n both instances the imagery was part o% locality it was a local

imagery that was deeply embedded in the local conditions o% li%e = those o% the periphery o%

the world"system. -nd seen %rom the periphery the world = and globalization = looks #ery

di%%erent %rom how it is seen %rom the center.

The world is #ery di%%erent too. ,eople don(t ha#e the same reso!rces e#erywhere and

scarcity o% reso!rces yields strange images o% wealth o% reso!rces and #ice #ersa. The

e+pectations people ha#e o% others o% people %rom other places is #ery o%ten not matched by

the act!al %eat!res and reso!rces these people possess. ,eople(s reso!rces re#eal their place in

the world their reso!rces are Hplaced( so to speak in that they betray the locality %rom where

they are drawn and in which they %it. This raises iss!es o% repertoires and the ne+t chapter

will address them. For now we can obser#e the partic!lar kind o% spatial determination that

emerges %rom a socioling!istic #iew o% globalization. -n -merican song s!ng by an

adolescent in Finland ac6!ires a Finnish accent@ it ac6!ires a ?elgian accent when s!ng by a

yo!ngster %rom ?elgi!m a 'igerian accent when s!ng by a 'igerian a Aapanese accent when

s!ng by a Aapanese kid and so %orth. Socioling!istically globalization is a strongly local and

localizing phenomenon in which strong %eat!res o% local socioling!istic regimes operate on

the bits o% globalized lang!age that enter the local en#ironments.

This to some e+tent 6!ali%ies e+isting #iews o% c!lt!ral globalization as predominantly

globalizing . The literat!re o%ten emphasizes how local comm!nities and places change

beca!se o% globalization. To be s!re they do b!t o#eremphasizing change can obsc!re the

importance o% contin!ity in s!ch processes and certainly %rom a socioling!istic #iewpoint

contin!ity is as important as change the persistence o% patterns is as important as thetrans%ormation o% patterns d!e to globalization.

112



113



!. "epertoires an competence

4 arg!ed in the preceding chapters that a socioling!istics o% globalization needs to be a

socioling!istics o% mobile reso!rces not one o% immobile lang!ages. *!r %oc!s o% analysis

sho!ld be the act!al ling!istic comm!nicati#e semiotic reso!rces that people ha#e not

abstracted and idealized 9or ideologized; representations o% s!ch reso!rces. *!r %oc!s sho!ld

there%ore be on repertoires on the comple+es o% reso!rces people act!ally possess and

deploy. 4 already mentioned the Htr!ncated( nat!re o% m!ltiling!al repertoires in s!per"di#erse

conte+ts s!ch as those o% a contemporary Hglobal( city. M!ltiling!alism 4 arg!ed sho!ld not be seen as a collection o% Hlang!ages( that a speaker controls b!t rather as a comple+ o%

specific semiotic reso!rces some o% which belong to a con#entionally de%ined Hlang!age(

while others belong to another Hlang!age(. The reso!rces are concrete accents lang!age

#arieties registers genres modalities s!ch as writing = ways o% !sing lang!age in partic!lar

comm!nicati#e settings and spheres o% li%e incl!ding the ideas people ha#e abo!t s!ch ways

o% !sing their lang!age ideologies. hat matters in the way o% lang!age %or real lang!ages

!sers are these concrete %orms o% lang!age or to go by 5ymes( words

The place o% lang!age in the li%e o% the comm!nity wo!ld be !nderstood as more than

a matter o% so!nds spellings grammatical categories and constr!ctions. 4t wo!ld be

properly !nderstood as in#ol#ing #arieties and modalities styles and genres ways o%

!sing a lang!age as a reso!rce. 95ymes 1 /:;.

Shi%ting o!r %oc!s %rom Hlang!ages( 9primarily an ideological and instit!tional

constr!ct; to reso!rces 9the act!al and obser#able ways o% !sing lang!age; has important

implications %or notions s!ch as Hcompetence( as 4 will try to demonstrate shortly. The

6!estion what it is to Hknow( a lang!age to Hspeak it well( or to Hbe %l!ent( in it will ha#e to be

re%orm!lated and some e+isting tools %or meas!ring the answers to s!ch 6!estions 9as in

lang!age testing schemes; will ha#e to be critically re#isited. - clearer !nderstanding o%

repertoires %!rthermore may add detail and precision to analyses o% comm!nication

processes in the world o% globalized comm!nication where people o%ten comm!nicate with

bits and pieces o% genres and registers. Cnderstanding that comm!nication processes do not

11$



>!st proceed thro!gh Ha lang!age( b!t thro!gh specialized and partic!lar pieces o% lang!age

may help !s %ind a diagnostic %or what in a #ery #ast literat!re is called Hinterc!lt!ral

mis!nderstandings(. That too 4 will try to ill!strate in this chapter.

!.1. Truncate repertoires

'o one knows all o% a lang!age. That co!nts %or o!r so"called mother tong!es and o% co!rse

also %or the other Hlang!ages( we ac6!ire in o!r li%e time. 'ati#e speakers are not per%ect

speakers. 5ymes emphatically warns !s against the %allacy to e6!ate the reso!rces o% a

lang!age with the reso!rces o% 9all; !sersN 95ymes 1 213;. There is nothing wrong with

that phenomenon o% partial competence no one needs all the reso!rces that a lang!age

potentially pro#ides. e all ha#e speci%ic lang!age competences and skills we can !se

partic!lar genres 6!ite acceptably speak in the registers that are typical o% some social roles

and identities prod!ce the accents o% o!r nati#e regions and deploy the schooled literacy o%

o!r ed!cation tra>ectories. *!r real Hlang!age( is #ery m!ch a biographical gi#en the str!ct!re

o% which re%lects o!r own histories and those o% the comm!nities in which we spent o!r li#es.

-s an ill!stration and with lots o% reser#ations as to representati#ity and acc!racy

consider the %ollowing graphic. 4t represents my own m!ltiling!al competences in %o!r

lang!ages B!tch 91; French 92; German 93; and 8nglish 9$;.

9F4GCE8 1 58E8. 0aption Hthe tr!ncated repertoire(;

The %o!r lang!ages are ordered on the basis o% the se6!ence in which they entered my

repertoire %irst B!tch then 9%rom the age o% <; French then German 9age 12; and 8nglish

9age 13;. 4n the graphic 4 ha#e set scores not %or the lang!ages b!t %or speci%ic modes o%

!sage o% the lang!ages oral #ernac!lar #arieties 9dialects speci%ic dialects and sociolects;

oral standard #arieties 9e.g. the #arieties 4 sho!ld !se in %ormal comm!nicati#e sit!ations;

literacy le#el 9speci%ically writing; competences to comm!nicate in %ormal settings in

in%ormal settings and %inally the range o% domains in which 4 can s!ccess%!lly comm!nicate.

These di#isions are >!st ill!strati#e and indicati#e@ a %!ll"blown analysis o% my repertoire

wo!ld re6!ire m!ch more in the way o% distinctions. ?!t with these ro!gh indicators perhaps

the point co!ld be made clearly.

11&



e see that the range o% competences and skills in B!tch is highest and most balanced.

4 am capable in B!tch to deploy oral #ernac!lar as well as standard #arieties@ 4 can ha#e

in%ormal contact as well as per%orm %ormal comm!nication tasks 4 can write comple+ %ormal

te+ts in the lang!age and can comm!nicate within a wide range o% domains. 4% we compare

this pro%ile with French howe#er we see some striking di%%erences. My pro%iciency in

#ernac!lar #arieties is higher than that in standard #arieties %or instance. The reason is that

the standard #arieties 4 ac6!ired were con%ined to classroom en#ironments while 4 ac6!ired

#ernac!lar #arieties as an adolescent growing !p in ?r!ssels where #ernac!lar French was

the lang!age o% interaction with local %riends and c!stomers in my %ather(s shop. hene#er 4

speak French now it wo!ld ha#e a distinct Flemish"?r!ssels accent. My literacy le#els are not

#ery well de#eloped either. 4 can easily read French b!t not write elaborate French prose. -nd

while 4 can be a rather %l!ent comm!nicator in in%ormal contacts 9!sing my #ernac!lar

French; lect!ring or gi#ing %ormal speeches in French wo!ld be tasks that e+ceed my

reso!rces.

German came into my li%e earlier than 8nglish yet when we compare the pro%iles %or

both lang!ages we see sharp di%%erences. German ne#er rose abo#e the le#el o% a school

lang!age@ 8nglish in contrast became a %airly de#eloped tool e#en i% it entered my li%e at a

relati#ely late stage. 4t entered my li%e as a pro%essional tool and this e+plains the absence o%

#ernac!lar #arieties 94 don(t know any dialects or slang #arieties in 8nglish; and the #ery high

le#el o% literacy de#elopment. Most o% my academic writing is in 8nglish and 4 also lect!re

o#erwhelmingly in that lang!age. The range o% domains howe#er is rather small. hile 4 can

pass %or a %l!ent and artic!late speaker in academic and pro%essional domains other skills in

other domains are #ery !nderde#eloped. 4 am %airly inartic!late when 4 need to go shopping in

a s!permarket in the CK or when 4 need to e+plain a health problem to a doctor in 8nglish. 4

can conse6!ently be seen as a #ery artic!late speaker by some and as a #ery inartic!late one

by others = and all in the same Hlang!age(.

This is where lang!age tests o%ten miss the point. 4n attempting to set a#erage

pro%iciency le#els in Hlang!ages( they o#erlook the #ery speci%ic nat!re o% lang!age !se o%

the #ario!s ch!nks and pieces o% lang!age that we deploy %or speci%ic tasks. 4% we take %or

instance the terms o% re%erence o% the 0ommon 8!ropean Framework %or ang!ages 9the

most a!thoritati#e meas!ring tool o% the moment; and apply it to my 8nglish skills we wo!ld

see strange things.1 -s long as 4 can comm!nicate within my %ormal pro%essional registers 4

wo!ld not hesitate to 6!ali%y my per%ormance in the terms o% 8!ropean ang!age e#el 02 =the highest pro%iciency le#el

11



0an !nderstand with ease #irt!ally e#erything heard or read. 0an s!mmarize

in%ormation %rom di%%erent spoken and written so!rces reconstr!cting arg!ments and

acco!nts in a coherent presentation. 0an e+press himIhersel% spontaneo!sly #ery

%l!ently and precisely di%%erentiating %iner shades o% meaning e#en in more comple+

sit!ations.

4% howe#er 4 am asked to e+plain a technical problem in 8nglish to a pl!mber or an electrical

engineer or a health problem to a doctor or a technical %inancial iss!e to an o%%icer o% the

%inance department o% my !ni#ersity my le#el o% pro%iciency wo!ld more acc!rately be

described as

0an !nderstand and !se %amiliar e#eryday e+pressions and #ery basic phrases aimed at

the satis%action o% needs o% a concrete type. 0an introd!ce himIhersel% and others and

can ask and answer 6!estions abo!t personal details s!ch as where heIshe li#es people

heIshe knows and things heIshe has. 0an interact in a simple way pro#ided the other

person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.

hich is the description o% 8!ropean ang!age e#el -1 the most elementary le#el o%

lang!age pro%iciency. Testing systems s!ch as the 8!ropean ang!age e#els stand in a

c!rio!s relationship to the real reso!rces and skills that people ha#e beca!se they belie#e they

meas!re lang!ages while in %act they meas!re speci%ic reso!rces. 4% 4 wo!ld be tested on the

basis o% test materials that %all within my range o% highly de#eloped skills my score wo!ld

probably be #ery high@ i% the test materials %all o!tside that range my score wo!ld be #ery

low.

-ll o% this is common sense and as said abo#e a real analysis wo!ld re6!ire %ar more

than what 4 !sed here in the way o% sophistication and arg!ment. ?!t the point deser#es to be

!nderscored i% %or no other reason beca!se o% the persistence o% lang!age"based #iews o%

competence in o!r %ields o% scholarship. The iss!e sho!ld be clear we always ha#e a

determined range o% speci%ic competences and some are #ery highly de#eloped while others

are considerably less de#eloped. -nd there are always reso!rces that we do not possess. The

answer to the p!zzle o% o!r repertoires is in o!r biographies and the wider histories o% the

comm!nities in which we li#e. 4% s!ch comm!nities are Hmonoling!al( in the sense that thea#ailable ling!istic reso!rces wo!ld belong to what is con#entionally de%ined as a speci%ic

11/



lang!age s!ch as B!tch then it is #ery likely that o!r repertoire will be composed o% B!tch

reso!rces@ i% the a#ailable reso!rces are deri#ed %rom #ario!s con#entionally de%ined

lang!ages o!r repertoire is likely to be Hm!ltiling!al(. -nd ac6!iring these reso!rces 9a

process !s!ally called Hlang!age learning(; wo!ld in e%%ect be the constr!ction o% a

m!ltiling!al repertoire. e wo!ld ac6!ire the ling!istic %eat!res o% these lang!ages = their

so!nds words grammatical patterns o% !se = as well as some o% their pragmatic %eat!res =

ways o% organizing interaction in s!ch lang!ages comm!nicati#e ro!tines registers that

enable !s to per%orm certain roles and identities = and c!lt!ral patterns = the !se o% genres the

lang!age"ideological load o% partic!lar e+pressions and so %orth.

-s arg!ed in chapter 1 the s!per"di#ersity that res!lts %rom globalization processes

res!lts in comm!nities o% people whose repertoires are str!ct!red as s!ch as tr!ncated

comple+es o% reso!rces o%ten deri#ed %rom a #ariety o% lang!ages and with considerable

di%%erences in the le#el o% de#elopment o% partic!lar reso!rces. ,arts o% these m!ltiling!al

repertoires wo!ld be %airly well de#eloped while others e+ist only at a #ery basic le#el.

4mmigrant children %or instance can grow !p in a %amily in which they hear their parents

speak a lang!age. They can !nderstand this lang!age and respond ade6!ately to !tterances

made in it b!t they ne#er learn to speak it. This does not mean that this lang!age does not

belong to the children(s repertoire it does belong to it be it only in a minimal and recepti#e

%orm. These children con#ersely wo!ld speak the lang!age o% the host society and wo!ld

help their parents accomplish comm!nicati#e tasks in that lang!age. The lang!age o% the host

society th!s indirectly belongs to the range o% a#ailable reso!rces o% the parents as well

beca!se they can draw on their children(s repertoire to achie#e comm!nication goals in it. The

tr!ncated repertoires o% new immigrants o%ten compel them to collaborati#e comm!nicati#e

work in which the little bits o% competence o% some are added to those o% others. The res!lt is

o%ten something that has a #ery !n%inished character partial realizations o% genres with

partially Hcorrect( bits o% lang!ages.

e ha#e seen se#eral s!ch H!n%inished( prod!cts in the pre#io!s chapters and the

H!n%inished( character o% lang!age and comm!nication is probably one o% the clearest ob>ects

o% in6!iry %or a socioling!istics o% globalization. 4t is clear that mobility creates all sorts o%

challenges %or people while it o% co!rse also o%%ers opport!nities. Messages and people

become more mobile and this re6!ires a stretching o% the repertoires o%ten beyond their

limits. 'otwithstanding that we see that some %orms o% H!n%inished( comm!nication are 6!ite

s!ccess%!l and 4 will now t!rn to one s!ch s!ccess story email %ra!d messages sent %rom the

11<



periphery o% the world to the center o% the world. e will see that these messages too raise

comple+ iss!es o% competence.

!.2. -lobalize genres of frau

BearSir

`

` 4 am writing %ollowing the impressi#e in%ormation abo!t yo!

` thro!gh one o% my %riends who r!ns a cons!ltancy %irm

` !nder 'igeria 0hamber o% 0ommerce and 4nd!stry.5e ass!red

` me o% yo!r 0apability and Eeliability to 0hampion a

` ?!siness o% great Magnit!de

`

` 4 am Br.Aoseph BiaraThe personal assistant to the newly

` appointed -cco!ntant General *% The Federation 9-.G.F;4 and

` *ne o% my colleag!es are in c!stody o% CS1.3M44*'hich

` is an !nclaimed %oreign contract payment.This %!nd is

` c!rrently in the s!spence acco!nt o% o!r paying ministry

` awaiting immediate claim.

`

` 4 ha#e concl!ded e#ery arrangement to make yo! clam this

` %!nd on o!r behal% as the tr!e ?ene%iciaryI0ontractor.

`

` ,lease4% yo! are serio!s and interested in handling this

` transaction %rom yo!r end Bo noti%y me by email or call me

` on my direct phone23$"<:"$&2"1&:.%or %!rther

` details.,leasesend yo!r response

` to>osephdiarahotmail.com

`

` Oo!rs Sincerely

` Br.Aoseph Biara

9Sample 1;

5ere is a genre o% contemporary globalized comm!nication an e"mail spam hoa+ message

originating pres!mably %rom somewhere in the periphery o% the world and sent to a large

n!mber o% addressees in the core co!ntries o% the world system. This spam mail is associated

with what has been tagged by the F?4 as the H'igerian -d#anced Fee Fra!d( also known as

H$1 scams( a%ter the section o% the 'igerian ,enal 0ode on %inancial crimes. The general

11



pattern o% the direction o% $1 emails is a So!th"to"'orth r!n the message is oriented towards

a partic!lar kind o% s!b>ect in a%%l!ent societies someone greedy eno!gh to gi#e in to the

temptation o% earning millions with an e"mail reply. The $1 scams are 6!ite s!ccess%!l. There

are n!mero!s reported and doc!mented cases o% these s!%%icient %or the 0entral 4ntelligence

-gency and Federal ?!rea! o% 4n%ormation to mention the scam on their o%%icial websites.

The 0entral ?ank o% 'igeria has also p!blished disclaimers in ma>or newspapers aro!nd the

world. 'otwithstanding this pre#ailing So!th"'orth direction o% interactions the largest $1

scam on record is a So!th"on"So!th crime which led to the collapse o% ?anco 'oroeste in Sao

,aolo ?razil a%ter 'igerian scam perpetrators siphoned CS2$2 million %rom the bank 9see

httpIIodili.netInewsIso!rceI2::&Ino#I1I2:2.html;. 4t is clear that many people are appealed

by the messages the orientations to partic!lar s!b>ects are e%%ecti#e th!s raising 6!estions

abo!t the Hhow( and Hwhat( o% the messages.

4n order %or these orientations to be e%%ecti#e the messages need to correspond to a

wide #ariety o% ling!istic stylistic and generic criteria = criteria that pro#ide desired %orms o%

pres!pposability the right %orms o% inde+ical #al!es to allow the message to be read as a

gen!ine bona %ide b!siness proposal. 4 wo!ld s!ggest that this comple+ o% ling!istic stylistic

and generic re6!irements pro>ected onto a concrete te+t!al arte%act can be read as the lowest

empirically obser#able le#el o% globalization as globalization"on"the"gro!nd. 4 wo!ld

howe#er also s!ggest that s!ch a concl!sion cannot merely be drawn %rom prima facie

characteristics o% the doc!ment = %or instance the %act that it is distrib!ted by the globalized

channel par e$cellence e"mail = b!t that s!bstantially more is re6!ired and that we need in

partic!lar to address the min!sc!le ling!istic stylistic and generic %eat!res o% s!ch te+ts in

order to arri#e at a precise #iew o% what lang!age does in globalization conte+ts.

The reason already emphasized a n!mber o% times be%ore is that we do not only need

to !nderstand the simple %act o% H%low( b!t also the content and %!nction o% %lows the way

concretely in which doc!ments s!ch as these can artic!late or %ail to artic!late identities

intentions conte+ts o% intelligibility. 4n other words the target is to !nderstand how te+ts

%lowing thro!gh the channels o% globalization can ha#e te+t!al %!nctions. S!ch %!nctions

socioling!ists ha#e long ass!med are nested in socioling!istic systems %irmly gro!nded in the

socioc!lt!ral and political %abric o% Hspeech comm!nities( o%ten seen as local. Globalization

now clearly complicates the associati#e link between locality speech comm!nity and

comm!nicati#e %!nction. hile we ha#e some answers to the 6!estion abo!t how to imagine

translocal speech comm!nities we still str!ggle to come to terms with the idea o% translocal

12:



%!nctions. Te+ts s!ch as these may o%%er !s a glimpse into the potential and limitations o%

translocal %!nctioning.

The theoretical dri%t o% what %ollows is the tension between !ni%ormity and di#ersity

which might be at the core o% globalization processes. 4 want to establish the %ollowing points

91; the a!thors o% these email messages are %!lly inserted in the technology o% globalized

comm!nication@ 92; %!rthermore there is #ery clearly also a signi%icant degree o% awareness

o% generic con#entions %or the messages@ 93; howe#er the a!thors %ail to prod!ce Hcomplete(

H%a!ltless( realizations o% the genres. This then 4 will arg!e prod!ces rich inde+ical messages

which e+cl!de some addressees and incl!de others. 4n other words incomplete instances o%

genre realization create pec!liar translocal speech networks. This phenomenon may shed light

on iss!es o% comm!nicati#e competence in a globalized en#ironment what we see is

tr!ncated competence di%%erent competences co"occ!rring and together creating messages

that might work or %ail depending on the degrees to which the di%%erent competences are

de#eloped. ?e%ore de#eloping this arg!ment 4 shall ha#e to introd!ce the data on which it is

based.

The data: preliminary observations

ike many others 4 recei#e email messages s!ch as the abo#e on a reg!lar basis. The concrete

analysis will be cond!cted on small corp!s o% & messages between -pril and A!ne 2::&.

Bata collection proceeded indiscriminately copying e#ery message that reached my mailbo+

= abo!t one per day. -part %rom the %act that none o% the messages is long 9ranging between

hal% a printed page and two printed pages; they all share a n!mber o% %eat!res 9i; almost all

o% them are written in #arieties o% 8nglish@ 9ii; they are all sent thro!gh international %ree

pro#iders@ 9iii; they all represent an attempt at %ormal o%%icial style o% writing@ 9i#; the senders

all pose as elite members in control o% %lows o% money and knowledgeable abo!t trans%er

proced!res and 9#; they all o%%er to trans%er s!ms o% money into my acco!nt on a con%idential

basis. The amo!nts stated in CS Sterling or 8!ro #ary between :.& million dollars and

$1:.$ million dollars. The appendi+ to this chapter pro#ides an o#er#iew o% the corp!s.

'ypes of offers

Typologically we can disting!ish %o!r ma>or types o% o%%ers.

121



14 Bormant acco!nts. -lmost hal% o% the o%%ers made 92&; are abo!t what we co!ld call

Hdormant acco!nts(. 5ere is a typical story

8+. 1 ` B8-E ,-ET'8E

` 4 g!ess this letter might come to yo! as a s!rprise since 4 had no pre#io!s` correspondence with yo! ?!t with d!e respect 4 got yo!r contact in my` research %or a reliable and honest person who will be capable and %it to` assist me in handling a #ery con%idential transaction in#ol#ing the trans%er ` o% CS/& million dollars only.` 4 want to trans%er these %!nds to o#erseas9/&.::::::.::CSB; Se#enty Fi#e` million Cnited States Bollars;.For o!r sharing and in#estment p!rposes in` yo!r co!ntry.` The abo#e %!nd is not connected with arms dr!gs or Money la!ndering@ neither ` is it related to any terrorist sponsor o% any sort.` 4 am A!mbo illiams -k!nnean acco!ntant and ?ank manager The 8+ec!ti#e and` the ?oard o% Birectors ha#e appro#ed and accredited this rep!ted ?ank with` the o%%ice o% the Birector4nternational EemmitanceIForeign *peration to

` handle and trans%er all %oreign inherittance %!nds this %inal 6!arter o% the` year. 4 ha#e my client in#ol#ed who died in a plane crash with his wi%e and` childrentho!gh i ha#e tried to contact any o% the relati#es b!t to no a#ail` and witho!t any traceable ne+t o% kin5ence the dormant nat!re o% 5is acco!nt` and i% 4 do not remit this money o!t !rgently it will be re"channeled into` the bankZs reser#e.

9sample 2;

The a!thor o%ten poses as a banking or ins!rance e+ec!ti#e who has knowledge o% and access

to a large !nclaimed s!m o% money le%t in an acco!nt !pon the tragic death o% the owner and

o%ten in danger o% being appropriated by the state. The p!rpose o% the transaction is money

la!ndering to get the s!m o!t o% the present acco!nt and co!ntry and %!nnel it into o!r bank

acco!nt. 9'ote how in s!ch messages images o% corr!pt go#ernments and inept b!rea!cracies

are acti#ated.;

2. ottery rewards. -bo!t one 6!arter o% the o%%ers 913; ass!mes the shape o% an

anno!ncement that 4 ha#e won a s!bstantial amo!nt o% money in an 4nternet lottery. 5ere is a

typical anno!ncement

8+. 2 e are pleased to in%orm yo! o% the res!lt o% the *!r Global 8mail ottery program held on the 2th

-pril 2::&.

` Oo!r e"mail address attached to ticket n!mber 3/&11$&<"$1: with serial n!mber $</2"&1: drew

l!cky n!mbers /"1$"<<"23"3&$& which conse6!ently won in the 1st category yo! ha#e there%ore been

appro#ed %or a l!mp s!m pay o!t o% CS 1::::::.:: 9*ne Million Cnited States Bollars;.

`

` 0*'GE-TC-T4*'S

` B!e to mi+ !p o% some n!mbers and names we ask that yo! keep yo!r winning in%ormation

122



con%idential !ntil yo!r claims has been processed and yo!r money Eemitted to yo!. This is part o% o!r

sec!rity protocol to a#oid do!ble claiming and !nwarranted ab!se o% this program by some participants.

`

` -ll participants were selected thro!gh a comp!ter ballot system drawn %rom o#er 2:::: companyand 3::::::: indi#id!al email addresses and names %rom all o#er the world. This promotional

program takes place e#ery three years. e hope with part o% yo!r winning yo! will take part in o!r ne+t

CSB &: million international lottery.

`

` To %ile %or yo!r claim please contact o!r %id!cial agentIattorney

`

` ?-EE4ST8E. E*O 5-'S 9E*O- -BD*0-T8' K-'T*E;

` -msterdam"'etherlands.

` Tel 931; 1/ /2 /:.

` Fa+ 931; <$/ &: 2//.

` 8"Mail Eoy5ans?D-netscape.net

`

9sample 2<;

ottery messages o%%er the lowest amo!nts o% money 9between :.& and &.& million ; b!t as

we can see with promises o% s!bstantially higher gains in %!t!re ro!nds.

3. Eesc!e operations . 12 o%%ers s!ggest that 4 assist people who ha#e got into tro!ble in their

homeland to get their capital o!t o% the co!ntry and made accessible to them in ret!rn %or a

he%ty reward. 5ere is an e+ample

8+.3 ` My 'ame is MES.SC\-'- 'C5-' D-O8 %rom iberia a 0o!ntry in est -%rica. My late

5!sband is 4ssac '!han Daye Bep!ty Minister o% ,!blic orks in iberia. My 5!sband was %alsely

acc!sed o% plotting to remo#e the then ,E8S4B8'T *F 4?8E4- 05-E8S T-O*E; %rom o%%ice.

itho!t trial 0harles Taylor killed him. Oo! can #eri%y this %rom some o% the international newspapers

posted in the web sites below

`

` 94;httpIIwww.!satoday.comInewsIworldI2::3":/"1&"liberia+.htm

`

` ?e%ore my h!sband was killed he mo#ed o!t the s!m o% 21.& million thro!gh a diplomatic means

and deposited it with a Sec!rity 0ompany -broad. -nd this money was meant %or importation o%

agric!lt!ral machineries.

`

` -ll that is needed is %or my lawyer to instr!ct the company to trans%er the %!nds to yo!r acco!nt 4 will

123

mailto:[email protected]





rem!nerate yo! with 2:] at the end b!t most o% all is that 4 solicit yo!r tr!st and honesty in this

transaction. 4 ha#e been con%ined only to o!r co!ntry home and all my calls are monitored so 4 will

ad#ise yo! contact my pri#ate -ttorney ?arr. ,.*.illiams base in Cnited Kingdom on his contact

stated below %or onward proceedings "

9Sample$1;

$. 0harity . - %inal type o% which my corp!s has & e+amples is a rather remarkable appeal to

assist in charity. The a!thor in all %i#e cases poses as a de#o!t M!slim who %eels that the end

o% his li%e is near and who tries to gi#e his %ort!ne to charities. 5ere is an e+ample

8+.$ ` 'ow that God has called me 4 ha#e willed and gi#en most o% my property and assets to my immediate

and e+tended %amily members as well as a %ew close %riends. 4 want God to be merci%!l to me and

accept my so!l 4 ha#e decided to gi#e alms to charity organizations as 4 want this to be one o% the last

good deeds 4 e#er do on earth. So %ar 4 ha#e distrib!ted money to some charity *rganizations in the

C.-.8 -lgeria and Malaysia.

`

` 'ow that my health has deteriorated so badly 4 cannot do this mysel% anymore. 4 once asked members

o% my %amily to close one o% my acco!nts and distrib!te the money which 4 ha#e there to charity

organization in ?!lgaria and ,akistan@ they re%!sed and kept the money to themsel#es. 5ence 4 do not

tr!st them anymore as they seem not to be contended with what 4 ha#e le%t %or them.

`

` The last o% my money which no one knows o% is the h!ge cash deposit in 8!rope whort eighteen

Million CS dollars 9CS1<::::::.::; that 4 ha#e with a deposit company abroad.

`

` -cknowledge this message so that 4 can introd!ce yo! to my lawyer who will handle the trans%er o%

recei#ership by yo! o% the abo#e said %!nds.

`

` 4 will want yo! to help me collect this deposit and dispatched it to charity organizations. My lawyer

shall p!t yo! in the pict!re o% the %!nds tell yo! where the %!nds are c!rrently being maintained and

also disc!ss modalities incl!ding rem!neration %or yo!r ser#ices.

9Sample3:;

4n all %o!r types the story is di%%erent and di%%erent moral %rames are being in#oked. There are

o%%ers that appeal to western liberal sentiments to in#oke recipients( sympathy o#er the

#iolation o% h!man rights@ o%%ers which claim to ha#e a philanthropic p!rpose that is the

reason add!ced %or trans%erring the %!nd in 6!estion is to make a donation to a charitable or

religio!s ca!se@ and thirdly some o%%ers co!rt re#erse morality by claiming that they are

Hsa#ing( the %!nds they seek to trans%er %rom %alling into the hands o% wayward establishment

12$



o%%icials. ?!t the patterns and proced!re are identical in all cases %or !ne+plained reasons 4

ha#e personally been chosen as the pre%erred partner in a money transaction o% considerable

size and s!bstance@ 4 ha#e to open a new bank acco!nt in which the money can be placed. -nd

whate#er the nat!re o% the ser#ices we render to the a!thors o% s!ch messages 4 shall be #ery

genero!sly rewarded.

<rigin of the messages

From the email address we may be able to determine where a scam mail is %rom = each

co!ntry 9e+cept the CS; has a registered node H!k( Hca( Hch( Hhk( Hde( Hng( etc. ?!t there

are ne!tral nodes on the %ree email ser#ices s!ch as Hgmail.com( Hyahoo.com( and

Hhotmail.com( which are more di%%ic!lt %or the !nschooled eyes to read. -lso it is possible to

register an address in a co!ntry witho!t being resident there thro!gh a %alsi%ication o% personal

details. The & messages in o!r corp!s are sent by people claiming to write %rom 1$ di%%erent

co!ntries. Table 1 presents an o#er#iew.

'igeria 11

CK 1:

So!th -%rica /

The 'etherlands /

?enin &

4#ory 0oast &

B!bai 3

E!ssia 2

0hinaI5ong Kong 2

iberia 2

4taly 1

\imbabwe 1

Ghana 1

Senegal 1

Table 1 0laimed origin o% a!thors

The CK and The 'etherlands are the so!rces o% Hlottery( messages = se#en and si+ messages

respecti#ely = and s!ch Hlottery( items do not originate in other co!ntries 9with one e+ception

sample1 which claims origins in the CK and So!th -%rica;. The other categories are

dominated by 'igeria or i% we e+tend regionally est -%rica. 'igeria ?enin 4#ory 0oast

iberia Ghana and Senegal together acco!nt %or 2& o!t o% & messages. So!th -%rica does

12&



rather well with se#en messages. 4% we disco!nt the Hlottery( messages 8!rope is the origo o%

a mere se#en messages and interestingly three messages %rom 8!ropean co!ntries are

Hresc!e( messages. The two messages %rom E!ssia 9samples. / and 2; both claim to be part o%

an attempt to resc!e some o% Mikhail Khodoro#sky(s O!kos %ort!ne while he does his time in

>ail@ the message %rom 4taly 9sample.2; p!rports to protect the interests o% Mr. !igi Morgera

a ,armalat e+ec!ti#e ca!ght in %ra!d trials.

The messages as a r!le o%%er an email reply address 9abo!t which 4 shall ha#e to say

more below; and in a n!mber o% cases also a telephone n!mber. ith one or two e+ceptions

the phone n!mbers corroborate the claimed place o% origin. -!thors claiming to be %rom

'igeria o%%er a 'igerian phone n!mber a!thors %rom the CK a ?ritish phone n!mber. The

story o% e"mail pro#iders howe#er is considerably more comple+ and already o%%ers !s some

insights in the patterns o% globalization against which we ha#e to interpret these doc!ments.

&nowing your way around the globe: aliases' anonymous providers

-ll o% the a!thors !se open anonymo!s commercial pro#iders %or sending and recei#ing

messages. 4t is ob#io!s that some attention has gone towards a#oiding a recognizable trace o%

identity and creating opport!nities %or erasing one(s traces and posing as an alias. - 6!ick

look at the selection o% pro#iders in the appendi+ yields a gen!inely globalized pict!re.

-!thors witho!t e+ception choose commercial %ree pro#iders o% the 5otmail or

Oahoo type pro#iders that o%%er %ree email addresses and some 9limited; ser#er space. These

pro#iders can be %o!nd all o#er the world and a!thors in the corp!s !se pro#iders based in

Malaysia Me+ico Spain 4taly the CK E!ssia the CS The 'etherlands the ,hilippines

T!rkey 0hina and 5ong Kong So!th -%rica 0anada France Benmark Cr!g!ay ,oland

-rgentina -!stralia 'ew \ealand 4ndia and 4srael. ith almost no e+ceptions pro#iders are

based in co!ntries other than the ones claimed to be the place o% origin o% the messages =

messages are claimed to be sent %rom 'igeria b!t they are sent thro!gh pro#iders in the CS

Cr!g!ay or the ,hilippines 9note that none appears to be based in ?elgi!m the co!ntry o% the

addressee in this case;. -nd o%ten the reply address is di%%erent %rom the sending address

indicating that probably the a!thors %re6!ently shi%t base so to speak %rom one pro#ider to

another.

The choice o% pro#iders is sometimes ingenio!s. Th!s sample carries the message

mail sent %rom ebmail ser#ice at httpIIwww.p!k"en"m!k.com.N The latter is a second"handclothing store in 5answeert The 'etherlands. Se#eral messages are sent %rom

12

http://www.puk-en-muk.com/





httpIIyo!rsite.com a CS"based comp!ter s!perstore. -nd sample 22 is sent %rom

handbag.com a women(s e"zine based in the CK. The ser#ers %rom which some messages

ha#e been sent no longer e+isted when 4 checked on them two months a%ter recei#ing the

message perhaps s!ggesting that ser#ers are being set !p and dismantled repeatedly so as to

pre#ent localizing e%%orts by others.

-dd to this the capacity to do e+tensi#e and detailed searches %or indi#id!al addressees

on the 4nternet 9emails are sent directly to one address and o%ten also !se the addressee(s name

in the te+t = the mails are personalized; and we can see that we are witnessing ad#anced

comp!ter skills here. The a!thors o% these messages know their way aro!nd the world o%

#irt!al comm!nication. 4n order to %ind pro#iders s!ch as the ones they !se thoro!gh and

well"targeted searches on the 4nternet are re6!ired@ setting !p email addresses changing them

and keeping track o% the comple+ %lows o% messages th!s generated@ knowing that pro#iders

can be accessed 2$I/@ and knowing that choosing %ar away small pro#iders can help create

#irt!al anonymity = all o% these are %orms o% highly de#eloped comp!ter literacy. The people

a!thoring these messages are streetwise in the world o% the 4nternet. They are %!lly competent

!sers o% the technology o% globalized comm!nication.

The comple+ %orms o% Hplacing( = where the message is claimed to be sent %rom@ where

it is act!ally sent thro!gh and so on = necessitate identity work and a!thors make e%%orts to

pro#ide pla!sible aliases. Th!s %or e+ample the lottery coordinator in sample $: claims to be

based in ?ritain and calls himsel% Simon 0ro%t@ another one 9sample 22; claims to be based in

The 'etherlands and calls himsel% HAan Dan Klein( 9not a #ery common b!t also not an

!nlikely B!tch name;. Sometimes howe#er the !se o% Hplaced( aliases 9aliases that s!ggest a

partic!lar regional belonging; can back%ire. The a!thor o% the lottery message in sample &1

based in The 'etherlands calls himsel% HDan ?ell( 9to be contacted thro!gh a pro#ider in

-rgentina;@ the one o% sample 31 signs with H\ack Sonnie( = both are highly !n!s!al B!tch

names. -nd the most !nlikely one is that in sample 2/ = a lottery message s!pposedly %rom

The 'etherlands and signed by H-nton Geesink(. -nton Geesink is a good B!tch name b!t it

happens to be the name o% a B!tch A!do legend the giant who gained eternal *lympic glory

when he won the gold medal in the hea#yweight category at the 1$ Tokyo *lympics

de%eating the Aapanese %a#orite. -nd the a!thors o% sample 2< again claiming to be %rom The

'etherlands re%er to

8+.&

12/

http://yoursite.com/

http://yoursite.com/



` ?-EE4ST8E. E*O 5-'S 9E*O- -BD*0-T8' K-'T*E;

They o#erlook the %act that Hbarrister( wo!ld be a #ery !nlikely title in the B!tch legal system

9where Had#ocate( Hattorney( or Hlawyer( wo!ld be most common and where the title wo!ld

be HMr( = HMaster(; where Had#ocaten kantor( o!ght to be Had#ocatenkantoor( 9one word

do!ble Ho(; and where the title HEoyal( can only be carried by royal appointment again a #ery

!nlikely 6!ali%ication %or Eoy 5ans( ad#ocaten kantorN.

4n spite o% these shaky e+amples we see that in general a!thors display an awareness

o% degrees o% isomorphism between names and places ?ritish names when the a!thor is

s!pposed to be based in ?ritain B!tch ones when in The 'etherlands and so on. There is an

awareness o% Hnational( %eat!res across the world and there is an awareness o% the rest o% the

world. -!thors mention other co!ntries in their messages sometimes so as to pro#ide

acco!nts o% migration tra>ectories 9o% people or o% money; or to display their international

networking ability. 4 will come back to this %eat!re below.

et !s take stock o% what we ha#e %or the moment. 0learly the messages are sent by

people who are %!lly inserted in the technology o% globalized comm!nication. They know

how to !se the opport!nities o%%ered by the 4nternet %or sending personalized messages while

remaining anonymo!s and !ntraceable and they also know that the pla!sibility o% messages

can depend on Hplacing( signs s!ch as Hlocal( names. 4n other words the a!thors are no

4nternet illiterates 6!ite the contrary they possess ad#anced 4nternet skills and they are %!lly

inserted into the economies o% global comm!nication. This is a %irst type o% comm!nicati#e

competence they display they are %!lly competent in the technology o% electronic

comm!nication. -nd this remember is the %irst point 4 wanted to establish.

(onstructing genres

The second point is the awareness o% genre con#entions %or dra%ting messages s!ch as these

designed to tra#el thro!gh the globalized comm!nication systems crossing continents and

time zones. There is striking generic !ni%ormity across the corp!s. -s genres the messages

are H%!lly %ormed( 9to !se 5ymes( 1< terms;@ in the #ery least they are in a process o%

stabilization. -nd in each o% the cases a!thors make e%%orts to deploy registers of

&no%ledgeability in their messages attempting to con#ey speci%ic inde+icalities o% identity

p!rpose and tr!th%!lness.

12<



Two main genres can be disting!ished 9i; the Hlottery( messages are by and large

composed as administrati!e and formal te+ts and they stand o!t by their deployment o%

Htechnical( and proced!ral registers@ 9ii; the Hdormant( Hresc!e( and Hcharity( types are

composed as narrati!es of e$perience and trust and they are marked by registers o% personal

in#ol#ement rapport and %aith. e shall brie%ly disc!ss the %irst type and dwell somewhat

longer on the second.

Administrati!e3formal genres

Hottery( messages share a basic str!ct!ral pattern. 4 shall !se sample 31 to ill!strate this.

i. - technical b!sinesslike s!b>ect line containing n!mber re%erences

8+.

` 1:T5 G*?- ,E*M*"*EG-'4\-T4*' 4'T8E'-T4*'- ,E*GE-M T58

'8T58E-'BS.

` -F*'STE--T ?& 1::2 ?S -MST8EB-M T58 '8T58E-'BS.

` FE*M T58 B8SK *F T58 ,E*M*T4*'S M-'-G8E 4'T8E'-T4*'-

` ,E*M*T4*'SI,E4\8 --EB B8,-ETM8'T

`

` E8F *O I2&1:$::3/I:2

` ?-T05 2$I::31I4,B

`

` -TT8'T4*' E8I --EB '*T4F40-T4*'@ F4'- '*T408

The tone and style are impersonal@ there is no establishment o% a personal %orm o%

in#ol#ement between sender and addressee. The messages also !s!ally carry ne!tral terms o%

address HBear SirIMadam( HBear inner( or in one or two cases a more marked HBear

!cky inner(.

ii. -n anno!ncement o% the award and o% the proced!re o% selection

8+. /

` e are pleased to in%orm yo! o% the anno!ncement o% winners o% the 1:T5

` G*?- ,E*M*"*EG-'4\-T4*' 4'T8E'-T4*'- ,E*GE-M T58 '8T58E-'BS held the` 23rd o% april 2::&. 5a#ing picked yo!r email address by o!r electronic web

12



` site #isitors collators in recognition o% yo!r patronage to the internet

` ser#ices in the %inal draw yo!r name was attached to Ticket n!mber

` :23":1$<"/:"$& with Serial n!mber &:/3"11 drew the !cky n!mbers

` $3"11"$$"3/"1:"$3 and conse6!ently won the lottery in the 3rd category. Oo!

` ha#e there%ore been appro#ed %or a l!mp s!m pay o!t o% CS<&:.:::.:: in cash` credited to %ile E8F '*.*O I2&1:$::3/I:2. This is %rom total prize money

` o% CS<:$:::::.:: shared among the Twenty"nine international winners in

` this category.

`

` -ll participants were selected thro!gh a comp!ter ballot system drawn %rom

` 2&::: names %rom -!stralia 'ew \ealand -merica 8!rope 'orth -%rica

` -merica and -sia as part o% 4nternational ,romotions ,rogram which is

` cond!cted ann!ally.

'ote the dense concentration o% n!mbers dates re%erences to instit!tional and technical items

9Global ,romo"*rganizational 4nternational ,rogramN 3rd categoryN credited to %ile E8F

'*.*OI2&1:$::3/I:2N etc.;

iii. - re6!est %or con%identiality and an in#itation to initiate a proced!re o% claiming

the award

8+.< Oo!r %!nd is now deposited with a ?ank in -msterdamins!red in yo!r name.

` B!e to the mi+ !p o% some n!mbers and names we ask that yo! keep This award

` strictly %rom p!blic notice !ntil yo!r claim has been processed and yo!r

` money remitted to yo!r acco!nt. This is part o% o!r sec!rity protocol to

` a#oid do!ble claiming or !nscr!p!lo!s acts by participants o% this program.

`

` To begin yo!r claim please contact o!r in%ormation centre at

` in%ocentrecompa6net.%r . For d!e processing and remittance o% yo!r prize

` money to a designated acco!nt o% yo!r choice.

`

` '*T8 4n order to a#oid !nnecessary delays and complications please

` remember to 6!ote yo!r re%erence and batch n!mbers in e#ery one o% yo!r

` correspondences with yo!r agent. F!rthermore sho!ld there be any change o%

` yo!r address do in%orm yo!r claims agent as soon as possible.

-s can be seen this part also contains the email address and phone n!mber o% a contact

person. 'ote that the reply address operates thro!gh a pro#ider in France.

13:







i#. - closing %orm!la

8+. 0ongrat!lations again %rom all o!r sta%% and thank yo! %or being part o% o!r

` promotions program.

`

` Sincerely

` \ack Sonnie.

` T58 ,E*M*T4*'S M-'-G8E

` 1:T5 G*?- ,E*M*"*EG-'4\-T4*' 4'T8E'-T4*'- ,E*GE-M

` T58 '8T58E-'BS.

*bser#e how generic %eat!res s!ch as thank yo! %or being part o% o!r promotions programNare directly borrowed %rom common commercial and promotional disco!rses. The lottery

messages in general and across the whole specter o% the corp!s seek close generic

identi%ication with s!ch widespread recognizable commercial genres o% comm!nication

incl!ding the cryptica o% >argon re%erence n!mbers and comments on r!les and proced!res =

things nobody !nderstands b!t e#eryone instincti#ely interprets as signs o% smooth

pro%essionalism serio!sness and really e+istent capitalism. Things in other words that ha#e

no re%erential #al!e whatsoe#er b!t that operate totally at an inde+ical le#el where they

con#ey established and hence pres!pposable inde+icals o% pro%essional reliable capitalist

identity.

-arrati!e genres

The messages belonging to the Hdormant acco!nt( Hresc!e operation( and Hcharity( types

mentioned in section 2 are more di#erse altho!gh they all ass!me narrati!e orientations to

the genre and all seek personal rapport and in!ol!ement in style. -nd like in the case o% the

lottery messages there is a general template which can be s!mmarized as %ollows

i. ,ersonal direct address

ii. -n apology and introd!ction

iii. - micro"narrati#e abo!t the origin o% the money

i#. -n in#itation to engage in a b!siness transaction

#. Ee6!ests %or con%identiality

131



#i. 0losing %orm!la

Stylistically howe#er they lack the smoothness and !ni%ormity o% the lottery messages@ there

are #ery di#erse realizations o% the narrati#e. ?elow are some o% their pec!liarities

i. Terms o% address

-!thors !se #ery di%%erent terms o% address. The most ne!tral wo!ld be H9Bear; Sir( H-ttn

Sir( or H-ttn Aan ?lommaert( b!t many messages carry a%%ecti#e terms o% address in#oking

strong personal in#ol#ement and rapport. 5ere is a list

Bear Friend 9samples 3 1$ 1 1< 2 3: $2 $3 &;

Bear ,artner 9samples $ / $;

Bear *ne 9sample $$;

Bearest *ne 9sample 1:;

My Bear 9samples 12 3 $<;

Bear 9sample 1;

5ello Bear 9sample &:;

Bear Eespect%!l 9sample 2:;

-ttn ,lease 9sample 2&;

My letter to yo! 9sample 2;

-S--M -OK*M 9sample 3/;

Good day 9to yo!; 9samples 3 3/ 3< &2;

-TT' MBI08* 9sample $1;

For yo!r kind attention 9sample $;

'eedless to say terms o% address s!ch as 5ello BearN My BearN Bear *neN or Bear

Eespect%!lN are slightly marked as choices within the conte+t o% what is s!pposed to be an

inchoate b!siness relationship. ?!t passons.

ii. -pologies and introd!ctions

The messages o%ten contain pro%!se apologies %or initiating contact. 4nterestingly in doing sothey o%ten artic!late an awareness o% generic appropriateness conditions. 4n the ne+t e+ample

132



%or instance the a!thor e+presses his awareness that this kind o% contact might not be the

appropriate channel %or a #ery sensiti#e transaction

8+1:

` Forgi#e me %or approaching yo! in this manner to disc!ss a matterwhich is #ery sensiti#e indeed. 5ad 4

another alternati#e 4 wo!ld ha#e >!mped at it. -ll 4 ask is that yo! take some time to hear me o!t.

9sample 2;

The tension between the personal nat!re o% the message and the impersonal nat!re o% e"mail

9spam; messages is a %eat!re o% a good n!mber o% s!ch apologetic introd!ctions. 8+planations

may be gi#en as to how and why the addressee was selected as a potential partner.

4nterestingly in light o% earlier remarks some messages re%er to internet searches 9or

H4nternate( searches sample 33;. 5ere is a small selection@ note the sometimes densely

a%%ecti#e e+pressions re%erring to %aith tr!st and respect

8+.11` Oo! may be s!rprised to recei#e this letter %rom me since yo! do not` know me personally. 9sample 3;

8+12

` 4 g!ess this letter might come to yo! as a s!rprise since 4 had no pre#io!s` correspondence with yo! ?!t with d!e respect 4 got yo!r contact in my` research %or a reliable and honest person who will be capable and %it to` assist me in handling a #ery con%idential transaction in#ol#ing the trans%er ` o% CS/& million dollars only. 9sample $;

8+13

` First4 m!st apologise to yo! %or !sing this medi!m to comm!nicate abo!t` this transactiontho!gh it is my great pleas!re in writing yo! this letter on` behal% o% my colleag!e and mysel%.4 am Eobert 0ha#ezthe manager in charge o% ` a!diting and acco!nting section o% a bank in ondonCK.My colleag!e and 4

` ha#e decided to contact yo! on a b!siness transaction that will be #ery` bene%icial to both o% !s at the end o% the transaction.4 wo!ld be brie% and` direct to ens!re yo! !nderstand e#erything properly. 9sample ;

8+1$

0ompliments 4 decided to bestow this tr!st on yo! which 4 pray yo! will

not ignore or betray.

4 apologize in ad#ance %or any incon#eniences this may ca!se yo!. 4 am

?arrister ,eter 4l!o the ,ersonal -ttorney to late Mr George K.Marshal

who was a contractor here in ?enin Eep. 9sample 3;

133



8+1&

` Kindly accept my apology %or sending my mail to yo!. 4 am a tr!e God %earing person and 4 want yo! to tr!st

me and help me o!t in this my condition. 4 belie#e yo! are a highly respected personality considering the %act

that 4 so!rced yo!r pro%ile %rom a h!man reso!rce pro%ile database on yo!r co!ntry in the 4nternet. 9sample $1;

8+1

` This letter may come to yo! as a s!rprise d!e to the %act that we ha#e

` not yet met. 4 h!mbly cra#e yo!r ind!lgence in sending yo! this mail.

` 4 ha#e to say that 4 ha#e no intentions o% ca!sing yo! any pains so i

` decided to contact yo! thro!gh this medi!m .-s yo! read this 4 donZt

` want yo! to %eel sorry %or me beca!se 4 belie#e e#eryone will die

` someday. 9sample $3;

8+1/ Permit me to inform you of my desire of going into business relationship %ith you4I got your name and contact I

prayed o!er it and selected your name among other names due to its esteeming nature and the recommendations

gi!en to me as a reputable and trust %orthy person that I can do business %ith and by the recommendation 2 I

must not hesitate to confide in you for this simple and sincere business 4 .sample ==/

The general tone is clear this is a one"on"one relationship b!ilt on m!t!al con%idence and

s!pported by a realization o% m!t!al material bene%its or in some cases by the -lmighty.2

Some o% these %ragments are almost %orm!laic and te+t!al reocc!rrences s!ggest common

a!thorship or e+tensi#e borrowing %rom each other. 0ompare the %ollowing %ragments %romsamples 1 and $<. The a!thor o% sample 1 claims to be 'igerian and works thro!gh a 5otmail

acco!nt@ the a!thor o% sample $< claims to be %rom ?enin and works thro!gh pro#iders in the

CK and Benmark.

8+1<

` 4 am writing %ollowing the impressi#e in%ormation abo!t yo!

` thro!gh one o% my %riends who r!ns a cons!ltancy %irm

` !nder 'igeria 0hamber o% 0ommerce and 4nd!stry.5e ass!red

` me o% yo!r 0apability and Eeliability to 0hampion a

` ?!siness o% great Magnit!de 9sample 1;

8+1

-s it may interest yo! to know 4 got yo!r impressi#e

in%ormation thro!gh my good %riend who works with

chamber o% commerce on %oreign b!siness relations here

in 0otono!"?enin it is him who recommended yo!r

person to me to be #iable and capable to champion a

13$



b!siness o% s!ch magnit!de witho!t any problem. 9sample $<;

iii. Stories o% origin

*%%ering an !nknown correspondent a co!ple o% millions is a rather !n!s!al proposition so

almost all the messages in this genre o%%er small narrati#es abo!t the origin o% the money.

5ere are some samples.

Dormant accounts:

8+2:

` 4 am a branch manager in my ?ank and Special -cco!nting o%%icer to` 9Br.,eter.?lommaert; who worked as an e+patriate well 8ngineer with an` international oil %irm here. *n the 21st o% -pril 2::1 my c!stomer his` wi%e and their two children were in#ol#ed in a!to"crash along the e#er ` b!sy -ccra"-%laho 5igh ay. -ll occ!pants o% the #ehicle !n%ort!nately lost` their li#es. Since thenthe ?oard o% Birectors o% my ?ank ha#e made se#eral` en6!ires to their embassy to locate any o% my c!stomerZs e+tended relations` b!t to no a#ail.5ence the need to contact yo! since yo! share the same` %amily name.4 ha#e contacted yo! to assist in repatriating the money and` ,roperty le%t behind by my client be%ore they get 0on%iscated or declared` !nser#iceable by the bank where this 5!ge deposits o% CS$&.&M waslodged.

9sample <;

>escue operations:

8+21

BCE4'G T58 0CEE8'T 0E4S4S -G-4'ST T58 F-EM8ES *F \4M?-?8 ?O T58

SC,,*ET8E *F *CE ,E8S4B8'T E*?8ET MCG-?8 T* 0-4M - T58 54T8

*'8B F-EM 4' *CE 0*C'TEO 58 *EB8E8B - T58 54T8 F-EM8ES T*

SCEE8'B8E T584E F-MES T* 54S ,-ETO M8M?8E -'B T584E F**8ES

`

` MO F-T58E -S *'8 *F T58 ?8ST 4'B4G8'*CS F-EM8ES 4' T58 0*C'TEO

5* B4B '*T SC,,*ET T58 ,E8S4B8'T 4B8**GO T58 ,E8S4B8'T SC,,*ET8ES

4'D-B8B MO F-T58E F-EM **T8B -'B ?CE'T B*' 8D8EOT54'G -'B

0*'F4S0-T8B - 54S '4D8STM8'TS

`

` -FT8E T58 B8-T5 *F MO F-T58E MO M*T58E -'B 4-*'G 4T5 MO O*C'G8E

*'8 B804B8B T* M*D8 *CT *F \4M?-?8 F*E T58 S-F8TO *F *CE 4D8S8

T**K -*'G 4T5 CS T58 M*'8O MO F-T58E K8,T 4' T58 S-F8 4' MO M*T58E

13&



5*CS8 5405 -M*C'T8B T* T58 SCM *F CS1: M9T8' M44*' C'4T8B ST-T8S

B*-S ;T* S*CT5 -FE40- T58 FC' 4S ,E8S8'T ?84'G K8,T 4' T58 S80E8T

D-CT *F - ,E4D-T8 S80CE4TO F4EM ?-S8B 58E8 4' ,E8T*E4-"S*CT5 -FE40-

T58 *FF404- *F T58 F4EM ?848D8S T58O -E8 58,4'G M8 4' K88,4'G MO

,8ES*'- D-C-?8S '*T E8-4\4'G T5-T 4T 4S M*'8O`

` MO M*T58E -'B MOS8F 5-D8 B804B8B T* 0*'T-0T -'O E84-?8

*D8ES8-S F4EMI,8ES*' 5* 0*CB -SS4ST CS T* TE-'SF8E T54S M*'8O *CT

*F T58 ,E4D-T8 S80CE4TO 0*M,-'O ?80-CS8 8 -S -SOCM S88K8ES 58E8 4'

S*CT5 -FE40- 0-''*T *,8' - '*' "E8S4B8'T -00*C'T T5E*CG5 5405 T54S

FC'B 4 ?8 05-''88B *CT *F S80CE4TO 0*M,-'O T*-' *D8ES8-

-00*C'T

9sample 23;

Charity:

8+22

` 'ow that God has called me 4 ha#e willed and gi#en most o% my property and assets to my immediate and

e+tended %amily members as well as a %ew close %riends. 4 want God to be merci%!l to me and accept my so!l 4

ha#e decided to gi#e alms to charity organizations as 4 want this to be one o% the last good deeds 4 e#er do on

earth. So %ar 4 ha#e distrib!ted money to some charity *rganizations in the C.-.8 -lgeria and Malaysia.

`

` 'ow that my health has deteriorated so badly 4 cannot do this mysel% anymore. 4 once asked members o% my

%amily to close one o% my acco!nts and distrib!te the money which 4 ha#e there to charity organization in

?!lgaria and ,akistan@ they re%!sed and kept the money to themsel#es. 5ence 4 do not tr!st them anymore as

they seem not to be contended with what 4 ha#e le%t %or them.

`

` The last o% my money which no one knows o% is the h!ge cash deposit in 8!rope whort eighteen Million CS

dollars 9CS1<::::::.::; that 4 ha#e with a deposit company abroad.

9sample 3:;

Bespite the considerable di#ersity in origins pro#ided in the messages we can see rec!rrent

%eat!res. -!thors !se a limited range o% tropes in their stories and here is a s!r#ey

6oney becomes a/ailable because of samples

,lane crash $ 1/ 2$ 3< $< &3 &

0ar crash < 12 1 33 3$ 3/ 3

0i#il war political problems 3 / 1: 23 2 $1 &&

0ontract errors %ra!d 1 2 2& 2 &$4llness 3: $2 $3

13



-ssassination $$ &2

,lane and car crashes as well as stories o% contracts and %ra!d dominate the Hdormant

acco!nt( stories@ ci#il war and political problems as well as assassination are typically !sed in

Hresc!e operations(@ the three instances o% illness as a reason %or the a#ailability o% money are

all Hcharity( cases.

4nterestingly some a!thors try to anchor these stories in recognizable conte+t!alizing

!ni#erses. Sample 1$ talks o% an 4ra6i o%%icial who got killed by -merican bombs d!ring the

4ra6 4n#asion o% 2::3. 4n sample 1& the money became a#ailable when its owners died in the

Ts!nami disaster o% late 2::$. The owner o% the money in sample 1/ died in the 0oncorde

crash in ,aris while the owner mentioned in sample & was a passenger in the plane that hit

the 'orth Tower o% the T0 b!ilding on September 11 2::1. The a!thors o% samples 3 and

23 both claim to be #ictims o% Eobert M!gabe(s Hredistrib!tion( policies in \imbabwe and

those o% samples / and 2 both pose as close collaborators o% Mikhail Khodorko#sky the

E!ssian %ormer O!kos oil"mog!l. The a!thor o% sample 2 %inally claims to be a collaborator

o% a senior e+ec!ti#e o% ,armalat the 4talian m!ltinational that got ca!ght !p in serio!s %ra!d

cases.3 Th!s a!thors seek recognizable stories which o%%er some prima facie pla!sibility

with a hand%!l o% them pro#iding 4nternet links with in%ormation on the e#ents in which they

set their o%%er to s!pport 9part o%; their stories.

i#. Eeass!rances

Some a!thors go to some length in pro#iding reass!ring statements abo!t their sincerity and

abo!t the risk"%ree character o% the operation. The a!thor o% sample $ %or instance tries to

con#ince !s that we sho!ldn(t e#en ha#e any atom o% %earN

8+23

` 4 will !se my position in the ?ank to do all the !ndergro!nd work and hasten` the appro#al and release o% the %!nds in yo!r %a#o!r. 4 will not %ail to` bring to yo!r notice that this transaction will be 1::] risk %ree and will` only take !s 1$ ?anking days to %inalize beca!se as a banker 4 know the` ?anking proceed!res so do not border or entertain any atom o% %ear as all` re6!ired arrangement ha#e been made to s!it the both parties in#ol#ed and to` achie#e s!ccess. 9sample $;

5e is echoed in this by the a!thor o% sample 3/

13/



8+2$

4 will not %ail to bring to

y o!r notice that this b!siness is hitch %ree and that yo! sho!ld not

entertain any %ear as all modalities %or %!nd trans%er can be %inalized within %i#e banking days a%ter yo! apply to

the bank as a relation to the

deceased. 9sample 3/;

The So!th -%rican a!thor o% sample 32 9o%%ering the staggering s!m o% 12 million CS; is

con%ident abo!t the legality o% the transaction

8+2&

` 4 will apply %or ann!al lea#e to get #isa immediately 4 hear %rom yo! that

` yo! are ready to act and recei#e this %!nd in yo!r acco!nt. 4 will !se my

` position and in%l!ence to obtain all legal appro#als %or onward trans%er o%

` this money to yo!r acco!nt with appropriate clearance %rom the rele#ant

` ministries and %oreign e+change departments. 9sample 32;

-nd ?arrister Malinga O!s!% 9-lhad>i; like some o% his colleag!es act!ally claims to %ollow

the orders o% his s!periors in the bank

8+2

` The sign legalised copy o% her 4 is in my chamberswhy

` the original copy is in the bank %ile.For %o!r yrs now the

` bank has not seen any %oriegn bene%iciary presented by me

` d!e to my rela+ation in law e+ec!tion.5encethe bank has

` called my attention to present a recomended bene%icairy to

` process legal claim o% this money and the estate witho!t

` delay.otherwise the bank will deposit the money into the

` bank treas!ry as an !nclaimed %!nd. 9sample33;

4n each o% these cases the reass!rances are gi#en on the basis o% identity the a!thors draw

!pon their in%l!ential positions in banks or ind!stries on proced!ral knowledge and %inancial

and legal know"how to reass!re !s o% their good intentions and o% the g!aranteed s!ccess o%

the operation.

#. 0on%identiality honesty and respect

13<



4n#ariably a!thors emphasize the importance o% strict con%identiality = e#en i% in the same

mo#e they reass!re !s o% the legal and risk"%ree character o% the transaction. They are also

!p%ront abo!t the act!al details o% the transaction th!s s!ggesting that the transaction can

proceed witho!t preliminary negotiation stages. 4t is immediately e+ec!ted on the basis o%

con%identiality and sincerity

8+2/

` 4 am Mr. -le+ !>! o% the abo#e address. 4 am sorry i% 4 ha#e intr!ded on

` yo!r pri#acy or barged on yo! witho!t yo!r permission.

`

` 4 ha#e a #ery rewarding b!siness o%%er which 4 will want !s to be in#ol#ed

` in together with all tr!st con%identiality and good brotherliness.

9sample 2;

8+2<

This b!siness itsel% is 1::] sa%e pro#ided yo! treat it with !tmost con%identiality.

4 ha#e reposed my con%idence in yo! and 4 hope yo! will not disappoint !s.4

ha#e the a!thority o% my colleag!es in#ol#ed to propose that sho!ld yo!

be willing to assist !s in this transaction yo!r share as compensation

will be 2:] while my colleag!es and 4 recie#e /:] and the balance 1:] %or

ta+es and all other misceleno!s e+penses inc!red. 9sample 1<;

8+2

May 4 at this point emphasize that this transaction` is a s!ccess%!l arrangementas an insider o% the bank 4 ha#e the capacity to` monitor that e#erything is going well. *n smooth concl!sion o% this` transaction yo! will be entitled to yo!r own share o% the total s!m as` grati%ication. This share o% yo!rs is negotiable as long as it is` reasonable.,lease yo! ha#e been ad#iced to keep this a top secret as we are` still in ser#ice and intend to retire %rom ser#ice a%ter we concl!de this` deal with yo!.4 will be monitoring the whole sit!ation here in this bank

` !ntil yo! con%irm the mon 9sample ;

8+3:

Oo! m!st howe#er '*T8 that this transaction is s!b>ect to the %ollowing terms and conditions*!r con#ictiono%yo!r transparent honesty and diligence.That yo! wo!ld treat this transaction with tr!st honesty andcon%identiality.That as a %oreign partner yo! will heed to all instr!ctions to the letter.Kindly commence action aswe are almost behind sched!le to enable this %!nds be incl!ded in the %inal 6!arter o% this %iscal yearZs

payment.hen yo! recei#e this lettershowing yo!r dedication and honesty to assist 4 will like yo! to contact meimmediately so that we take the necessary steps immediately. 4 look %orward to yo!r response. 9sample 1/;

8+31Then yo! and me can

13



` share the money&&] to me and $:] to yo!and remaining &] will go to` e+penses inc!red by both parties d!ring the co!rse o% this transaction.4` ha#e all necessary legal doc!ments that can be !sed to back!p any claim we` may make. -ll 4 re6!ire is yo!r honest cooperation to enable this deal` thro!gh.4 g!arantee that this will be e+ec!ted !nder a legitimate` -rrangement that will protect yo! %rom any breach o% the aw. ,lease get in

` to!ch thro!gh my email and send to me yo!r Telephone and %a+ n!mbers to` enable !s %!rther abo!t this Transaction. 9sample <;

Th!s while the a!thors de%ine their own reliability in terms o% pro%essional identity

competence and knowledgeability the addressee(s reliability is a matter o% tr!st based on

sincerity and a capacity to operate discreetly the pro%essional #ers!s the Good ,erson.

8+pressions o% respect %or this Good ,erson are ab!ndant thro!gho!t the corp!s and they

sometimes c!lminate in #ery la!datory slightly baro6!e closing %orm!lae

8+32

Finally yo!r reward %or yo!r noble assistance will be !nder

negotiable.

Thanks and remain bless.

aiting %or yo!r reply.

Oo!rs sincerely.

M!sa Aacob Kamara 9A'E;.

9sample 2:;

8+33hen yo! recei#e this letter kindly send me an e"mail signi%ying yo!rinterest incl!ding yo!r most con%idential telephoneI%a+ n!mbers %or 6!ick comm!nication.Eespect%!lly s!bmittedBr Ban *bi

9sample 3/;

-nd on one occasion the a!thor 9claiming to work %or loyds ?ank ondon b!t operating

thro!gh an 4talian pro#ider; sketches the dangers o% breaking the r!les o% con%identiality

8+3$Eemember this is absol!tely con%idential. My h!sband` does not know abo!t this risk taking. My %amily will be in shambles i% ` it b!rst o!t and i will also be in tro!ble aswell as loose my precio!s` >ob. Oo!r contact phone n!mbers and name will be necessary %or this` e%%ect. 9sample &;

1$:



#tructural stability and genre

4% we now take these insights together we see that the a!thors o% these messages clearly do

not write %rom scratch. They all attempt to constr!ct specific types of te$t %rom some

concept!al templates te+ts that prod!ce certain speci%ic inde+icals = te+ts that carry the

message across. This message let !s recall is that this is all abo!t a gen!ine honest b!siness

transaction o% considerable size and bene%it to all those in#ol#ed in it. -nd s!ch a message

needs to be ca!ght 9iconically; in a recognizably Hserio!s( style shot thro!gh by a wide

#ariety o% %eat!res that prod!ce meanings that may con#ince the addressee. The te+ts

howe#er are not e$plicitly persuasi!e b!t they are inde$ically persuasi!e they try to

con#ince the addressee o% the a!thenticity o% the o%%er thro!gh the deployment o% generic and

stylistic %eat!res that lock into e+isting recognizable and pres!pposable inde+ical #al!es. This

is a restricted set o% %eat!res and a non"random one and this e+plains the str!ct!ral stability

in the messages.

This was the second point 4 wanted to establish that apart %rom being %!lly literate in

the world o% globalized comm!nication technology the a!thors o% these te+ts are also

culturally literate in the sense that they know that some messages in order to be intelligible

and con#incing re6!ire speci%ic genre and stylistic characteristics. This is a second type o%

competence let !s call it c!lt!ral competence the H&no%ing %hat ( o% comm!nication. Many

o% the a!thors especially those o% the Hdormant acco!nt( messages pose as b!sinessmen

lawyers or bankers and they adorn their names with categorizing labels s!ch as HBr(

H?arrister( or H98s6;(@ they also re%er to positions o% in%l!ence and e+pertise and they deploy

semiotic emblems o% s!ch positions s!ch as technical terminology %or types o% money 9e.g. a

profiling amount in an e+cess o% CS1::.&MN = sample /@ a fi$ed deposit Amount N = sample

12; and %or legal and %inancial mechanisms o% trans%er 9e.g. The bank is ready to release this

money to any %oreigner who stands as bene%iciary and pro#ides reliable in%ormation abo!t the

deceased ownerN = sample 2$;. These are the registers of &no%ledgeability re%erred to earlier

a!thors make e%%orts to speak in ways that sho!ld re%lect the partic!lar position they claim to

be in. Gi#en the globalized nat!re o% their comm!nicati#e actions they ha#e to orient towards

a restricted range o% s!ch ways o% speaking they ha#e to con#ey meanings that can be picked

!p on the other side o% the world. 4% we take the two points established so %ar together the

story is one o% con#ergence o% the semiotic constr!ction o% similit!de = 4 am like yo! 4(m

part o% yo!r world.

1$1



)n orrery of errors

This is where things s!ch as 8nglish and literacy come in at the end o% any ethnographic

road there are ling!istic details. The e+amples gi#en in the pre#io!s sections ha#e already

shown what this is abo!t many o% the a!thors o% the messages str!ggle with basic literacy

skills and ha#e an incomplete control o#er standard #arieties o% 8nglish. ?oth as we shall see

are prere6!isites %or a Hcomplete( realization o% the genres. ?!t incomplete realizations do not

precl!de comm!nicati#e s!ccess = they res!lt in more selecti#e smaller speech networks.

hereas th!s %ar 4 ha#e tried to demonstrate processes o% semiotic con#ergence in the

messages this point will lead !s in an opposite direction towards considering di!ersity !nder

conditions o% globalization. -s we now know globalization creates a heightened salience %orthe nat!re and str!ct!re o% ling!istic reso!rces. -s soon as ling!istic semiotic prod!cts start

tra#elling across the globe they tra#el across di%%erent orders o% inde+icality and what co!nts

as Hgood lang!age( in one place can easily become Hbad lang!age( in another@ what co!nts as

an e+pression o% de%erence can become an e+pression o% arrogance elsewhere@ what co!nts as

an inde+ o% intellect!al middle"class identity in one place can become an inde+ o% immigrant

!nderclass identity elsewhere. 4n other words small details in ling!istic str!ct!re = accent

writing style politeness %orm!lae speci%ic registers s!ggesting identities or relationships =

grow in importance as ob>ects o% in6!iry 6!estioning and e#al!ation o% personality and case.

Th!s the increase o% mobility in globalization does not seem to ha#e res!lted in an increase o%

the acceptance o% di#ersity. 4% anything it has opened a new and wider space %or meas!ring

di#ersity as aberrance %rom newly rein%orced or rein#ented standards c!stoms and

benchmarks as we shall see in more detail in chapter . Ee>ection and e+cl!sion on gro!nds

o% %eat!res o% one(s ling!istic reso!rces are ri%e altho!gh as will be arg!ed here s!ch

re>ections need not always be categorical.

et !s %irst ha#e a closer look at the ling!istic reso!rces deployed by many o% o!r

a!thors in their attempt to con#ince !s o% the sincerity o% their o%%er.

Grassroots literacy

Many o% the messages display typical %eat!res o% grassroots literacy inconsistent p!nct!ation

%re6!ency o% spelling errors the !nwarranted !se o% capitals and cross"register trans%ers 9e.g.

the !se o% in%ormal styles in %ormal genres or #ice #ersa;. 0onsider some e+amples

1$2



8+3&

` Thro!gh my internate search i got yo!r mail addressthat

` is why i am obliged to contact yo! to seek yo!r interest

` and con%iremationand lay claim o% this money with my` legal backing and assistance --5 ?8SS O*C -'B O*CE

` F-M4O 9sample 33;

8+3

` My names are George Tony. iZm a & years old man. i am 4rish

` li#ing in dakar9senegal;. iZm

` a merchant and owned two b!sinesses in Bakar. 9L;

` please reply to this mail as i can only reply thro!gh my

` labtop can not talk #ery well georgetony%astermail.com

` sincerly 9sample 3$;

8+3/

Since then 4 ha#e made se#eral contacts to 5is 0o!ntries 8mbassy in order

to locate any o% my clients e+tended relati#es which had also been !ns!ccess%!l. 9sample 3;

8+3<

I am 'ony 8obi the only son of late Mr and Mrs Christopher 8obi4My father %as a !ery %ealthy cocoa merchant

in Abid1an the economic capital of I!ory coast2 my father %as poisoned to dearth by his business associates on

one of their outings on a business trip 4My mother died %hen I %as a baby and since then my father too& me so

special49sample $$;

8+3?e%ore The death o% o!r Father on the 2th o% A!ne` 2::$ by 1:.::am in a pri#ate hospital here in -bid>an. 5e secretly called me` and my yo!nger Sister and in%ormed !s that he has a s!m o% 9CS.&million; Si+e` million %i#e h!ndred tho!sand dollers. hich he Beposited in a ?ankin 0otono!.` ?enin rep!bilc. 9sample &2;

These %ew e+amples amply demonstrate the point many a!thors deploy literacy skills that

betray a position on the margins o% global literacy economies. hile they are %!lly literate as

comp!ter !sers and interna!ts and while they appear to ha#e rather clear and precise

!nderstandings o% the c!lt!ral semantics re6!ired in this type o% comm!nication many o%

them %ail to accomplish the most basic task the prod!ction o% a degree o% orthographic

1$3






correctness sensed to iconicize the position %rom where they speak = a writing that matches

their claimed identity as members o% a highly skilled pro%essional elite.

Grassroots "nglish

The same applies to the #arieties o% 8nglish deployed by many a!thors they re#eal a str!ggle

with norms a series o% orientations to stylistic con#entions in local ling!a %ranca #arieties

and a lack o% e+pos!re to the normati#e codes o% their addressees. This res!lts in !ne+pected

t!rns"o%"phrase misnomers remarkable stylistic de#elopments as in the %ollowing e+amples

8+$:

4 am writing in respect o% a %oreign c!stomer o% my bank with acco!nt n!mber 1$"2&&"2::$I-ST?I123" who perished in an a!to"crash with the whole passengers aboard.

Since the demise o% this o!r c!stomer 4 personally has watched with

keen interest to see the ne+t o% kin b!t all has pro#ed aborti#e as no one has come to claim his %!nds o%

CS32::::::.:: 9Thirty Two Million Cnited States Bollar; which has been with my branch %or a #ery long

time. *n this note 4 decided to seek %or whom his name shall be !sed as the ne+t o% kin as no one has come !p to

be the ne+t o% kin. 9sample 3/;

8+$1

?8F*E8 4 4'TE*BC08 MOS8F -'B MO ,CE*,S8 *F 0*'T-0T4'G O*C 8T M8 F4EST -,,8-

T* O*CT* K4'BO E8-B T58 0*'T8'T *F T54S 8TT8E 4T5 K4'B -TT8'T4*'.

4 -M ME ,-TE40K M*EE4S- ?-'K8E4 -M -' -CB4T*E 4' ?-'K *F S0*T-'B.

4 -'T T* TE-'SF8E *CT 9 F4FT88'"M44*' ,*C'BS ST8E4'GS; FE*M *CE ?-'K

58E8 4' *'B*'. 4 5-D8 T58 0*CE-G8 T* **K F*E - E84-?8 -'B 5*'8ST ,8ES*'

5* 4 ?8 0-,-?8 F*E T54S 4M,*ET-'T ?CS4'8SS TE-'S-0T4*'?848D4'G T5-T

O*C 4 '8D8E 8T M8 B*' 84T58E '* *E 4' FCTCE8.

T58 *'8E *F T54S -00*C'T 4S ME A*5' 5CG58S F*E84G'8E -'B T58 M-'-G8E *F,8TE* 058M40- S8ED408 58E8 4' *'B*'- 058M40- 8'G4'88E ?O ,E*FF8SS4*'

-'B 58 B48B S4'08 1&.T58 -00*C'T 5-S '* *T58E ?8'8F404-EO -'B MO 4'D8ST4G-T4*'

,E*D8B T* M8 -S 8 T5-T 54S 0*M,-'O B*8S '*T K'* -'OT54'G -?*CT T54S

-00*C'T

-'B T58 -M*C'T 4'D*D8B 4S 91&::::::.::;,*C'BS ST8E4'GS.

4 -'T T* TE-'SF8E T54S M*'8O 4'T* - S-F8 F*E84G' -00*C'T -?E*-B ?CT 4 B*'ZT

K'* -'O F*E84G'8E4 K'* T5-T T54S M8SS-G8 4 0*M8 T* O*C -S - SCE,E4S8

-S 8 B*'ZT K'* *CE S8F ?8F*E8?CT ?8 SCE8 T5-T 4T 4S E8- -'B - G8'C4'8

?CS4'8SS.4 ?848D8 4' G*B T5-T O*C 4 '8D8E 8T M8 B*' 4' T54S

4'D8STM8'T.O*CE

1$$



FC 0*'T-0T ,5*'8 -'B F-X 'CM?8E '-M8S 4 ?8 '808SS-EO F*E T54S 8FF80T.

5*,8 T* 58-E FE*M O*C 4MM8B4-T8O.

T5-'KS

ME ,-TE40K M*EE4S

'?"O*C 0-' E8,O M8 T5E*CG5 T54S ?*Xpatrickmorris1doramail.com9sample $;

8+$2

` ` Bear we are hono!rably seeking yo!r assistance in the %ollowing ways

` To help !s trans%er the money o!t %rom -%rica to yo!r 0o!ntry. since we donZt

` ha#e any idea abo!t transction. 9sample &2;

The n!mber o% e+amples co!ld again be m!ltiplied we %ind o!rsel#es in a %orest o% 8nglishes

with a bewildering range o% #arieties and with #ery di%%erent degrees o% pro+imity to

ling!istic and stylistic standards.

8nglish is deployed %or more than >!st operational reasons. 4t also ser#es as a power%!l

inde+ o% identity it is thro!gh control o#er the globalized code o% power and elite membership

that o!r a!thors try to signal their claimed identities. -long with the choice o% names that

match the claimed place o% origin o% the messages the choice o% lang!age is part o% the

creation o% a tr!stworthy recognizable persona. 8+amples 3 and $1 abo#e pro#ide !s with

interesting e#idence %or this. 4n sample 3 the a!thor claims to be H4rish( 9written correctly

with a capital 4; li#ing in Hdakar9senegal;( 9written witho!t capitals and witho!t space between

both words;@ he also stated that his Hnames( 9pl!ral; are George Tony. 4n sample $1 o!r a!thor

claims to be H- ?-'K8E 4 -M -' -CB4T*E 4' ?-'K *F S0*T-'B( = syntactically pec!liar

and written with problematic p!nct!ation and witho!t the article delimiting H?ank o%

Scotland(. Mr. ,atrick Morris as he calls himsel% has T58 0*CE-G8 T* **K F*E -

E84-?8 -'B 5*'8ST ,8ES*'N willing to engage in a transaction worth F4FT88'"M44*'

,*C'BS ST8E4'GSN 9with hyphen and HSterlings( in pl!ral;.

?oth Mr. George Tony and Mr. ,atrick Morris claim to be nati#e speakers o% the

lang!age in which they write their message. 4n the case o% Mr. Morris 9sample $1; the

a!thor(s claim to being a Scotsman s!pported the claimed origin o% the message = the CK

9note that Mr Morris sends his message %rom a pro#ider in Cr!g!ay and e+pects !s to reply

thro!gh a %ree webmail pro#ider on a cartoon %an site based in the CS;. *% co!rse it is

1$&



!nlikely that a senior employee o% the ?ank o% Scotland wo!ld write HSterling( in the pl!ral =

>!st as it is !nlikely that o!r 4rish Mr. George Tony wo!ld concei#e o% his name as a pl!ral

constr!ction. 'onnati#eness shines thro!gh in e#ery line o% their messages. The point is

howe#er that in both cases the a!thors appear to ass!me that their "nglish is 9good* enough

to pass as fluent2 possibly 9nati!e* spea&ers. This can point towards di%%erences in the #al!es

o% partic!lar ling!istic reso!rces in di%%erent places in the world = between di%%erent locally

operating orders o% inde+icality it is not impla!sible that both a!thors ha#e no awareness o%

the di%%erence between their #ariety o% 8nglish and the normati#e #arieties known to their

addressees. The world system as we know is not a contin!!m b!t a system riddled with

dis>!nct!res and discontin!ities o% #ario!s sorts and ling!istic normati#e comple+es can be

percei!ed to be global b!t as we saw in chapter 3 may in reality be #ery local and enclosed

onto themsel#es responding to local constraints and opport!nities rather than to those

operating in the Hcenter( o% lang!age normati#ity.

The point here is that the partic!lar realizations o% 8nglish Hgi#e o%%( all kinds o%

inde+ical in%ormation. 4n the case o% Mr Tony and Mr Morris they clearly pro#ide ab!ndant

gro!nds %or disp!ting their claimed 4rish and Scottish identities = and by e+tension %or

disp!ting the sincerity o% the o%%er the a!thenticity o% the stories they tell. The nonnati#eness

o% their 8nglish in short e+poses their messages as cases o% %ra!d@ it destroys the whole

inde+ical edi%ice they attempted to b!ild in their message. This also applies to the n!mero!s

other e+amples in o!r corp!s. To the e+tent that the a!thors in#oke identities o% pro%essional

elite membership and e+ha!st themsel#es in attempts towards con#incing their addressees that

they belong to the same strat!m o% the world their orthographic p!nct!ation and ling!istic

di%%ic!lties gi#e them away as someone else = as poseurs.

This is the third point 4 wanted to establish. The a!thors o% these messages may be

well inserted into the globalized comm!nication technology networks and they may ha#e

de#eloped #iews o% how to comm!nicate in these networks b!t they %ail to realize the

re6!irements %or s!ccess in handling the comple+ and demanding genre tasks they engage

with. The third kind o% competence ling!istic competence seems to be less well de#eloped

than the two pre#io!s ones. e are now ready to mo#e on to some concl!ding re%lections.

Truncated fraud

1$



4 wo!ld s!ggest that this little genre st!dy can help !s !nderstand the comple+ities o%

ling!istic processes in conditions o% globalization. 4n its simplest %orm the case 4 ha#e tried to

b!ild can be s!mmarized as %ollows.

The type o% comm!nication per%ormed by the a!thors o% these messages appears as a

layered comple+ o% re6!irements deployed and deployable skills and practices = as tr!ncated

repertoires in the terms de#eloped earlier with some reso!rces that are #ery well de#eloped

while others are less de#eloped. The a!thors o% the messages participate %!lly in this

comm!nicati#e comple+ at some le#els while they %ail to participate at other le#els. They are

%!lly competent !sers and manip!lators o% the technological and in%rastr!ct!ral aspects o%

globalized comm!nication@ in this respect they are Hmat!red( !sers 9?aron 1< 1$&;. e

ha#e seen that they o%ten display amazing degrees o% e+pertise in detecting pro#iders aro!nd

the world capable o% co#ering their tracks. They are also transc!lt!ral mediators in the sense

that they appear to ha#e acc!rate !nderstandings o% the c!lt!ral genre con#entions that

dominate the partic!lar kinds o% comm!nication they engage in. e saw how their messages

display considerable amo!nts o% str!ct!ral !ni%ormity and tightness and how they sprinkle

their messages with registers o% knowledgeability inde+es o% elite membership and

tr!stworthiness and stereotypical images o% corr!ption and b!rea!cratic inade6!acy in their

co!ntries. They know what the globalized c!stomer wants and they all display a tendency

towards stylistic and generic con#ergence towards that point a globally recognizable Hserio!s(

letter written by sincere serio!s b!siness people. e can see some degree o% awareness here

abo!t the comm!nicati#e choices that need to be made in this globalized comm!nication

network. They a!thors are !ndo!btedly aware o% the %act that their messages need to be

specially designed %or their target a!diences and they make choices that re%lect this

awareness.

?!t we also saw that at the lowest le#el o% realization = the le#el where act!al words

sentences and p!nct!ation marks need to be organized into a te+t = the world system re"

emerged in %!ll glory with all its ine6!alities and di%%erential speeds o% de#elopment

collapsing in #arieties o% 8nglish that denied the accomplishments towards globalized generic

recognizability at the two other le#els. The Hknowing %hat ( is not matched by Hknowing ho%(

and e+amples like the ones by Mr. Tony and Mr Morris re#eal a disconcerting tr!th abo!t

lang!age in the world system the %act that to many people the H8nglish( they belie#e to be a

symbolic #ehicle %or !pward social mobility and the acc!m!lation o% wealth is something

1$/



#ery di%%erent %rom the H8nglish( which is in act!al %act re6!ired in order to ha#e access to

s!ch !pward tra>ectories. Many o% o!r a!thors probably belie#e that their H8nglish( is not a

problem beca!se their addressees probably also !se H8nglish( = and the common !se o% that

word s!ggests compellingly that both #arieties are the same.

They are not to be s!re and when their messages are read by highly literate elites in

the First orld the demas,u? will be 6!ick and merciless. ?!t the r!le o% di#ersity works in

their %a#or as well. 4nternet comm!nication is a space dominated by non"nati#eness and the

same r!les apply to inner ondon or Eotterdam as well as to agos or Aohannesb!rg. There

will be addressees whose #arieties o% 8nglish are as distant %rom the normati#e Hcenters( as

those o% the senders. Some o% them may not spot the rich nonnati#e inde+icalities o% the

messages. These readers may only percei#e H8nglish( witho!t interpreting #ariation as

signi%icant and to them the proposed identities relationships and acti#ities may be %!lly

credible = perhaps !n!s!al b!t maybe the best thing that e#er happened to them. -s

mentioned earlier email %ra!d act!ally %or&s and it makes #ictims probably among those

wide a!diences whose competence in 8nglish is s!ch that the pec!liarities reported here pass

!nnoticed. -nd perhaps we sho!ld remind o!rsel#es o% the %act that there are a great many

people 9incl!ding %!lly %l!ent speakers o% 8nglish; in that category. Th!s messages s!ch as

these and their e%%ects o%%er !s a glimpse o% the growing di#ersi%ication in the domain o%

globalized comm!nication.

hen the big things are all right small things start to matter m!ch. The homogenizing

ring o% a word s!ch as H8nglish( is the inde+ical trap o% globalization it leads people to

belie#e that #ariety - is e6!i#alent to #ariety ? and so creates wide spaces %or prod!cing

di%%erences at a time when s!ch di%%erences howe#er minimal are read metonymically in a

densely inde+ical way as e#idence o% %!ndamental di%%erences. 4nstr!ments s!ch as the

4nternet o%%er opport!nities %or homogenization and !ni%ormization at one le#el o%

comm!nicati#e str!ct!ring and this process o% homogenization %!rther s!pports the percei#ed

homogeneity o% the ling!istic reso!rces we deploy in it@ b!t precisely this process re%oc!ses

o!r attention on the things that cannot be homogenized str!ct!ral ine6!alities in the world.

!.3. A worl of resources

The a!thors o% the email %ra!d messages displayed the kind o% che6!ered competence that 4

belie#e becomes more and more an iss!e in globalization. The di%%erent skills displayed by the

1$<



a!thors entered their repertoires thro!gh #ery di%%erent historical tra>ectories some short

some long some collecti#e others indi#id!al some thro!gh Hnormal( 9instit!tional;

tra>ectories s!ch as ed!cation others thro!gh in%ormal learning en#ironments s!ch as peer

gro!ps and non"instit!tional comm!nities@ some came into their repertoires on their own

initiati#e and thro!gh their own e%%orts others were o%%ered to them by others. These

di%%erences are %!ndamental to an !nderstanding o% socioling!istic reality beca!se a repertoire

is ne#er H%lat( and smooth b!t always che6!ered and tr!ncated and th!s re%lecti#e o% the li#es

o% real people in real social en#ironments. The %act o% mobility o% people and messages

increases the #isibility o% the di%%erences between repertoires. Since e#ery aspect o% h!man

comm!nication is always open to e#al!ati#e >!dgment we see an e+pansion o% the range o%

%eat!res in comm!nication that trigger e#al!ation. The patchwork o% competences and skills

that the a!thors display o%%ers a wide panorama on which others can pass inde+ical

>!dgmenst. e saw this already in o!r disc!ssion o% commodi%ied accents in chapter 2 and

we see it here again.

This #iew o% tr!ncated m!ltiling!alism raises #ario!s theoretical iss!es and

possibilities and the iss!e o% competence has already been addressed. 4n a #ery insight%!l

paper 0harlyn Byers 92::<; analysed the repertoires o% inhabitants o% esbank the township

near 0ape Town which was also the setting %or some o% o!r re%lections in chapter 3. *n the

basis o% a thoro!gh analysis o% the reso!rces people !se in a #ariety o% domains Byers

concl!des that the m!lti"ethnic make"!p o% esbank where literally e#eryone is an

immigrant creates tr!ncated m!ltiling!al repertoires and lang!age practices. ang!age

reso!rces get re"ordered and %!nctionally specialised so as to co#er speci%ic tasks and

%!nctions not others. Byers then relates this to disc!ssions o% lang!age shi%t. The pattern she

obser#es in which reso!rces con#entionally associated with a lang!age get re"assigned to

speci%ic domains wo!ld in a more traditional #ocab!lary be called lang!age shi%t 9with

connotations s!ch as lang!age Hendangerment( or Hdeath(;. 5er !se o% tr!ncated repertoires

howe#er shows that lang!ages do not disappear at all their reso!rces become specialized and

so locked into partic!lar social spheres 9to !se ?akhtinian terminology;. The Hlang!ages( o%

the traditional #ocab!lary e+ist as Hregisters( in a new and more prod!cti#e #ocab!lary and

the real Hlang!age( that the people possess is this patchwork o% specialized m!ltiling!al

reso!rces. S!ch a #iew can ha#e a deep impact on contemporary st!dies o% lang!age

endangerment beca!se it remo#es the categorical aspect o% s!ch st!dies 9a lang!age is either

H#ital( or Hendangered(; and replaces it with a %ar more detailed and precise #iew in which

1$



shades o% grey are allowed and in which we can see that partic!lar reso!rces e#en i% they

look obsolescent to the analyst can ha#e important %!nctions %or lang!age !sers.

e co!ld now also be in a position to start seeing patterns o% oppression and

dominance not so m!ch in terms o% lang!ages as in terms o% partic!lar reso!rces some o%

which can 9b!t do not need to; o#erlap with lang!ages con#entionally !nderstood. ,erhaps

not Hlang!ages( are oppressed b!t their deployment o#er speci%ic genres and registers = %or

instance their !se as a lang!age o% instr!ction in schools or o% political debate in the p!blic

arena. -nd perhaps this insight can pro#ide a more precise diagnosis o% s!ch phenomena and

9hope%!lly; better contrib!te to impro#ements. *ne thing looks 6!ite certain in a world in

which more and more comm!nication beca!se o% patterns o% mobility has the characteristics

o% an !n%inished prod!ct less and less analytic rele#ance can be attrib!ted to conceptions o%

lang!age that are based on the Hstandard( #arieties and images o% it. More and more lang!age

will appear Hnon"standard( not %or reasons o% the innate ling!istic sloppiness or carelessness

o% people b!t beca!se o% the comple+ play o% tr!ncated m!ltiling!alism and the problematic

allocation o% reso!rces and %!nctions which is an e%%ect o% mobility. - term s!ch as Hnon"

standard( so becomes obsolete beca!se it co#ers %ar too m!ch and %ar too di#erse phenomena.

Getting rid o% it and o% related terminology wo!ld be so good %or socioling!istics.

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#. Language, globalization an history

#.1. istorical concepts

Cnderstanding globalization is !nderstanding a historical process something o% which we saw

that it has considerable depth in time and something in which we co!ld discern di%%erent

stages and moments o% de#elopment. 4 !nderscored the importance o% this point earlier in this

book and now ret!rn to it. The di%%ic!lty we %ace was e+empli%ied in Fairclo!gh 92::; we

can only obser#e globalization synchronically while we can only !nderstand it historically.

0onse6!ently we m!st de#elop concept!al tools that are at least historically sensiti#e that

s!ggest and open a space o% historical analysis and interpretation.

5istory o% co!rse is not the same as diachrony. 4t is not s!%%icient to speci%y a time"

line along which socioling!istic %eat!res de#elop and on which certain Hdots( mark important

moments 9a problem in some work on lang!age policy and lang!age planning;. 5istory means

that time is %illed with h!man acti#ity with actors who stand in #ario!s kinds o% relationships

to one another and whose actions in%l!ence those o% others. ,ower hierarchy a!thority

normati#ity are central in !nderstanding historical processes history is %illed with power and

con%lict 9c%. ?lommaert 1a;. Some works can be !sed as e+amples o% historical

socioling!istic analysis. ?on%iglio 92::2; re#iews the genesis o% Hstandard -merican( accents

and sets it against a panorama o% race and ethnic relations twentieth"cent!ry +enophobia and

the emergence o% new elites in the CS. e hear the #oices o% the ambitio!s in his st!dy and

we see lang!age ideology being artic!lated by identi%iable actors to other identi%iable actors.

This is also the case in 0ollins and ?lot 92::3; where literacy in the CS is described as

ine+tricably linked with histories o% power and a!thority in lang!age and beyond. There too

we see identi%iable actors at work and we can %ollow the debates they engaged in.1 Fabian

91<; is a classic st!dy o% how lang!age was Hplanned( in the ?elgian 0ongo by speci%ic

colonial and religio!s a!thorities in the conte+t o% partic!lar phases o% the colonial enterprise.

-nd ?a!man and ?riggs 92::3; pro#ide an admirable historical acco!nt o% the grad!al

de#elopment o% a Hmodernist( lang!age ideology thro!gh an analysis o% the writings o%

philologists anti6!arians %olklorists and early anthropologists. e see in their work the

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artic!lation o% what became one o% the key concepts o% modernity an ordered p!re and clean

Hlang!age( that co!ld become the lang!age o% the modern nation"state. -ll the works

mentioned here 9and there are more; contain a diachronic analysis to be s!re. ang!age

mo#es thro!gh time. ?!t time itsel% is %illed with actors #oices moments o% crisis con%lict

and elo6!ent artic!lation@ and power de%ines both the inp!t and the o!tp!t o% the processes we

can obser#e. This is what makes these works historical and it is this kind o% historical

analysis that shows that lang!age is s!ch an eminently social and political ob>ect as well. e

see in s!ch works the #ario!s power tactics that are !sed on lang!age and in lang!age. e see

how people de%ine stakes %or lang!age in society how they de%ine social barriers and

gateways %or social mobility how they reg!late society thro!gh the reg!lation o% lang!age.

S!ch work is important.

e are still st!ck tho!gh with o!r initial problem that a historical process s!ch as

globalization can only be obser#ed synchronically. e can only witness the synchronic

o!tcome o% historical processes and we need concepts that allow !s to Hread back( %rom the

synchronic mani%estations towards the processes that prod!ced them. 5ere too we can start

%rom what we already ha#e. 'ow widespread concepts s!ch as interte+t!ality and

interdisc!rsi#ity 9e.g. Fairclo!gh 12; e+plicitly connect synchronic lang!age ob>ects with

prior ones and they sensitize !s 9or should sensitize !s; to the intrinsic historicity o% e#ery

lang!age %act = something that Doloshino# 91/3; already emphasised. They emphasise that

the interpretation o% !tterances in the here"and"now depends on retrie#ing elements %rom their

history o% !se and that in order to make sense o% what !tterances mean now we m!st go back

to what they meant be%ore. 86!ally widespread notions s!ch as conte+t!alization 9G!mperz

1<2@ 5anks 2::; a%%ordances 9Kress and #an ee!wen 1; and inde+icality 9Sil#erstein

2::3a 2::a; do the same they point towards the %act that meaning depends on in%erences

made %rom prior meanings whereby s!ch prior meanings are #ery o%ten re%lecti#e o% the

social order. -nd this ordered nat!re o% implicit 9historical; meaning comple+es is capt!red

!nder terms s!ch as genre and register 9-gha 2::/; end!ring relati#ely stable patterns o%

meaning%!lness in lang!age the prod!ction o% which triggers immediate connections between

!tterances in the present and in the past. Thro!gho!t all o% this we see that normati#ity

appears the stable interte+t!al and ordered aspects o% lang!age !se are those aspects that we

commonly label as Hnorms( in lang!age. S!ch concepts now belong to the stock and trade o%

st!dies o% lang!age in society yet it is important to !nderscore that they are historical

concepts concepts that open a window %rom the present onto the past and %rom prod!cts ontothe processes that generate them. They make !s aware o% the %act that e#ery act o% lang!age is

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an act that is gro!nded in historical connections between c!rrent statements and prior ones =

connections that are related to the social order and are th!s not random b!t ordered.

The concepts that 4 introd!ced earlier in this book also represented an attempt towards

encaps!lating this intrinsic historicity o% lang!age ob>ects. The notion o% orders o% inde+icality

e+plicitly aimed at describing the %orms o% social order that de%ine normati#ity in lang!age

!se. 4n that sense the concept necessarily re%ers to historical patterns and processes in which

lang!age"ideological perceptions o% 9desired; stability and predictability o% lang!age %orms

emerged 9some o% which are e+empli%ied in -gha 2::/;. The same goes %or the concept o%

polycentricity it represents an image o% a world in which power and a!thority are shared by

#ario!s concrete actors = centers = %rom whom normati#e g!idelines can be e+pected an are

being adopted. The di%%erent centers operate at di%%erent scale"le#els 9another intrinsically

historical concept; and th!s represent di%%erent Horders( some o% which ha#e long histories

and are attached to relati#ely stable instit!tions while others are momentary %le+ible and

ephemeral. 4n each case howe#er there are connections between the present and the past and

people in%er %rom past e+periences and %rom their e+isting batteries o% reso!rces and skills

what is !se%!l %or the present task. The latter o% co!rse already shows that e#en more

widespread socioling!istic notions s!ch as Hrepertoire( ha#e an intrinsic historical dimension.

8#en i% we can obser#e repertoires only in their synchronic deployment we know that what is

there in the way o% reso!rces and skills %as there prior to the synchronic deployment and we

know that these reso!rces and skills got there beca!se o% personal biographies and the

histories o% social systems.

4 dwell on this point at some length beca!se it is %!ndamental. Too o%ten the historical

dimension o% socioling!istic phenomena is treated obli6!ely or is blandly o#erlooked and this

leads to the o#er"interpretation o% synchronic phenomena. e then see similarities and

di%%erences that may not be e+plicable synchronically or wo!ld recei#e a #ery di%%erent

e+planation i% addressed historically. 4n the conte+t o% globalization s!ch iss!es become more

and more di%%ic!lt to manage beca!se there is a prima %acie !ni%ormity to many c!lt!ral

globalization processes = the well"known HMcBonaldization(. e belie#e that we see

similarities all o#er the globe 9think o% the spread o% 8nglish or o% the !se o% the internet; and

we start interpreting them as similarities %or instance as e%%ects o% one and the same process

o% colonialism andIor ling!istic and c!lt!ral imperialism. The %act that similar e%%ects may

come o!t o% #ery di%%erent processes is then lost and the elementary socioling!istic task o%

addressing the partic!lar ways in which lang!age regimes are shaped and constr!cted inact!al societies and in act!al lang!age !se is le%t to itsel%. e then end !p with rather !seless

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and misleading notions s!ch as Horld 8nglish( 9?r!tt"Gri%%ler 2::2; that s!ggest a !ni%orm

ob>ect grad!ally b!t steadily de#eloping %rom a tool on a Hnational( scale to one on a Hworld(

scale. S!ch an analysis won(t do beca!se it o#erlooks the cr!cial di%%erences that s!ch

processes display where#er they occ!r and they also o#erlook the %o!ndational socioling!istic

task o% describing act!al reso!rces 9s!ch as 8nglish; in relation to e+isting repertoires. S!ch

things allow partic!lar le#els o% generalization b!t s!rely not absol!te generalizations.

This kind o% o#er"interpretation o% the synchronic plane o% socioling!istic phenomena

is a#oidable beca!se as we saw >!st now we can start %rom a reasonably well de#eloped

concept!al toolkit that allows and enables !s to Hread back( %rom synchronic lang!age !se into

historical backgro!nds and historical patterns o% meaning%!lness. 4 will try to ill!strate the

potential o% s!ch analysis in the remainder o% this chapter starting with an analysis that

addresses the prima %acie !ni%ormity o% c!lt!ral globalization processes and attempts to del#e

a bit deeper into that.

#.2. The worls of golf

Gol% is one o% -ppad!rai(s 91; Hideoscapes(. 4mages o% the sport ha#e o#er the past

decades become members o% the category o% Hinde+ical Diagra( 9Sil#erstein 2::3b; signs

whose inde+ical arrows point !p"!p"!p signalling achie#ement %ort!ne and membership o%

Deblen(s Hleis!re classes( or the more pop!larly known O!ppies. The s!ggestion is gol% is

practiced by wealthy and s!ccess%!l people = people who also dri#e e+pensi#e a!tomobiles

and wear Eole+ watches and sho!ld there%ore be seen as role models %or the rest o% society.

4nterestingly gol% is also a tr!ly global sign. Gol% players tra#el the world in search o% good

gol% co!rses and the membership o% prestigio!s gol% cl!bs is #ery cosmopolitan. Ma>or gol%

to!rnaments are global mega"e#ents and gol% stars s!ch as Tiger oods are global celebrities

o% the %irst order. Tapping into this imagery o% gol% th!s opens this inde+ical world o% s!ccess

and achie#ement. 0onsider Fig!re 1 now

9F4GCE8 1 58E8. 0-,T4*' HS48M8'S -BD8ET4S8M8'T(;.

This is an ad#ertisement in which Siemens presents an electronic comm!nication system. Thead#ertisement appeared in the ?elgian magazine 8nac& in 2:: and e#en tho!gh 8nac&

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p!blishes e+cl!si#ely in B!tch the te+t in the ad#ertisement is in 8nglish. 4t is a global

ad#ertisement one that aspires towards distrib!tion on a global scale"le#el. 4t also contains

some o% the global disc!rsi#e c!rrency o% b!siness s!ccess. e read abo!t the Hinno#ati#e

5i,ath real"time 4, system( abo!t Hser#ice( and Hsol!tions(@ and these !pwardly pointing

words are 6!oted %rom Hyo!r 4T Birector( and yo!r HBirector o% *perations(. The addressees

o% this message are clearly people who hold senior positions in large 9i.e. internationally

operating; corporations large eno!gh to ha#e an 4T Birector and a Birector o% *perations. -n

e+ample o% s!ch a corporation is gi#en the Marriott hotel chain has adopted the Hinno#ati#e

5i,ath real"time 4, system( and probably %o!nd it a sol!tion Has rare as a hole"in"one.(

Marriott is o% co!rse a prestigio!s brand name it stands %or the kind o% hotels and resorts that

the globalized b!siness elite tends to !se. -nd that brings !s to the dominant imagery in the

ad#ertisement gol%.

H5ole"in"one( is the gol% term par e$cellence and it designates the !ltimate 9and

there%ore #ery e+ceptional; achie#ement o% a gol% player. -nd rather than the prod!ct 9which

remains in#isible; the ad#ertisement shows !s a co!ple o% handsome yo!ng people playing

gol%. The b!ilding in the backgro!nd is identi%ied as the Marriott resort in *rlando Florida

and so the comple+ semiotics o% the ad#ertisement establishes a link between one o% Siemens(

c!stomers and a globalized imagery o% s!ccess elite"membership and wealth iconized in the

pict!re o% the gol%ing co!ple. 8#ery scale">!mping code is there now there is the globalized

code o% 8nglish the globalized disc!rsi#e code o% s!ccess%!l b!siness and the globalized

code o% gol% 9the image and the >argon term Hhole"in"one(; with its dense symbolism. The

ad#ertisement is tr!ly and %!lly global e#en i% it is p!blished in a local ?elgian 9and B!tch"

lang!age; magazine.

9F4GCE8 2 58E8. 0-,T4*' HG*F ,*ST8E ?84A4'G(;

'ow consider Fig!re 2 a pict!re o% a poster taken in a street in 0entral ?ei>ing -pril

2::/. The poster is biling!al and it ad#ertises a gol% to!rnament held in ?ei>ing in that month.

e see the same types o% imagery as in the Siemens ad#ertisement we see the global code

8nglish we see the logos o% corporate sponsors we get a bit o% the >argon o% gol% 9Hteeing

o%%(; and we see an image o% a skil%!l gol%er. The poster clearly draws %rom the same semiotic

and ideological wells as the Siemens ad#ertisement.2 This is the prima %acie !ni%ormity o%

globalization there is a layer o% mani%est similarity between signs that are being prod!ced in#ery di%%erent places in the world. e ha#e the %eeling that we percei#e something #ery

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similar something that taps %rom the same so!rces and res!lts in the same o!tcomes. 4t is this

%eeling that makes globalization s!ch a real e+perience %or many people the layer o%

similarity creates its own interte+t!ality and hence %amiliarity.

?!t we sho!ld look somewhat deeper and beyond this s!per%icial similarity. The poster

is biling!al and it is the prod!ct o% pro%essional design and man!%act!ring processes. -

prestigio!s e#ent s!ch as the gol% to!rnament organized by a shamelessly elitist co!ntry cl!b

and s!pported by corporate sponsors allows no shoddy comm!nication work and so we can

ass!me that this prod!ct re%lects considerable in#estments and attention %rom the ones who

made it. e see bea!ti%!l lettering a high"6!ality pict!re a balanced composition o% the

o#erall poster and an attempt to make the poster appeal to international a!diences as well by

means o% 8nglish. The two 0hinese phrases at the top o% the poster read Hpromote modern

sportsmanship( and Hb!ild a harmonio!s society(. The 8nglish !nderneath is not an e+act

translation@ instead we get a re%orm!lation in which we see some di%%erences with the

0hinese a transition in style %rom 0hinese Hpolitical slogan( style to estern Hcommercial(

style. The two phrases that were separate in 0hinese are now placed in a s!perordinate"

s!bordinate relation in which the creation o% new sportsmanship is done for the promotion o%

a harmonio!s society. -nd o% co!rse we get the gol% >argon term Hteeing o%%( = only meant %or

people who are %amiliar with gol% and who know 8nglish mainly %or the ?ei>ing"based

e+patriates in other words.

S!ch people wo!ld probably spot the rather dramatic typographic error in

Hconcio!sness(. 4t is an error reminiscent o% some o% the e+amples disc!ssed in earlier chapters

o% this book the act o% comm!nication is H!n%inished( beca!se o% problems with access to the

reso!rces re6!ired %or this act. For the one who typeset and proo%read this poster and %or the

printer the 8nglish spelling error went !nnoticed it was not spotted as an error d!ring its

prod!ction process. S!ch people may also wonder abo!t the connection between gol% and Ha

harmonio!s comm!nity(. The latter = b!ilding a harmonio!s society = is one o% the main

contemporary slogans o% the 0hinese 0omm!nist ,arty and the phrase Hharmonio!s

societyIcomm!nity( pops !p non"stop in all segments o% p!blic li%e. The slogan can be %o!nd

in n!mero!s p!blic inscriptions and 0hinese children wo!ld hold essay"writing speech and

debating contests on the topic. So while we see that considerable e%%ort has been spent in

trying to make this poster into a globalized comm!nication item = 4 ga#e a list o% %eat!res

abo#e = the typo and the 0omm!nist slogan tie it %irmly into the local and national scale"le#el.

4% we now compare the two e+amples we begin to see interesting di%%erences beyondthe similarities. hile the Siemens ad#ertisement can be said to ha#e #ery little local %la#or

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9e.g. it is in 8nglish while the magazine is in B!tch; and instead artic!lates a rather

pro%o!ndly global style and message the 0hinese poster aspires towards the global scale"le#el

b!t also displays important %eat!res o% the local and national scale"le#el. The Siemens

ad#ertisement blended global c!rrencies into a message that can be disseminated in identical

%orm in ?elgi!m the CK Switzerland -rgentina and so on. 4ts potential %or mobility is #ery

high. The 0hinese poster while addressing a global 9s!b"; a!dience in 8nglish and with the

icons o% gol% and corporate sponsorship also addressed local and national a!diences. -nd

while the Siemens ad#ertisement appears to draw its normati#e design %rom >!st one center =

global corporate enterprise = we see that the ?ei>ing poster is decidedly polycentric. The

organizers o% the gol% to!rnament orient towards the stat!s gro!ps that are !s!ally targeted

with s!ch imagery as well as to the world o% corporate b!siness@ b!t they also orient towards

the 0hinese state by adopting one o% the ,arty(s most important political slogans. e hear the

#oice o% the globalized elite o% 0hina as well as that o% the 0hinese 0omm!nist ,arty.

e see two historically di%%erent %aces o% capitalism here pro>ected onto two di%%erent

sets o% representations. 4n the Siemens ad#ertisement the corporate world is a sphere o% its

own #ery m!ch %ree and !nconstrained in its mo#ements in the global marketplace. 4ts

partners are other members o% the same corporate world and states are = ideologically at least

= not direct participants in the processes o% that world. 4n the 0hinese poster we see that

similar imagery is being !sed b!t that the message is polyphonic and that the #oice o% the

state appears alongside that o% the new globalized elites 9the Hb!siness leaders( mentioned on

,ine Dalley(s website;. The state is an acti#e partner in corporate c!lt!re in 0hina perhaps the

most acti#e one and the priorities o% the state need to be blended with those o% the b!siness

elites e#en i% that generates rather strangely heteroglossic messages = like when 0hina(s most

e+cl!si#e co!ntry cl!b makes an appeal %or a harmonio!s society.

The same images and semiotic materials were being !sed in both e+amples. e saw

pict!res o% gol% 9carrying #ery m!ch the same inde+ical #al!es o% s!ccess elite membership

and so %orth; we saw 8nglish and we saw gol% >argon. ?!t both e+amples instantiate di%%erent

histories o% becoming and we see di%%erent %orces at work in both. Gol% appears as global

c!rrency b!t in #ery di%%erent en#ironments = historically di%%erent en#ironments. -nd as a

res!lt the semiotic o!tcome in both cases is #ery di%%erent. There are di%%erent worlds o% gol%.

#.3. Long an short histories

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e saw #ery similar things in earlier e+amples in this book %or instance when 4 disc!ssed the

peripheral normati#ity that characterized 8nglish in a So!th -%rican township school. The

act!al reso!rces that were !sed there = the speci%ic #arieties o% 8nglish and o% literacy = had

their own histories o% arri#ing there and they arri#ed there thro!gh a combination o% the long

history o% -partheid 9where Standard 8nglish and ad#anced literacy were %irmly in the hands

o% white elites; and the shorter history o% post"-partheid So!th -%rica in which 8nglish

became a democratically distrib!ted item. The long history howe#er in%l!enced the shorter

history and so what became democratically accessible was the Hblack( stigmatizing #ariety o%

8nglish literacy not the elite #arieties.

hen we now consider repertoires synchronically 9and 4 said that we can only witness

them synchronically; we see what we co!ld call a synchronized repertoire. The di%%erent

elements o% the repertoire will appear as a relati#ely H%lat( >!+taposition o% Hlang!ages(

Hlang!age #arieties( or concrete Hcomm!nicati#e skills( as when someone says that he Hknows

8nglish French and B!tch( 9or when in a 6!estionnaire we ask Hwhich lang!age people !se

at schoolIin hospitalsIwith %riendsIin co!rt(;. ?!t when we disc!ssed the tr!ncated repertoires

that characterize contemporary m!ltiling!alism in the pre#io!s chapter we saw that s!ch a

%lat >!+taposition hides tremendo!s di%%erences between the act!al reso!rces that compose the

repertoire and that s!ch distinctions are o% capital importance they de%ine when people will

!se speci%ic reso!rces and how they will then !se them. They also e+plain why people don(t

!se all o% their reso!rces at the same time b!t appear to be e+perts in selecting the right bits

o% lang!age %or partic!lar comm!nicati#e tasks. S!ch distinctions between di%%erent reso!rces

represent as 4 said tra>ectories thro!gh which the reso!rces became part o% someone(s

repertoire@ they are there%ore also historical distinctions distinctions that harbo!r di%%erent

socioling!istic histories.

Synchronization is the way in which repertoires o%%er themsel#es %or inspection as

something which isn(t synchronic b!t is made synchronic d!ring certain proced!res s!ch as

metaling!istic inter#iewing or s!r#eying. 4n socioling!istic disco!rse we contin!ally

synchronize realities which in act!al %act are m!lti%iliar and display m!ltiple and #ery

di%%erent leads into people(s li#es and the histories o% the societies in which they dwell. 4t is an

e%%ect o% the Sa!ss!rean legacy in socioling!istics. The kind o% socioling!istics 4 ha#e in mind

here is one in which we de"synchronize and historicize socioling!istic phenomena looking

into the #ery di%%erent leads that r!n %rom the ob>ect to the processes that prod!ced it. Fig!re 3

can o%%er !s a handy graphic representation o% this proced!re.

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9F4GCE8 3 58E8. 0-,T4*' H8X"D*T* T-?8TS 4' A-,-'(;

e see a %orest o% small wooden tablets h!ng %rom a %rame near a Shinto shrine in

Tokyo. The wooden tablets are He+"#oto( messages re6!ests or e+pressions o% gratit!de to the

s!preme being %or certain %a#ors. They are instances o% a #ery old tradition in Aapan and the

way in which they are written and displayed emanates tradition they are not written on a

piece o% paper b!t on a wooden tablet and they are displayed p!blicly in one partic!lar spot in

the shrine. e see di%%erent kinds o% tablets too. hile most o% the tablets are in handwritten

Aapanese some contain drawings o% %lowers hearts or other emblems and some are copies o%

old block"prints o% deities or o% episodes %rom legendary tales. -nd some o% them are

handwritten in 8nglish too 9see Fig!re $;

9F4GCE8 $ 58E8. 0-,T4*' HB8T-4 *F 8X"D*T* T-?8TS(;

hat we see here 4 wo!ld s!ggest is a synchronized socioling!istic phenomenon the

components o% which ha#e #ery di%%erent origins. The phenomenon th!s is act!ally a #ery

layered one in which we see #ery traditional items 9e.g. the block"prints; as well as di%%erent

%orms o% Aapanese handwriting 9traditional and calligraphic #ers!s e#eryday and katakana

writing; that %ind their origins in the circ!lation o% Aapanese orthography thro!gh the

ed!cation system in di%%erent stages o% its e+istence which goes back to the nineteenth

cent!ry. The 8nglish inscriptions ha#e their origins in %ar more recent globalization processes

that bro!ght 8nglish within the realm o% adolescents as a code o% lo#e and sweet talk. *n the

same tablet howe#er the a!thor(s name is written in traditional and almost calligraphic

writing. The di%%erent codes that compose this synchronized mosaic ha#e di%%erent origins and

arri#ed here thro!gh di%%erent paths. Becoding the mosaic in#ol#es tracing the origins o% the

composite parts back into c!lt!re and society.

The distinction between long histories and short histories o% co!rse reminds !s o%

Fernand ?ra!del(s 91$ 1 see also allerstein 2::: chapter 1:; classic distinction

between slow time intermediate time and %ast time in history. Slow time 9the dur?e; was the

time o% the climate and o% social systems@ intermediate time was the time o% empires

dynasties etc. while %ast time was the time o% e#ents s!ch as battles or re#ol!tions 9the

?!?nements;. ?ra!del noted that there was a correlation between these types o% time on theone hand and h!man agency and conscio!sness on the other. Few people are aware o% the

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slow long time o% climate %l!ct!ations 9we now perhaps li#e in an era where people are 6!ite

conscio!s o% it; and de#elopments at this le#el are !s!ally beyond the reach o% indi#id!al

agency. The time o% empires has a higher le#el o% conscio!sness and agency and the %ast time

o% e#ents is within the reach o% h!man indi#id!al agency and conscio!sness. ,eople are more

aware o% a stock e+change crash than o% the cyclical %l!ct!ations o% modern capitalism %or

instance and they ha#e more direct impact on the %ormer than on the latter. ?ra!del(s claim

was that the distinction between di%%erent types o% time is essential %or !nderstanding

historical processes and 4 wo!ld say that it is essential %or !nderstanding socioling!istic

processes as well. e cannot !nderstand change when we do not keep an eye on contin!ity as

well and the opposite is also tr!e. e cannot %or instance !nderstand the patterns o% s!per"

di#ersity in the socioling!istic and semiotic landscapes o% c!rrent !rban centers 9as disc!ssed

in chapter 1; i% we %orget the more grad!al changes that occ!r in the %abric o% society and in

the socioling!istics o% s!ch areas.

This too is e+empli%ied in the ill!strations o% the e+"#oto tablets. e see di%%erent

layers o% historicity there and each o% them re%lects a layer o% change %rom tradition to more

modern to #ery modern. The e+amples incidentally can also be seen as e+amples o% lang!age

contact and lang!age mi+ing. e do see a >!+taposition o% two lang!ages Aapanese and

8nglish. e also see se#eral modes o% sign"making here pre"printed images little handmade

drawings handwritten calligraphic Aapanese and Hnormal( handwritten Aapanese and

handwritten 8nglish. So the images represent a m!ltiling!al and m!ltimodal comple+ and the

two dimensions are narrowly intertwined. 4t is important to realize that in considering s!ch

m!ltiling!al and m!ltimodal comple+es the constit!ent elements = lang!ages and modes =

ha#e arri#ed there #ia di%%erent historical tra>ectories and that these tra>ectories ha#e de%ined

the Ha%%ordances( o% the elements 9Kress and #an ee!wen 1; they de%ine what the

di%%erent elements can contrib!te in the way o% meaning and %!nction. The %act that we see

register"speci%ic !sage o% 8nglish here = Ho#e and Sweet( = is probably an e%%ect o% di%%erent

a%%ordances whereby the 8nglish deri#es a lot o% its #al!e and possible meanings %rom its

strong embeddedness in pop!lar yo!th c!lt!re. 4t has become one o% the instr!ments %or

e+pressing lo#e and %riendship in Aapan and this is a #ery recent de#elopment 9one we

associate with contemporary globalization processes;. 4ts occ!rrence is a translocal

phenomenon the same e+pressions co!ld e6!ally well occ!r in ondon ?r!ssels or ?angkok.

4t now occ!rs alongside religio!s and historical images that re%lect a pre"globalization history

9strongly connected to the emergence o% the Shinto tradition and o% Aapanese national

1:



conscio!sness; and the meaning and %!nction o% which is conse6!ently strongly local only

people %amiliar with this kind o% religio!s iconography ha#e access to its meanings.

-ll o% this has an e%%ect on what we !nderstand by inde+icality. 4nde+icality is

inherently interte+t!al it connects pre#io!s !tterances with c!rrent ones and grants an

inde+ical load to present !tterances that ha#e their origins in the e+isting social order. This

social order o% co!rse is in e%%ect a polycentric patchwork o% historically di%%erent elements

and its symbols = lang!age and semiotic %orms are important in this = carry traces o% these

histories. This is why we can see social processes thro!gh lang!age and comm!nication

patterns. They are ne#er H%lat( and smooth b!t display small di%%erences that lead !s to big

di%%erences. 4n ?o!rdie!(s words 911 3/; PeQ#ery speech act and more generally e#ery

action is a con>!nct!re an enco!nter between independent ca!sal seriesN. 4t is a ne+!s o%

di%%erent in%l!ences some o% which belong to indi#id!al tra>ectories some to collecti#e ones

and some ha#e short histories while others ha#e longer histories. This is why speaking a

standard #ariety o% a lang!age inde+ically o%ten and in many places %lags membership o%

ed!cated elites the standard #arieties are historically connected to social systems o% elite

prod!ction and reprod!ction as ?o!rdie! 91<$ 11; demonstrated. -nd shi%ting %rom

Standard B!tch into Standard 8nglish will conse6!ently prod!ce di%%erent inde+ical e%%ects

than shi%ting %rom a strongly regional #ariety o% B!tch into 5iphop 8nglish. hile the %irst

kind o% shi%t will probably signal elite membership the latter one may signal peer"gro!p

coolness and anti"elite attit!des. The reasons %or this 4 repeat are the di%%erent inde+ical loads

o% the elements that compose this partic!lar comm!nicati#e act@ s!ch di%%erences relate the

partic!lar act to di%%erent %orms o% interte+t!ality and conse6!ently to di%%erent histories. The

acceleration o% historical processes in the conte+t o% globalization predictably leads to more

comple+ %orms o% socioling!istic change and th!s re6!ires a more sophisticated approach to

s!ch %orms o% change. et !s consider an e+ample.

#.!. The chaotic shop

Mass to!rism is one o% the agents o% rapid change in many places in the world and it has

%ascinating socioling!istic e%%ects. 5eller 92::3; already showed how minority lang!ages

pre#io!sly threatened with e+tinction can s!ddenly ac6!ire a market #al!e and th!s a series

o% new %!nctions 9and a prospect %or s!r#i#al; d!e to heritage to!rism. 4n many other places

we see how the socioling!istic en#ironment 6!ite dramatically changes d!e to the presence o%lang!age materials designed %or the to!rist target a!diences. These are new %orms o%

11



m!ltiling!alism o%ten e%%ecti#ely minimal in many cases the anno!ncement H8nglish

spoken( is the only e%%ecti#ely a#ailable 8nglish in the shop or resta!rant.

Typically pro%essionally made m!ltiling!al signs wo!ld attempt to pro#ide a

symmetrical pattern in which e#erything which is anno!nced in one lang!age wo!ld also be

anno!nced in the other lang!age 9a men! wo!ld be a typical e+ample;. This is the modern

orderly conception o% m!ltiling!al practices - is e6!i#alent to ?. The speed o% change

howe#er sometimes precl!des s!ch degrees o% elaboration and the e%%ect is then o%ten an

H!n%inished( prod!ct = we ha#e already seen se#eral e+amples o% that in the di%%erent chapters

o% this book. The town o% Saariselka located in the 'orthern Finnish Samiland has

!ndergone s!ch a rapid change o#er the past decade.3 From a small skiing resort mostly !sed

by Finnish domestic to!rists it has rapidly become an internationally oriented %ashionable

winter sports resort with hotels resta!rants and so!#enir shops selling Htypical( Sami goods.

The town has se#eral shops b!t one in partic!lar stands o!t. 4t is a h!ge shop which

apart %rom %oodst!%%s so!#enirs and te+tiles also harbors a resta!rant a li6!or shop and an

4nternet ca%J. The shop is ab!ndantly and e+!berantly m!ltiling!al. *n the banner in Fig!re &

we read 8nglish Finnish German Swedish French E!ssian and Aapanese.

9F4GCE8 & 58E8. 0-,T4*' HT58 05-*T40 S5*,(;

Fig!re & also gi#es !s a %la#or o% the goods on sale there the shop literally tries to cater %or

e#erything and %or e#ery taste incl!ding e+otic %ood. 4t is a tr!ly globalized shop. 4n the shop

howe#er no attempt has been made at constr!cting the kinds o% symmetrical and e6!i#alent

patterns o% m!ltiling!al in%ormation. Some goods are ad#ertised in Finnish only@ others in

Finnish and E!ssian still others in Finnish 8nglish and E!ssian 8nglish and German

Finnish and Aapanese Finnish 8nglish German and French or in 8nglish French German

and 4talian and so %orth. 9'ote that the Sami lang!ages are not present in the shop;. 'ot a

single ob>ect in the shop is ad#ertised in all the se#en lang!ages that the shop itsel% !ses to

ad#ertise itsel%. -nd while 8nglish wo!ld 9apart %rom Finnish; certainly be the most widely

!sed lang!age there is no clear hierarchy between the other international lang!ages. 4n that

sense the shop presents !s with chaotic m!ltiling!alism the di%%erent lang!ages are aro!nd

b!t in an H!nordered( manner.

9F4GCE8 58E8. 0-,T4*' H05-*T40 -''*C'08M8'TS(;.

12



Fig!re pro#ides an e+ample o% that. e see a billboard o!tside the shop on which

9some o%; the shop(s goods are listed. e can discern two Hinternational( words Hresta!rant(

and Hso!#enirs(. e also see one Finnish e+pression te&stiili sport Hsport te+tiles( and the

remainder o% the billboard consists o% co"ordinated 8nglish and German e+pressions. The

H!n%inished( nat!re o% this sign is #isible in the lapidary organization o% the m!ltiling!al

reso!rces here as well as in the orthographic errors in deli&aties. Se#eral other e+pressions in

international lang!ages were somewhat shaky too re#ealing 6!ick translation work based on

the a#ailable reso!rces 9s!ch as dictionaries;.

The rapid pace o% change in emerging mass to!rist centers s!ch as Saariselka can be

read %rom signs s!ch as these. The many lang!ages in the shops signal the presence o%

c!stomers speaking s!ch lang!ages and while there appears to be no symmetry and

e6!i#alence among the signs the whole display probably re%lects the shop owner(s e+perience

with partic!lar gro!ps o% c!stomers. For instance the importance o% German signs in the %ood

section may re%lect the %act that many German to!rists rent a cottage and cook %or themsel#es@

the absence o% s!ch signs in the so!#enir section may re%lect the %act that most German

to!rists don(t b!y s!ch goods there. The presence o% Finnish"E!ssian signs in the canned %ish

section can re%lect similar patterns o% cons!mption among E!ssian to!rists. The chaotic co"

e+istence o% the di%%erent lang!ages howe#er showed that the shop doesn(t %ollow a seasonal

or cyclical pattern with %or instance more Aapanese signs when the Aapanese to!rist season is

on and more French ones when the French to!rist season is on. 8#erything they had was in

the shop str!ct!red in a #ery !nclear way = a >!+taposition o% lang!age reso!rces re%lecting

the e+tremely rapid changes %elt in a place like that where socioling!istic patterns may

change with e#ery new b!sload o% to!rists being o%%loaded in the town. The socioling!istic

ecology o% the shop de#eloped on the whimsical rhythm o% international mass to!rism.

e see something we ha#e already enco!ntered the ways in which socioling!istic

en#ironments %ollow and re%lect the histories o% places. Csing a geological metaphor we saw

in the Saariselka shop the di%%erent sedimented layers o% to!rist presence with a strati%ication

in which Finnish wo!ld be the Hs!bstrate( lang!age %ollowed by a thick layer o% 8nglish and

then by the chaotic >!+taposition o% se#eral other lang!ages. The third layer = that o% the

chaotic co"e+istence o% lang!ages = re%lects the shop owner(s willingness to mo#e on the

!ltra"%ast and changing rhythms o% the to!rist presence in Saariselka while the presence o%

8nglish re%lects a more end!ring layer o% internationalization and that o% Finnish re%lects the

national order and place. These di%%erent historical layers o#erlap in one space and time andlike be%ore what we see is a synchronized pattern o% the diachronic emergence o%

13



m!ltiling!alism and m!ltimodality the constit!ent elements o% which are o% a di%%erent order.

e can only !nderstand the chaotic o!tcome i% we e+amine the constit!ent parts( origins and

tra>ectories beca!se the di%%erent parts do di%%erent things in the synchronic patterns we can

obser#e.

#.#. ;onclusion

Mobility is not >!st a spatial term it also applies to mo#ement in time and as 4 said be%ore the

two dimensions always occ!r together a mo#ement in space is also one in time. The mobility

o% certain socioling!istic reso!rces = think o% 8nglish = resides in their in#ocati#e 6!alities

they in#oke di%%erent histories o% meaning and %!nction and interte+t!ally pro>ect these

historical %eat!res onto c!rrent acts o% comm!nication. hen they are !sed in di%%erent places

they draw on locally a#ailable histories = 8nglish means something di%%erent in Bar es Salaam

than in 'ew Oork. -nd the co"occ!rrence o% di%%erent lang!ages and modes o% semiotic

prod!ction each time o%%er a synchronized >!+taposition o% di%%erent histories o% meaning and

%!nction that demands to be disentangled 9c%. also ?lommaert 2::& chapter ;.

The tra>ectory 4 ha#e %ollowed in this book so %ar has taken !s %rom paradigmatic

considerations in which 4 stressed the importance o% reso!rces rather than lang!ages 9chapter

1; to a #iew in which s!ch reso!rces were de%ined in terms o% mobility with all sorts o%

comple+ e%%ects on their meaning and %!nctions re6!iring new concept!al instr!ments

9chapter 2; and a #iew o% the str!ct!re o% the world"system and o% locality 9chapter 3; to

iss!es o% tr!ncated repertoires and the !n%inished character o% lang!age in globalization in

which we saw how o!r traditional socioling!istic conception o% reso!rces is a%%ected by

mobility 9chapter $;. e now also know that we need to !nderstand some o% the comple+ity

as re%lecting di%%erent histories o% reso!rces. Most o% the theoretical gro!nd o% this book has

by now been co#ered b!t we still need a perspecti#e on socioling!istic work. This

perspecti#e is that o% ine6!ality and 4 will doc!ment it in the ne+t chapter. 4t sho!ld be clear

that ine6!ality as the main e%%ect o% power is a historical prod!ct >!st like all the other

notions mentioned in this chapter. e will see how ling!istic reso!rces %all in historical

regimes o% ine6!ality and how this comple+ dynamics is being played o!t in the present.

1$



$. %l an new ine&ualities

$.1. -lobalization, the state an ine&uality

-ccording to ideolog!es o% this era s!ch as Francis F!k!yama 912; the post"0old ar

processes o% capitalist globalization prod!ce more wealth %or more people than any other era

in history. 4t is also an era in which the modern nation"state is on its way o!t and its power

9s!pposedly concentrated hitherto which is highly 6!estionable; is now dissipated anddistrib!ted o#er a wide #ariety o% actors and networks 90astells 1;. ,ower is now held and

e%%ecti#ely en%orced by transnational capitalist #ent!res international organizations media"

empires and in#isible hardly #isible 9and otherwise %ree %rom democratic control; consortia o%

decision"makers meeting each year in the Swiss ski"resort Ba#os and other places. There is

tr!th in both propositions = F!k!yama(s claim that the end o% history wo!ld also mark an

increase in global wealth and 0astells( and others( claim abo!t the nation"state now sharing

its power with other actors. ?!t both propositions also in#ite s!bstantial 6!ali%ication. 4

already 6!oted 5obsbawm in chapter 1 who a%%irmed that globalization has bro!ght abo!t a

dramatic growth in economic and social ine6!alities both within states and internationallyN

92::/ 3; and the least we can gather %rom his work and that o% many others is that

globalization generates immense wealth %or some and also immense misery %or others.

5obsbawm 92::/; also emphasizes the importance o% traditional state str!ct!res in

globalization. The nation may be on its way o!t b!t the state s!rely isn(t@ according to

allerstein contemporary capitalist globalization is hea#ily dependent on the e+istence o%

states

0apitalists need a large market 9L; b!t they also need a m!ltiplicity o% states so that

they can gain the ad#antages o% working with states b!t also can circ!m#ent states

hostile to their interests in %a#o!r o% states %riendly to their interests. *nly the e+istence

o% a m!ltiplicity o% states within the o#erall di#ision o% labor ass!res this possibility

9allerstein 2::$ 2$;.

1&



-nd this Ho#erall di#ision o% labo!r( is based on ine6!ality between states not e6!ality.

allerstein conse6!ently sees a perpet!ation o% e+isting ine6!alities in the age o%

globalization generally speaking those who were already poor will remain poor while those

who were 9almost; rich will become richer.

These de#elopments occ!r internationally as well as within the bo!ndaries o% states as

5obsbawm arg!ed. -nd the new patterns o% Hs!per"di#ersity( mentioned in the opening

chapter o% this book are likely to breed s!ch accent!ated ine6!alities between di%%erent gro!ps

within one society as an e%%ect o% new migration combined with a weakening o% that segment

o% the labor market con#entionally described as the working class. 5igh !nemployment in that

social strat!m and rising commodity prices p!sh people to the margins o% society or keep

those already marginalized in place and the gap between the ha#es and ha#e nots is widening.

S!ch %orms o% Hhard( socio"economic marginalization are o%ten accompanied by %orms o%

Hso%t( marginalization the marginalization o% partic!lar c!lt!ral %eat!res identities practices

and reso!rces s!ch as lang!age. The globalized state is as we shall see an important actor in

s!ch processes o% marginalization.

4n this chapter 4 will %irst present an analysis o% an asyl!m application case in the CK.

S!ch cases 4 belie#e ill!strate m!ch o% the real"world dynamics o% globalization and the

analysis will bring o!t the power o% the late"modern state in the domain o% migration.

4ne6!ality is the main prod!ct o% power power strati%ies categorizes and di#ides people in

contemporary societies. -nd lang!age c!rio!sly repeatedly crops !p as a core ingredient o%

the mechanisms o% state power in the %ield o% migration. 4n that sense globalization processes

now strengthen state power e%%ects in the domain o% lang!age@ it perpet!ates old %orms o%

ling!istic ine6!ality and creates new %orms in its stride. e will also see this in the second set

o% e+amples 4 shall o%%er %rom ?elgian lang!age immersion classes in which migrant children

learn B!tch. There too we will see how a state"organized instr!ment s!ch as ed!cation 9an

Hideological state apparat!s( in the terminology o% -lth!sser; imposes a p!niti#e e+cl!ding

and e+cl!si#e lang!age regime on children whose presence is an e%%ect o% s!per"di#ersity.

?oth e+amples are intended to ill!strate that globalization apart %rom people who bene%it

%rom it also co!nts many losers@ that the modern nation"state #ery o%ten %!nctions as the

instr!ment o% selection and e+cl!sion in this respect@ and that lang!age is becoming an

e+tremely sensiti#e and critical %eat!re in s!ch processes. ang!age is at the heart o% power

processes in en#ironments characterised by s!per"di#ersity.

$.2. Language, asylum, an the national orer

1



4n 'he Age of Capital 91/&; 8ric 5obsbawm describes the parado+ o% the late nineteenth

cent!ry where the classic nation"states o% 8!rope were %ormed at a time when capital became

e%%ecti#ely globalized. hile the state became less and less o% a rele#ant scale le#el

economically it became more the most rele#ant political scale le#el and the e+pansion and

solidi%ication o% a transnational economic in%rastr!ct!re went hand in hand with the e+pansion

and solidi%ication o% a national in%rastr!ct!re new political systems ed!cation systems

comm!nication systems and military systems. 5igh modernism set in. The de#elopment o%

standardized national lang!ages was o% co!rse an important part o% this nation"b!ilding

process and when the disco!rse o% trade and ind!stry started con6!ering the globe it did so in

newly codi%ied and glori%ied national lang!ages.

,rocesses o% globalization ac6!ired that name abo!t a cent!ry later and while

globalization contrib!tes little new s!bstance to the processes o% worldwide economic

e+pansion it adds more intensity depth and #elocity to these processes and it e+pands the

range o% ob>ects in#ol#ed in these processes to incl!de people. The phenomenon o% re%!gees

and asyl!m seekers is a key ingredient o% the present stage o% globalization. 4 will arg!e that

globalization phenomena again appear to trigger an emphasis on the national order o% things.

4n the conte+t o% asyl!m application proced!res the imagination o% lang!age notably is

dominated by %rames that re%er to static and timeless national orders o% things. So while

asyl!m seekers belong to a tr!ly global scale"le#el o% e#ents and processes the treatment o%

their applications is bro!ght down to a rigidly national scale a #ery modernist response to

post"modern realities and something we ha#e already enco!ntered in pre#io!s chapters o% this

book.

4 will disc!ss at length one partic!lar case o% an asyl!m application in the CK. The

case is that o% a yo!ng man 4 shall call Aoseph M!tingira a re%!gee %rom Ewanda whose

application was re%!sed largely on gro!nds o% the partic!lar socioling!istic pro%ile he

displayed. This pro%ile the 5ome *%%ice arg!ed dis6!ali%ied him as someone H%rom Ewanda(.

Aoseph appealed against this r!ling and pro#ided a #ery long written testimony doc!menting

his li%e the incidents in which he was in#ol#ed and his escape reb!tting the arg!ments that

s!pported the r!ling. This doc!ment will be the main data 4 shall !se@ in addition 4 also ha#e

the written records o% the two inter#iews Aoseph did in the conte+t o% his application 9dated

respecti#ely 'o#ember 2::1 and A!ne 2::$; as well as a copy o% the o%%icial decision by the

5ome *%%ice o% 'o#ember 2::& on Aoseph(s case.1

4 will arg!e that Aoseph(s li%e history pro#ides all sorts o% cl!es abo!t his belonging and li%e tra>ectory. 5owe#er taken together

1/



these cl!es constr!ct a new socioling!istic pro%ile one that does not %it the traditional national

imagination o% Ewanda b!t one that %its the realities o% Ewanda d!ring and a%ter the 1$

genocide.2 The main point here is that the socioling!istic repertoire displayed by Aoseph is

indicati#e o% time not >!st o% space it connects to the history o% a region o#er the last two

decades not >!st to the region. Th!s socioling!istic repertoires inde+ %!ll histories o% people

and o% places not >!st instit!tionally genred Horigins( and the analysis 4 pro#ide here o%%ers

some additional s!bstance to positions s!bmitted in the chapters $ and &.

*oseph+s life history

Aoseph(s long a%%ida#it reads like a horror story and it grimly testi%ies to the pro%o!nd

distortion o% the social %abric in Ewanda in the 1:s leading to the genocide o% 1$. 5ere

comes a #ery elementary point we m!st read his li%e history against the backdrop o% what we

know abo!t that dramatic period in that region o% -%rica. 3 e m!st try to imagine his li%e

history as set in a real conte+t and imagine his li%e as a possible tra>ectory %ollowed by people

in that region at that time. 4% we don(t his li%e history makes no sense = and this %!ndamental

disbelie% in the possible realism o% s!ch descriptions was !nderlying to the re>ection o%

Aoseph(s asyl!m application in the CK. 4 s!ggest we accept and !se as an ass!mption that in

thoro!ghly distorted conditions o% li%e thoro!ghly distorted li#es can be realistic.

Aoseph says he was born in Kigali Ewanda in 'o#ember 1<. This as mentioned

be%ore was disp!ted by the CK a!thorities and we shall come back to the iss!e o% Aoseph(s

age %!rther down. 5e says he is a 5!t! e#en tho!gh his mother was T!tsi. 5is %ather was a

politician and his mother a b!sinesswoman whose acti#ities were mainly deployed in Kenya.

She took yo!ng Aoseph with her to Kenya where he attended an 8nglish"medi!m n!rsery

school and in between #isits home o%ten stayed with a %riend o% his mother(s in 'airobi with

whom he spoke 8nglish. 5e picked !p a %ew words o% Swahili %rom classmates. -t home in

Kigali his parents insisted that the children speak 8nglish too. The %amily li#ed in a

compo!nd s!rro!nded by walls and the %ather %orbade them %rom going o!t and socialize

with other children. The %amily had a ser#ant who spoke Kinyarwanda@ Aoseph learned some

Kinyarwanda %rom him. Disiting %riends spoke 8nglish Kinyarwanda and French.

4n 12 at the age o% %i#e Aoseph ret!rned to Ewanda with his mother. Shortly a%ter

their ret!rn his mother was m!rdered in circ!mstances !nknown to Aoseph. She was b!ried in

their garden and shortly a%terwards the ser#ant le%t the ho!se. -bo!t si+ months later theho!se was attacked at night. 5earing sho!ting and noise o% people breaking things Aoseph

1<



>!mped o!t o% the window and ran away. 5is %ather and the other children in the ho!se were

all killed d!ring the raid. Aoseph ended !p in a gro!p o% other people trying to escape %rom the

area where they li#ed. 5e told them that he had an !ncle li#ing in Gisenyi a town on the

border with the Bemocratic Eep!blic o% 0ongo 9BE0; and ne+t to the 0ongolese town o%

Goma. They took him on board o% a lorry and a%ter se#eral ho!rs dropped him o%% in Gisenyi

where he %o!nd the way to his !ncle(s ho!se. 4n that ho!se French and Kinyarwanda were

spoken most o%ten b!t Aoseph(s !ncle consistently spoke 8nglish with him. 5is !ncle told

him that his %ather was a politician that his %ather killed his mother beca!se she was a T!tsi

and that T!tsis m!rdered all members o% his %amily o!t o% re#enge. 4n his !ncle(s ho!se

Aoseph slept in the basement and hardly comm!nicated with anyone 9remember he was a

small child;. ?!t Aoseph saw many people #isiting his !ncle and heard them speaking

HKinyankole( 9E!nyankole; a lang!age similar to Kinyarwanda. Aoseph picked !p a bit o%

E!nyankole and started speaking it with his !ncle. Gi#en his !ncle(s pro%iciency in 8nglish

French Kinyarwanda and E!nyankole Aoseph s!spected that his !ncle had li#ed in another

co!ntry and gi#en the pro+imity o% Gisenyi to Goma he belie#ed it m!st ha#e been the BE0.

9E!nyankole is in %act spoken mainly in Cganda and the border areas o% Cganda Ewanda

and BE0 b!t as we shall see it is also a diasporic lang!age among Ewandan migrants and

re%!gees;. -%ter some time 9Aoseph was si+ years old; his !ncle started sending Aoseph on

errands. 5e had to carry a bag to a certain place where someone wo!ld tap on his sho!lder

and take the bag %rom him. Aoseph later came to belie#e that his !ncle was in#ol#ed with

people %rom another co!ntryN with whom he was plotting something. Gisenyi is ad>acent to

the 0ongolese town o% Goma which was the gateway to the 4nterahamwe rebel"dominated

Maniema and Ki#! regions in BE0 so this scenario 9in 12"13; is not !nthinkable 9e.g.

Dlassenroot 2::: Dlassenroot and Eaeymaekers 2::$;.

Aoseph did this %or se#eral yearsN !ntil one day in 1 94 think;N he was stopped by

E,F Go#ernment soldiers. They challenged him in Kinyarwanda b!t since his Kinyarwanda

was still #ery basic he answered them in E!nyankole. The bag was con%iscated and pro#ed to

be %!ll o% weapons and amm!nition. *ne o% the soldiers then interrogated him in E!nyankole

and they s!spected that Aoseph came %rom the other side o% the border and was a child"soldier

o% the 4nterahamwe. They arrested him and took him to his !ncle(s ho!se. They called his

!ncle o!t e+changed some words and then s!mmarily e+ec!ted him in %ront o% the 9now or

1: year old; boy. Aoseph was bro!ght to a detention camp where he was beaten e#ery day and

interrogated abo!t his in#ol#ement in rebel acti#ities abo!t other members o% his gro!p andso on. The interrogations were held in E!nyankole and the %act that Aoseph did not ha#e a

1



%l!ent pro%iciency in Kinyarwanda was held against him as gro!nds %or s!spicion o% being a

%oreign Hin%iltrant(. -%ter some weeks he was bro!ght to a prison pres!mably in Kigali. 5e

%o!nd himsel% in a cell together with another older boy named 8mman!el. The latter had

been an 4nterahamwe member and he spoke E!nyankole as well as Kinyarwanda. ike the

prison g!ards 8mman!el %irst tho!ght that Aoseph came %rom another co!ntry gi#en his

pro%iciency in E!nyankole. Aoseph was ro!tinely and #ery br!tally tort!red@ in addition he

was repeatedly raped by 8mman!el. -%ter some yearsN Aoseph was p!t on a %orced labor

regime@ gi#en that the g!ards( orders were in Kinyarwanda he learned the lang!age to some

degree and he also learned the Kinyarwanda and Swahili songs they wo!ld ha#e to sing

d!ring work.

-%ter %o!r years in prison in 2::1 he recei#ed a #isitor a lady he #ag!ely

remembered. - short wile later d!ring work a g!ard told him to go in the b!sh and there he

met the same lady. She !rged him to %ollow her together with another boy in prison !ni%orm.

They got into a b!s@ a%ter a while the other boy got o%%. The lady and Aoseph contin!ed their

>o!rney to a coach station where they ca!ght a b!s that took them to another co!ntryN. There

people were speaking lang!ages 4 co!ldn(t !nderstandN. They got to an airport and the lady

prod!ced tra#el doc!ments %or Aoseph. Together they boarded a %light that took them to the

CK where the same tra#el doc!ments enabled Aoseph to enter the co!ntry. B!ring the whole

>o!rney the woman disco!raged Aoseph %rom speaking or asking 6!estions and in order to

gain and rea%%irm his tr!st she repeatedly mentioned the name o% Aoseph(s mother 9Aoseph

a%terwards tho!ght she was the Kenyan woman who took care o% him in Kenya d!ring his

early in%ancy;. They took a b!s got o%% at some place 9pres!mably central ondon; and the

lady #anished.$ -%ter se#eral ho!rs o% waiting %or her Aoseph started walking aro!nd asking

people %or help. *ne man took him to the 4mmigration Ser#ice. Aoseph was now abo!t 1$

years old. hen he stated his age to the o%%icial 9an -sian lady who spoke KinyarwandaN;

she called in a Medical *%%icer who a%ter the brie%est and most s!mmary o% e+aminations

concl!ded that Aoseph was o#er 1< and sho!ld conse6!ently be treated as an ad!lt. 5ere lies

the origin o% Aoseph(s Hdisp!ted( age.& *ne week later a %irst Hscreening( inter#iew was

cond!cted and Aoseph describes the e#ent as intimidating the o%%icials insisted on short and

direct answers did not make notes o% some o% his statements 9especially on his ling!istic

repertoire; and threatened to throw him in prison something which gi#en his backgro!nd

was to be a#oided at all costs. hen the inter#iewer asked him abo!t his Hmother tong!e(

Aoseph !nderstood this as his Hmother(s lang!age( and answered HKinyarwanda(. -Kinyarwanda interpreter was called in and in spite o% Aoseph(s insistence that he wo!ld be

1/:



more com%ortable in 8nglish and notwithstanding his e+planations %or his lack o% pro%iciency

in Kinyarwanda 9not recorded in the #erbatim acco!nt o% the inter#iew; the inter#iew started

in Kinyarwanda. Aoseph(s restricted competence was 6!ickly spotted and a%ter he declared

that he also spoke E!nyankole an interpreter %l!ent in Kinyarwanda and E!nyankole was

called in and the inter#iew was contin!ed in E!nyankole. 4nterestingly 9and an implicit

acknowledgement o% Aoseph(s ling!istic repertoire; s!pplementary 6!estions were asked and

answered in 8nglish and noted down in the #erbatim acco!nt. Aoseph(s case was dismissed as

%ra!d!lent and both his age and his nationality were disp!ted.

4n 'o#ember 2::3 Aoseph(s case was reopened by the 5ome *%%ice and a second

inter#iew took place in A!ne 2::$. This inter#iew yielded the !s!al set o% Hcontradictions( in

comparison with the %irst notably with respect to Aoseph(s lang!age repertoires. 4n addition

Aoseph was not able to gi#e details abo!t Ewanda and Kigali 9he co!ld not %or instance

describe the nearest bank to his ho!se in Kigali;. 5e was also asked to pro#ide the n!mbers

%rom 1 to 1: in Kinyarwanda@ since no interpreter was aro!nd he was asked to write these

words Hphonetically(. 5e prod!ced a written list which was hal% Kinyarwanda and hal%

E!nyankole. The res!lt was easy to predict his application was re>ected again. Aoseph was

ascribed Cgandan nationality and was to be deported to Cganda.

,rom a strange life to no life

Towards the end o% his a%%ida#it Aoseph writes 4 may ha#e an !n!s!al history b!t this does

not make me a citizen o% a co!ntry 4 ha#e ne#er been toN. 0ertainly what transpires %rom the

s!mmary abo#e is that his li%e was dominated by a kind o% Shibboleth"predicament in which

his ling!istic repertoire contin!o!sly played against him. hen he was arrested his

pro%iciency in E!nyankole s!ggested to the soldiers that he was an agent o% the 4nterahamwe

%rom neighboring BE0@ to 8mman!el that pro%iciency s!ggested the same a%%iliation@ and in

the CK his knowledge o% 8nglish and E!nyankole were taken as strong e#idence that he is

%rom Cganda not %rom Ewanda 9where pro%iciency in Kinyarwanda and French wo!ld be

e+pected;. So his ling!istic repertoire = both positi#ely thro!gh what is there and negati#ely

thro!gh what is absent %rom it = perpet!ally gi#es him away categorises him and creates

con%!sion and s!spicion abo!t the #eracity o% his story. Aoseph(s lang!age repertoire is

contin!o!sly seen as inde+ical o% certain political and historical positions de%ined %rom within

the synchronic !ni#erse o% meanings social categories and attrib!ti#e patterns in which hisinterloc!tors operate. 5is pro%iciency in the partic!lar lang!ages and lang!age #arieties he

1/1



knows contin!o!sly Hgi#es o%%( in%ormation abo!t him it allows his interloc!tors to make

6!ick interpreti#e >!mps %rom speech to society to pro#ide conte+t!ally loaded readings o%

his words and to b!ild an image o% Aoseph on the basis o% how he comm!nicates.

Life on an e$it strategy

The key to Aoseph(s !n!s!al historyN lies in his early childhood. Socioling!istically as well

as in more general ways Aoseph(s li%e becomes !n!s!alN right %rom the #ery beginning. -s

said %rom the o!tset we shall ass!me that Aoseph does not lie abo!t the main lines o% his story.

-nd i% we %ollow that story what becomes #ery clear is that his %amily was somewhat

aberrant. 5is %ather was a politician b!t 4 ha#e no knowledge o% what he didN@ in terms o% the

essentialized categories o% ethnic politics in Ewanda he was identi%ied as a 5!t! as well. The

%ather shielded his %amily %rom the o!tside world by prohibiting the children %rom playing

o!tside their compo!nd and by insisting on an 8nglish"only policy at home. -ccording to

Aoseph(s statement their %ather was #ery strict on the !se o% 8nglish at home and acti#ely

%orbade the !se o% other lang!ages %or his children the %ather tho!ght that speaking 8nglish

set !s apart %rom other people and showed that we were more ci#ilisedN. 4n his a%%ida#it

Aoseph s!ggests the %ollowing

ooking back 4 wonder whether my parents had li#ed abroad when they were yo!nger

and that is why they spoke 8nglish.

Gi#en the tro!bled history o% that region and gi#en his %ather(s prominence and #isibility in

p!blic li%e this may #ery well be tr!e. 4t is not !nlikely that his parents had li#ed abroad as

e+iles or re%!gees %or a while d!ring one o% the many periods o% crisis in Ewanda since

4ndependence. The %act that Aoseph(s mother appears to ha#e b!siness interests and networks

in Kenya co!ld be %!rther circ!mstantial e#idence %or that. Mamdani 92::: 3:/"312; shows

that large n!mbers o% so"called H?anyarwanda( 9Ewandans both 5!t! and T!tsi; were present

as labor migrants in Cganda since the 12:s. Many o% them were employed in the cattle"

herding -nkole region where E!nyankole is spoken. Ee%!gees o% the 1& and 1$ con%licts

also %o!nd their way to the same region. - n!mber o% these re%!gees got C'50E scholarships

%or schools in among other places 'airobi which became a center %or Ewandan e+iles 9the

e+iled king o% Ewanda resided in 'airobi;. Gi#en the en#y this generated among the local pop!lation in Cganda re%!gees o%ten had to pretend to be what they were not ?anyankole

1/2



?aganda ?anyoroN 9Mamdani 2::: 312;. So"called ?anyarwanda were also prominent in

M!se#eni(s rebel army 9and prior to that in 4di -min(s secret police; !p to a 6!arter o% the

M!se#eni rebels who marched into Kampala in early 1< were ?anyarwanda 9Mamdani

2::: 321;. The point is the history and politics o% Ewanda ha#e since long been entangled

with those o% Cganda Kenya and other neighboring co!ntries. That Aoseph(s %amily had some

in#ol#ement in neighboring co!ntries and that E!nyankole may ha#e entered the %amily

repertoire 9e.g. his !ncle(s; sho!ld not be seen as something e+ceptional. 4n %act many

Ewandans 95!t! as well as T!tsi; who ha#e a diaspora backgro!nd are %l!ent in E!nyankole

and that incl!des the c!rrent Ewandan ,resident ,a!l Kagame who grew !p in the -nkole

region.

4t is th!s also not !nlikely that the %amily li#ed on an e+it strategy. The %ather = a

politician = m!st ha#e been aware o% the #olatility o% the political climate in Ewanda and

9gi#en Aoseph(s !ncle(s in#ol#ement in the 4nterahamwe; may ha#e been acti#e in partic!larly

sensiti#e and dangero!s 9radical 5!t!; politics the kind that co!ld ha#e warranted a

permanent readiness to escape %rom Ewanda and settle elsewhere in a co!ntry s!ch as Kenya

where 8nglish is widely spoken. Eemember The time"%rame described by Aoseph 91< the

year o% his birth !ntil his arrest in 1; co#ers the #ictory o% M!se#eni in Cganda 91<;

the E,F in#asion in Ewanda 91:; and the genocide o% 1$ an e+tremely t!m!lt!o!s

period in the region. The %act that Aoseph was p!t in a n!rsery school in Kenya adds weight to

that s!ggestion. -nd the %act that as Aoseph later learns his T!tsi mother was killed with at

least the passi#e in#ol#ement o% his 5!t! %ather also bespeaks deep and acti#e in#ol#ement in

5!t! radicalism. The T!tsi raid on Aoseph(s ho!se d!ring which the whole o% his %amily was

m!rdered and the ho!se is set alight also %its this pict!re = we see a %oreshadowing o% the

genocide o% 1$ here and radical 5!t! are already pitted against radical T!tsi gro!ps in

m!rdero!s incidents. Aoseph(s story makes eno!gh sense to be pla!sible.

hen Aoseph escapes to his !ncle(s place the pattern o% political in#ol#ement o%

co!rse becomes clearer. 5is !ncle keeps Aoseph o!t o% sight and contin!es the 8nglish"only

policy with him b!t he also recei#es many #isitors who speak French Kinyarwanda and

E!nyankole. e know that both 5!t! 94nterahamwe; and T!tsi 9E,F; rebels had their bases in

the neighboring co!ntries Cganda and BE0 9Mamdani 2::: Dlassenroot 2:::;. E!nyankole

as we know is spoken in Cganda 9and is part o% the HE!nyakitara( cl!ster along with

Kinyarwanda E!nyoro and other lang!ages; and with the perpet!al mo#ements o% gro!ps o%

migrant e+iled or re%!gee Ewandans its spread to partic!lar pockets in Ewanda and BE0 is agi#en. 4t e+plains why Aoseph meets so many people in Ewanda who speak E!nyankole apart

1/3



%rom the people in his !ncle(s ho!se some o% the E,F soldiers and prison g!ards also speak

the lang!age@ so does 8mman!el 9an 4nterahamwe militant; as well as later in the CK the

second interpreter in Aoseph(s application inter#iew who was %l!ent 9like the Ewandan

soldiers and g!ards; in Kinyarwanda and E!nyankole. Th!s the H%oreignness( o% E!nyankole

is not a matter o% spatial distrib!tion o% the lang!age. Aoseph(s pro%iciency in E!nyankole is

interpreted 6!ite systematically and by all the people he describes in his narrati#e as a sign

o% being %rom another co!ntry as %ell as a sign o% membership o% a radical 5!t! mo#ement.

The lang!age is by those who in interaction with Aoseph pro>ect synchronic inde+ical

meanings onto it 9the soldiers 8mman!el the interrogators the prison g!ards; !nderstood as

a sign o% 5!t! rebel in#ol#ement imported %rom neighboring co!ntries. The geography o% the

lang!age is a political geography something which does not come as a s!rprise now that we

know something abo!t the history o% migration and rebellion in the region. e shall come

back to this below.

Aoseph(s childhood is likely to be spent in a %amily li#ing on an e+it strategy and

ac!tely aware o% the danger o% their times. et !s not %orget that most o% the critical period

described by Aoseph is indeed his childhood and that this childhood is spent in a deep

political crisis in Ewanda. -s a toddler he is raised in Kenya@ at the age o% %i#e 9too yo!ng to

enter school where French and Kinyarwanda wo!ld be the dominant lang!ages; he ret!rns to

Ewanda. Shortly a%terwards and a%ter an inter#al in which he in%ormally learns some

Kinyarwanda %rom the %amily(s ser#ant his mother is killed his %amily is m!rdered and he

%lees to his !ncle in Gisenyi where he li#es in hiding and th!s does not enter school at the

normal age o% si+. For all practical p!rposes he is dead and his !ncle probably banks on this

when he starts sending him on errands pro#iding arms and amm!nition to rebel gro!ps %rom

Goma. 5is comm!nicati#e network is e+tremely narrow. 5e still does not socialize with other

children and only meets his !ncle(s %ellow rebels with whom he interacts in E!nyankole. 5is

!ncle gi#es him some books to read in 8nglish mostly and some in Kinyarwanda 9this

pro#ides e#idence o% reading skills not o% writing skills;. ang!age learning howe#er

proceeds e+cl!si#ely thro!gh in%ormal channels. The bit o% Kinyarwanda he already knows

allows him to start picking !p some E!nyankole and the 8nglish he speaks is solely deployed

with his !ncle. The reading o% books pro#ides some back"!p to these learning tra>ectories b!t

o#erall they are in%ormal = that is they de#elop o!tside the collecti#e regimented and

literacy"based pedagogies o% the classroom. The latter may be part o% the e+planation %or why

he %ails the n!mber writing test 9and th!s m!st re#ert to Hphonetic( writing; d!ring his secondinter#iew in all likelihood Aoseph ne#er ac6!ired %!ll literacy in either o% the lang!ages he

1/$



speaks and d!ring the inter#iew he is asked to write a lang!age which in his e+perience has

had #ery limited %!nctions and is 6!ite close to the lang!age which had more e+tended

%!nctions E!nyankole.

Aoseph was arrested at the age o% "1: and at that age he has not had any %ormal

schooling. 5is m!ltiling!al repertoire is constr!cted thro!gh in%ormal learning processes and

is highly Htr!ncated( i.e. organized in small %!nctionally specialized ch!nks 9?lommaert

0ollins and Slembro!ck 2::&a;. e shall ret!rn to this topic below. For the moment s!%%ice it

to note that Aoseph has had indeed an !n!s!al storyN b!t that s!ch a story may not ha#e been

all that !n!s!al in the Ewanda o% the early 1:s. This is not how the 5ome *%%ice saw it.

'he grounds for re1ection

The 5ome *%%ice in its re>ection anno!ncement letter o% 'o#ember 2::& saw Ewanda in a

#ery di%%erent light as a relati#ely stable and relati#ely !ni%orm nation"state characterized by

Hnational( %eat!res s!ch as a relati#ely stable regime o% lang!age 9Kroskrity 2:::;.

The letter begins by describing the ling!istic operations go#erning the inter#iew

proced!res 9in gi#ing these e+amples 4 shall not be concerned with the grammatical or

rhetorical consistency o% the te+t;

91; 4t is noted that yo! claim yo! were born in 9L; Kigali and that yo!r principal

lang!age is 8nglish. 5owe#er yo! say yo! also speak Kinyarkole PsicQ and a little

Kinyarwanda. 4t is noted that when yo! were s!bstanti#ely inter#iewed it was

cond!cted in 8nglish Pre%erence to the 2::$ inter#iewQ and when yo! were

inter#iewed by an 4mmigration *%%icer Pre%erence to the 2::1 inter#iewQ yo! started

the inter#iew speaking in Kinyarwanda then a%ter ten min!tes the inter#iew was

contin!ed in the Kinyarkole lang!age 9L;

This description is %ollowed by an a!thoritati#e statement abo!t lang!age in Ewanda

92; -ltho!gh 8nglish 9and Swahili; are spoken in Ewanda 8nglish is spoken by the

T!tsi elite who ret!rned %rom e+ile in Cganda post"1$. The ??0 orld Ser#ice

howe#er ad#ises that a gen!ine Ewandan national %rom any o% the ethnic gro!ps will

normally be able to speak Kinyarwanda andIor French. Kinyarwanda the nationallang!age is the medi!m o% instr!ction in schools at primary le#el while French is !sed

1/&



at secondary le#el. Kinyarwanda is also spoken in the neighboring co!ntries o% BE0

Tanzania and Cganda. 9Ewanda co!ntry report -pril 2::$;. hereas E!nyankole is a

dialect mainly spoken in the est and So!th o% Cganda 9Cganda co!ntry pro%ile -pril

2::&;. 9L; ?ased on the in%ormation abo#e it is considered that the lang!age called

Kinyarkole !sed at yo!r screening inter#iew is more widely known as E!nyankole

there%ore E!nyankole will be re%erred in the rest o% this letter.

*bser#e %or the moment 9a; the re%erence to %ormal and instit!tional lang!age regimes s!ch

as the dominant lang!ages in the ed!cation system 9which as we know was !nknown to

Aoseph;@ 9b; The way in which lang!ages are seen as distrib!ted o#er countries@ 9c; the

so!rces o% e#idence !sed here the ??0 orld Ser#ice and two !nidenti%ied co!ntry reports@

9d; the %act that the 5ome *%%ice states that the lang!age 9or dialectN; HKinyarkole( is more

widely known as HE!nyankole(. Se#eral o% these points will be addressed more %!lly in the

ne+t section. 'ow as to Aoseph(s own per%ormance as a s!b>ect set in this tight and stable

nation"state instit!tional lang!age regime this is what the 5ome *%%ice obser#es

93; Eeasons to do!bt yo!r nationality can be drawn %rom the %act that yo! are !nable to

speak Kinyarwanda andIor French. -s already stated 9L; yo! were screened %or the

main part in the Cgandan dialect PsicQ and then were s!bstanti#ely inter#iewed in

8nglish. 4t is noted that yo! were able to answer a %ew 6!estions asked in

Kinyarwanda at the start o% yo!r screening inter#iew. 5owe#er in yo!r s!bstanti#e

inter#iew yo! were asked to state the n!mbers one to ten in Kinyarwanda 9L; and also

asked %or the phrases HGood Morning( and HGoodbye( yo! wrote yo!r answers down

phonetically beca!se yo! co!ld not write in the lang!age 9L;. P4Qt has been decided

that altho!gh written phonetically yo! did not get all o% them correct. 9L; Oo!r lack o%

basic knowledge o% the Kinyarwanda lang!age s!ggests that yo! are not a gen!ine

national o% Ewanda.

Aoseph had written some words in Kinyarwanda and others in E!nyankole. The 5ome *%%ice

contin!es hammering away at Aoseph(s ling!istic repertoire and per%ormance d!ring the

inter#iews

9$; hen asked how yo! were able to !nderstand Kinyarwanda i% yo! were ne#erta!ght it and only ta!ght to speak 8nglish 9L; yo! did not answer the 6!estion

1/



directly instead yo! said that yo! wanted to speak 8nglish b!t yo! can also

!nderstand Kinyarwanda and E!nyankole as well. 4t is belie#ed that i% yo! were able

to pick !p and speak %l!ent E!nyankole %rom yo!r !ncle with whom yo! alleged to

ha#e stayed %or %o!r years in Gisenyi yet !nable to pick !p Kinyarwanda e#en tho!gh

yo! claim to ha#e li#ed in Ewanda %or thirteen years PsicQ. Oo!r inability to gi#e the

correct 9phonetic; translations %or the general greetings in Kinyarwanda damages the

credibility o% yo!r claim 9L;. ?ased on this assessment it is not accepted that yo! are

a gen!ine Ewandan national as claimed.

ang!age is the key element in the arg!ment o% the 5ome *%%ice. ?!t it is not the only one

9&; 4t is noted that yo! were able to describe the old Ewandan %lag 9L; howe#er

when yo! were 6!estioned abo!t the basic geography o% yo!r home in 9L; Kigali yo!

were !nable to gi#e any in%ormation. For instance yo! were !nable to state any well

known landmarks sites places and b!ildings to yo!r home 9L;. Oo! did not know o%

the nearest bank to yo!r home 9L;. Oo! were also !nable to name any o% the ma>or

roads nearest to yo!r home in 9L; Kigali. 9L; 4t is not accepted that yo! ha#e

s!%%iciently demonstrated yo!r knowledge o% the basic co!ntry and local in%ormation

regarding yo!r alleged place o% birth as s!ch it is not accepted that yo! were born and

ha#e li#ed in Ewanda as claimed.

This then leads to the %ollowing concl!sion

9; 4t is the opinion that a Ewandan national sho!ld be e+pected to know something

abo!t their co!ntry o% origin and place o% birth. Moreo#er it is belie#ed that yo! co!ld

be a Cgandan national as res!lt o% yo!r knowledge and !se o% the E!nyankole

lang!age at screening 9L;. *r yo! co!ld possibly be a national o% a di%%erent 8ast

-%rican co!ntry where 8nglish is m!ch more widely spoken. Oo!r tr!e nationality

howe#er cannot be determined at this point in time.

There we are Aoseph(s !n!s!alN li%e has been reset in a di%%erent co!ntry and in a di%%erent

time %rame beca!se the 5ome *%%ice do!bts his age as well. From someone with a strange

li%e Aoseph has now been rede%ined as someone with no li%e at all.

1//



"efying the monoglot ideal

4n a seminal paper Michael Sil#erstein 91 2<&; disting!ished between a Hspeech

comm!nity( characterized by sharing a set o% norms or reg!larities %or interaction by means

o% lang!age9s;N and a Hling!istic comm!nity(. The latter is described as

a gro!p o% people who in their implicit sense o% the reg!larities o% ling!istic !sage

are !nited in adherence to the idea that there e+ists a %!nctionally di%%erentiated norm

%or !sing their lang!age denotationally 9L; the incl!si#e range o% which the best

lang!age !sers are belie#ed to ha#e mastered in the appropriate way.

0onscio!sness o% a standard 9the Hbest( lang!age; wo!ld typically be something that %alls

within the realm o% ling!istic comm!nities and while speech comm!nities are characterized

by bewildering di#ersity ling!istic comm!nities as a r!le pledge allegiance to a single norm

and de%ine s!b>ects as H9ab;normal( depending on their degree o% %it with that single norm.

This pattern o% categorization in which s!b>ects are placed Hin( or Ho!tside( normalcy

depending on how Hnormal( their lang!age repertoire is belongs to what Sil#erstein calls a

Hmonoglot ideology(. - monoglot ideology makes time and space static it s!ggests a

transcendent phenomenology %or things that de%ine the nation"state and presents them as

nat!ral ne!tral a"conte+t!al and non"dynamic as %acts o% nat!re. S!ch a monoglot ideology

is applied by the 5ome *%%ice in >!dging and categorizing Aoseph as a lang!age"!sing s!b>ect

and it is the %act that Aoseph de%ies this monoglot ideal that ser#es as the basis %or

dis6!ali%ying him and his claims.

4n what %ollows 4 shall try to decode this process in which two Hpro%iles( are opposed

to one another. 4n order to do that 4 shall ha#e to gi#e socioling!istic"analytic attention to two

di%%erent phenomena the lang!age"ideological work o% the ling!istic comm!nity !sed as a

concept!al backdrop by the 5ome *%%ice and the practical pragmatic repertoire displayed

and narrated by Aoseph and the speech comm!nities we can see thro!gh that.

'he national sociolinguistic horizon

et !s now ret!rn to some o% the %ragments %rom the 5ome *%%ice letter abo#e and obser#e

how strongly they de%ine lang!ages in terms o% national circ!mscription. 4n %ragment 92;abo#e %or instance we read

1/<



9/; The ??0 orld Ser#ice howe#er ad#ises that a gen!ine Ewandan national %rom

any o% the ethnic gro!ps will normally be able to speak Kinyarwanda andIor French.

Kinyarwanda the national lang!age is the medi!m o% instr!ction in schools at

primary le#el while French is !sed at secondary le#el.

4n %ragment 93; we enco!ntered

9<; Oo!r lack o% basic knowledge o% the Kinyarwanda lang!age s!ggests that yo! are

not a gen!ine national o% Ewanda.

4n %ragment 9$; we saw

9; Oo!r inability to gi#e the correct 9phonetic; translations %or the general greetings in

Kinyarwanda damages the credibility o% yo!r claim 9L;. ?ased on this assessment it

is not accepted that yo! are a gen!ine Ewandan national as claimed.

-nd in %ragment 9; %inally we read that

91:; it is belie#ed that yo! co!ld be a Cgandan national as res!lt o% yo!r knowledge

and !se o% the E!nyankole lang!age at screening 9L;. *r yo! co!ld possibly be a

national o% a di%%erent 8ast -%rican co!ntry where 8nglish is m!ch more widely

spoken.

The space in which lang!ages are sit!ated is in#ariably a national space the space de%ined by

states that ha#e a name and that can be treated as a %i+ed !nit o% knowledge and in%ormation

9as in the Hco!ntry reports( 6!oted by the 5ome *%%ice;. 4t is also a !nit o% power control and

instit!tionalization as is e#ident %rom the %re6!ent re%erences to %ormal instit!tional

en#ironments 9s!ch as the ed!cation system; %or the proli%eration and distrib!tion o% the

lang!ages here mentioned.

e ha#e also seen how lang!age itsel% is totalized and strongly associated with le#els

and degrees o% pro%iciency Aoseph does not speak enough Kinyarwanda or doesn(t speak it

%ell enough his answers were not correct .

8#en i% part o% the %irst inter#iew was done inKinyarwanda and e#en i% Aoseph wrote some words down in Kinyarwanda that le#el o%

1/



pro%iciency is deemed to %all below the e+pectations o% normalcy associated with nationality.

-s a%%irmed by the ??0 orld Ser#ice 9reliably one ass!mes; a genuine Ewandan national

%rom any o% the ethnic gro!ps will normally be able to speak Kinyarwanda andIor FrenchN

and that means a lot o% correct Kinyarwanda and French. -nd gi#en the ass!mption that a

Hnormal( Ewandan national wo!ld ha#e gone thro!gh the national ed!cation system 9and

wo!ld th!s ha#e had e+pos!re to %ormal learning tra>ectories %or the national lang!ages;

Hspeaking( a lang!age e6!als Hspeaking and writing(. Aoseph is asked to %rite n!mbers in

Kinyarwanda as part o% an assessment o% whether he spea&s the lang!age. The highly

regimented nat!re o% literacy is simply o#erlooked regardless o% the %act that Aoseph had

clearly stated that he had not attended any schools in Ewanda and regardless o% the %act that

his problem with literacy had led the inter#iewer to ask him to write phonetically. The 5ome

*%%ice sho!ld ha#e known that they were %acing a yo!ng man %or whom literacy was a h!rdle.

-s the arg!ment contin!es since Aoseph knows that lang!age %ell enough and since

that lang!age is Ho%%icially( spoken 9as a Hdialect( according to the 5ome *%%ice; in Cganda

Aoseph co!ld be a Cgandan national. The %act that in Aoseph(s acco!nt many other Ewandans

were reported to !se E!nyankole and gi#en the %act that e#en in the 4mmigration -!thorities(

o%%ices the 5ome *%%ice had no problem %inding an interpreter %l!ent in both Kinyarwanda

and E!nyankole = all o% this is o#erlooked or disregarded. ang!ages can spill o#er borders

and s!ch phenomena are ri%e in regions where a lot o% cross"border tra%%ic e+ists@ s!ch cross"

border tra%%ic is %re6!ent in regions s!ch as that o% the Great akes where there are large

n!mbers o% Hold( and Hnew( re%!gees 9Mamdani 2::: also Malkki 1&;. ,eople there

conse6!ently can ha#e densely mi+ed polyglot repertoires. These are elementary

socioling!istic %acts that are not taken into acco!nt in the 5ome *%%ice(s !se o% lang!age as an

analytic o% national belonging. This is why we need to shi%t o!r %oc!s now %rom lang!age to

speech and towards the real practical reso!rces that Aoseph has.

A polyglot repertoire

-ll o% the abo#e is o% co!rse reminiscent o% ,ierre ?o!rdie!(s obser#ation in Language and

#ymbolic Po%er 911 $&;

To speak o% the lang!age witho!t %!rther speci%ication as ling!ists do is tacitly to

accept the official de%inition o% the official lang!age o% a political !nit. This lang!ageis the one which within the territorial limits o% that !nit imposes itsel% on the whole

1<:



pop!lation as the only legitimate lang!age especially in sit!ations that are

characterized in French as more officielle 9italics in original;.

-nd he contin!es this state lang!age becomes the theoretical norm against which all

ling!istic practices are ob>ecti#ely meas!redN. The political !nit that is the target o% the 5ome

*%%ice(s Hob>ecti#e meas!rement( is Ewanda and Hthe( lang!ages o% Ewanda are 9normati#e

standardized and literate #arieties o%; Kinyarwanda and French. The 5ome *%%ice o#erlooks

the %act that when a state is in crisis 9like Ewanda %or most o% its post"colonial history and

certainly in the period co#ered in Aoseph(s story; symbols o% the state and its power s!ch as

the national lang!age may be 6!estioned as many nationals may no longer li#e by the

ideology o% the state. This can be hea#ily contested as well. 4n %act since speaking the

national lang!age may in itsel% be an e+pression o% political allegiance it may in

circ!mstances o% #iolent con%lict re6!ire dissim!lation or denial %or one(s own sa%ety. -s

mentioned earlier speaking a Hrebel( lang!age s!ch as E!nyankole ind!ces a political

semiotics./

Aoseph did not ha#e a repertoire that accords with the e+pected Ho%%icial( and Hnational(

one. ?!t what was his repertoire7 4t appears to ha#e been Htr!ncated m!ltiling!al( repertoire

composed o% %!nctionally specialized Hbits( o% lang!age9s; which he had picked !p in in%ormal

learning tra>ectories d!ring his li%e. Eemember o% co!rse that gi#en the partic!lar chronology

o% the e#ents in his li%e Aoseph did not attend school apart %rom the n!rsery school in Kenya.

The ling!istic repertoire he reports in his a%%ida#it is the repertoire o% a child or an adolescent

who grew !p in e+traordinary conditions o!tside any %orm o% Hnormalcy(.

Aoseph pro#ides lots o% in%ormation #ery detailed in %act on how he ac6!ired and

deployed the m!ltiling!al reso!rces he had. 4n %act gi#en the prominence gi#en to lang!age

iss!es by the 5ome *%%ice his a%%ida#it is replete with descriptions o% how and why he

ac6!ired his ling!istic reso!rces and how he relates to them. 5ere is a little selection o%

statements on lang!age %ollowing the biographical line reported in the a%%ida#it.

911; My %irst lang!age is 8nglish. This is the %irst lang!age 4 can remember speaking.

8#er since 4 was a small child as %ar back as 4 can remember my parents spoke to me

in 8nglish.

1<1



912; 4t was #ery important to my %ather that we children always spoke 8nglish as he

tho!ght that speaking 8nglish set !s apart %rom other people and showed that we were

more ci#ilised.

913; The ser#ant wo!ld speak Kinyarwanda. 4 remember sometimes when my parents

were both o!t the ser#ant wo!ld tell !s little Kinyarwanda poems and sayings and so

4 picked some Kinyarwanda !p %rom him. 5e also !nderstood and spoke a little

8nglish b!t he was not %l!ent.

91$; -t school in Kenya we were ta!ght in 8nglish. -ll comm!nication was in 8nglish

and i% yo! spoke to the teachers yo! had to talk to them in 8nglish. 9L; Some o% the

children did speak to each other in Swahili or Kik!y! in the playgro!nd 9L;

91&; hen 4 had been to my !ncle(s ho!se with my parents they had spoken French

and Kinyarwanda b!t mostly Kinyarwanda. 5owe#er my !ncle had always spoken

8nglish to me and my brothers.

91; My !ncle spoke lots o% lang!ages. 5e was #ery good in 8nglish French

Kinyarwanda and Kinyankole. 9L; hen 4 %irst got to his ho!se 4 co!ldn(t !nderstand

the lang!ages he was speaking and 4 tho!ght he spoke a di%%erent lang!age with e#ery

person that came to his ho!se.

91/; 4 did not ha#e a lot to do and so 4 wo!ld listen to my !ncle and his %riends talking

and 4 began to learn some o% the words they were speaking. The lang!age

PE!nyankole A?Q is 6!ite similar to Kinyarwanda and so it wasn(t di%%ic!lt to learn

more since 4 already !nderstood some Kinyarwanda. 9L; 8#ent!ally 4 knew eno!gh

to speak a bit o% Kinyankole to my !ncle. 4 think he was s!rprised abo!t this. -t that

time 4 didn(t know the name o% the lang!age that my !ncle spoke. 4 knew he had li#ed

in another co!ntry beca!se my parents had told me that he li#ed in another co!ntry. 4

g!essed that this is why he spoke that lang!age. 4 didn(t know where the lang!age

come %rom PsicQ as 4 had ne#er heard the lang!age be%ore. 4 ass!med it was %rom a

nearby co!ntry. 4 tho!ght maybe it was a lang!age %rom the BE0 9\aire; b!t 4 had no

reason %or this e+cept that 4 knew it was a co!ntry which was ne+t to Ewanda.

1<2



91<; -%ter 4 had been there a while 4 told him PAoseph(s !ncleQ that 4 wanted to learn

and so he bro!ght me a %ew books. Mostly the books were in 8nglish. Sometimes they

were in Kinyarwanda and some had both lang!ages in them.

91; PThe soldiersQ started 6!estioning me in Kinyarwanda asking me what was in the

sack. 4 !nderstood what they were saying to me b!t 4 co!ldn(t reply. 4 was #ery

shocked and 4 didn(t ha#e good eno!gh Kinyarwanda to e+plain and they were all

talking at once so 4 >!st %roze. 4 spoke to them in Kinyankole to reply to their 6!estions

beca!se that was the lang!age 4 was !sing most commonly at the time. The soldiers

called another soldier o#er. This soldier spoke to me in Kinyankole and asked me

6!estions. 9L; 4 now think that they tho!ght that 4 was a child who had been bro!ght

!p abroad and was part o% the 4nterahamwe who was training to come back to Ewanda

and %ight. 9L; The soldier who spoke Kinyankole wo!ld translate %or the others and

tell them what 4 said.

92:; 4 kept telling them Pthe prison g!ardsQ 4 didn(t know b!t they said that the %act

that 4 didn(t speak good Kinyarwanda was e#idence that 4 was a rebel.

921; 5e P8mman!elQ spoke Kinyankole and Kinyarwanda #ery well. 9L; 5e told me

that he had been working %or a 5!t! rebel gro!p and had been a soldier in a di%%erent

co!ntry. 4 tho!ght that this was BE0 or Cganda 9L; 4 think that is how he learned

Kinyankole.

922; e wo!ld be gi#en orders in Kinyarwanda. My Kinyarwanda was good eno!gh to

!nderstand what they said and so 4 wo!ld know what to do. There was no talking to

each other so 4 didn(t get to learn any more Kinyarwanda or talk to anyone. 9L; The

prisoners wo!ld sometimes ha#e to sing songs on the way 9L;. Cs!ally the songs

were in Kinyarwanda b!t sometimes they wo!ld sing Swahili songs.

923; 4 ha#e bad associations with the Kinyankole lang!age. 4 %eel that learning

Kinyankole has been a disaster %or me. 4 wish 4 had ne#er learned that lang!age. 9L; 4

want to keep mysel% apart %rom that lang!age. -nyway 4 do not speak Kinyankole as

well as 4 speak 8nglish. 4 can comm!nicate at a m!ch more basic le#el. 4 can makemysel% !nderstood and 4 can !nderstand what someone else says in Kinyankole b!t it

1<3



is not like speaking in 8nglish which 4 %ind m!ch easier and which allows me to

e+press mysel% more clearly. 9L; My Kinyarwanda is not a good lang!age %or me to

comm!nicate in either. 4 do ha#e basic Kinyarwanda b!t 4 cannot speak it %l!ently.

hen someone talks to me in Kinyarwanda 4 can !nderstand what they mean b!t not

e#ery word that they say. 5owe#er 4 cannot reply easily.

Aoseph to be s!re is genero!s with in%ormation on how he ac6!ired lang!ages 9%ragments 11

13 1$ 1/ and 1<; as well as on the partic!lar skills he ac6!ired in these lang!ages

9%ragments 22 and 23;. ?!t he also gi#es !s rather precise micro"descriptions o%

socioling!istic en#ironments in which di%%erent people !se di%%erent lang!ages and !se them

in di%%erent ways o%ten incl!ding re%lections on how people ac6!ired the lang!ages they

mastered as well as elements o% the speci%ic genres in which the lang!ages were deployed

9%ragments 13 1$ 1& 1 1/ 1 21 and 22;. -nd %inally Aoseph also appears to be 6!ite

aware o% the inde+ical #al!es o% some o% these lang!ages 8nglish sets them apart and

s!ggests a s!perior le#el o% Hci#ilisation( 9%ragment 12; E!nyankole s!ggests an identity as a

%oreign 5!t! rebel 91 2: and 21; and he himsel% has #ery negati#e attit!des towards that

lang!age 9%ragment 23;. 5ere is the political geography o% the lang!age again E!nyankole in

the crisis"ridden Ewandan conte+t in which his story is set nat!rally signalled enemy

identities to those whom he enco!ntered on his way.

*bser#e how speci%ic and precise Aoseph is in all o% this. 5e speci%ies that he can

H!nderstand( people b!t not Hreply( to them in Kinyarwanda@ that he has a Hbasic( acti#e

knowledge in E!nyankole@ that Swahili was !sed in E,F songs s!ng in prison 9b!t not %or

commands which were in Kinyarwanda; and so on. Aoseph artic!lates a %airly well

de#eloped ethno"socioling!istics in which #ario!s highly speci%ic reso!rces = Hbits( o%

lang!ages = are assembled into a tr!ncated repertoire the Hbest( lang!age o% which is 8nglish

9which allows him to e+press himsel% more clearlyN than Kinyarwanda or E!nyankole;. e

see how Aoseph speci%ies lines Hinto( partic!lar lang!ages genres registers. These lines are

sit!ational and dependent on the highly speci%ic comm!nicati#e networks in which he gets

inserted. 5e grew !p Ho!tside( Kinyarwanda e+cept %or the poems and sayings he picks !p

%rom the ser#ant@ he ac6!ired 8nglish in a schooled and rigoro!s home conte+t@ his

E!nyankole came into e+istence by ea#esdropping on con#ersations between his !ncle and

#isitors in the ho!se and was later !sed in interactions with the soldiers and with 8mman!el.

-nd his Kinyarwanda 9as well as bits o% Swahili; de#eloped when he got into prison. -salready mentioned be%ore there are hardly any %ormal learning tra>ectories here 9e+cept

1<$



minimally %or 8nglish; and he learns the partic!lar pieces o% lang!age in the conte+t o% a

deeply distorted li%e. The res!lt is a #ery distorted repertoire b!t a Hnormal( repertoire can

hardly be e+pected !nder s!ch conditions. et me !nderscore that this repertoire is not tied to

any %orm o% Hnational( space and neither to a national stable regime o% lang!age. 4t is tied to

an indi#id!al(s li%e and it %ollows the pec!liar biographical tra>ectory o% the speaker. hen the

speaker mo#es %rom one social space into another his or her repertoire is a%%ected and the end

res!lt is something that mirrors almost like an a!tobiography the erratic li#es o% people.

>unyan&ole or 8inyan&ole@

e ha#e seen that the 5ome *%%ice bases its arg!ments %or re>ecting Aoseph(s claims on his

partial knowledge o% Kinyarwanda and his 9!n6!ali%ied; knowledge o% E!nyankole. 4t is the

latter lang!age that sit!ates him in Cganda according to the 5ome *%%ice 9and in spite o%

e#idence that shows that the lang!age is also !sed by Ewandans incl!ding the 5ome *%%ice

interpreter;. 4n %ragment 23 abo#e we saw howe#er how strongly Aoseph 6!ali%ied his own

pro%iciency in E!nyankole 4 do not speak Kinyankole as well as 4 speak 8nglish. 4 can

comm!nicate at a m!ch more basic le#el.N 5e can make himsel% !nderstoodN and !nderstand

what other people say. 4n addition to the %act that he 9rightly; considers that lang!age to be

one o% the se#ere problems in his li%e he sel%"6!ali%ies as a non"nati#e speaker o% E!nyankole.

This is %!rther e#idenced by something that the 5ome *%%ice %ailed to pick !p in spite

o% the %act that they themsel#es mention it. e read in %ragment 2 abo#e

92$; ?ased on the in%ormation abo#e it is considered that the lang!age called

Kinyarkole !sed at yo!r screening inter#iew is more widely known as E!nyankole

there%ore E!nyankole will be re%erred in the rest o% this letter.

The !se o% the term HKinyarkole( in the 5ome *%%ice(s letter is strange and it does not re%lect

Aoseph(s own consistent !se o% HKinyankole(. The point howe#er is that the 5ome *%%ice

rede%ines what is named in the reports as HKinyankoleIKinyarkole( as HE!nyankole( = !sing a

di%%erent pre%i+ to the stem H"'yankole(. >unyankole is the o%%icial name o% the lang!age and

it is the name !sed %or the lang!age by its nati#e speakers.< Csing the pre%i+ HKi"H %or the

lang!age wo!ld mimic the !se o% that pre%i+ in lang!age names s!ch as HKinyarwanda(

HKir!ndi( and HKiswahili( and wo!ld rather ob#io!sly mark non"nati#e diasporic !sage andidenti%ication o% that lang!age. 4t wo!ld be a rather predictable >%andan way o% identi%ying

1<&



E!nyankole. The !pshot o% this simple obser#ation 9b!t one missed by the 5ome *%%ice; is

that Aoseph(s consistent !se o% the name HKinyankole( places him o!tside the national

socioling!istic order o% Cganda where the lang!age wo!ld be called E!nyankole.

4t(s in a way an elephant in the room b!t s!ch elementary errors dis6!ali%y Aoseph as

a nati#e speaker o% E!nyankole and th!s 9in the logic o% the 5ome *%%ice; wo!ld r!le o!t

Cganda as his place o% origin. The !se o% Kinyankole in addition to Aoseph(s acco!nt o% his

limited pro%iciency in the lang!age wo!ld clearly point towards a position as a speaker o% a

local 9Ewandan or cross"border; ling!a %ranca diaspora #ariety o% the lang!age. 4t wo!ld in

e%%ect be e#idence %or a totally di%%erent socioling!istic image o% the region in which

lang!ages and speakers do not stay in their Horiginal place( b!t mo#e aro!nd on the rhythm o%

crises and displacements o% pop!lations. That image needless to say corresponds %ar better to

the historical realities o% the Great akes region a%ter independence.

Modernist responses

e ha#e reached the concl!sion o% the dist!rbing story o% Aoseph(s li%e and his asyl!m

application and what remains is to obser#e how in the %ace o% postmodern realities s!ch as

the globalized phenomenon o% international re%!gees %rom crisis regions to the est

go#ernments appear to %orm!late #ery old modernist responses 9see also Maryns 2::;. e

ha#e seen in partic!lar how in Aoseph(s case the 5ome *%%ice relied on a national

socioling!istic order o% things in assessing his ling!istic repertoire.

To begin with his repertoire was seen as indicati#e o% origins de%ined within stable

and static 9Hnational(; spaces and not o% biographical tra>ectories that de#elop in act!al

histories and topographies. The 6!estion as to which 9partic!lar and single; lang!age Aoseph

Hspoke( was a 6!estion that led to statements abo!t where he was born abo!t the point in the

world where his origins lie. The %act is howe#er that someone(s ling!istic repertoire re%lects

a life and not >!st birth and it is a li%e that is li#ed in a real socioc!lt!ral historical and

political space. 4% s!ch a li%e de#elops in a place torn by #iolent con%lict and dislodged social

and political relations a pristine image o% someone being born and bred in one comm!nity

with one lang!age as his Hown( is hardly !se%!l. 4n %act !sing s!ch a pristine image is !n>!st.

4% we accept that Aoseph led the li%e he doc!ments in his a%%ida#it then #ery little in the way

o% a Hnormal( socioling!istic pro%ile can in %act be e+pected. 4n other words i% the 5ome

*%%ice had ass!med that Aoseph may ha#e been a gen!ine re%!gee de#iance %rom a Hnormal(socioling!istic pro%ile wo!ld ha#e been one o% the key arg!ments in his %a#or. 4mposing s!ch

1<



socioling!istic normalcy 9with the deeper implications speci%ied by ?o!rdie! abo#e; amo!nts

to an a priori re%!sal to accept the possible tr!th o% his story. 4n %act it creates a catch"22 %or

Aoseph. 4% his socioling!istic pro%ile had been Hnormal( 9to the 5ome *%%ice; that wo!ld ha#e

been strong e#idence that the li%e history he told was !ntr!e. 4% he had had a command o%

schooled and literate #arieties o% Kinyarwanda and French this co!ld nat!rally ha#e meant

that the acco!nt o% his tro!bled childhood was a concoction.

-s we know s!ch imageries o% socioling!istic normalcy belong to the

instr!mentari!m o% the modern nation"state. 4n %act in the sort o% 5erderian twist o%ten !sed

in nationalist rhetoric it is at the core o% modern imaginings o% the nation"state and it re#ol#es

aro!nd a denial or re>ection o% what ?a!man and ?riggs 92::3; call ling!istic hybridity

imp!re and mi+ed systems non"standard %orms trans%ormed lang!age reso!rces. 9-bo!t this

see also \ygm!nt ?a!man(s 11 disc!ssion o% the relationship between modernity and

ambi#alence.; 4t comes with the monoglot package described by Sil#erstein 91 also 1<;

in which lang!age testing and emphases on literate Hcorrectness( ass!me a prominent place =

witness the little literacy test administered to Aoseph in order to ascertain his Hknowledge(

9totalized; o% Kinyarwanda 9see also 0ollins and ?lot 2::3;. The parado+ o% this modernist

reaction to post"modern realities is sketched abo#e in>!stice is almost by necessity its res!lt.

4mposing a strictly national order o% things on people who by their #ery nat!re are de"

nationalized and trans"nationalized is not likely to do >!stice to their case. 4n partic!lar it

prod!ces tremendo!s di%%ic!lties with coming to terms with

the logical intersection between mobile people and mobile te+ts = an intersection no

longer located in a de%inable territory b!t in a deterritorialized world o% late modern

comm!nication 9Aac6!emet 2::& 21;.

.

4t is %ar too easy to ra#e abo!t the ignorance or abs!rdity displayed by the 5ome

*%%ice in this case. The point that needs to be made is wider and gra#er than that. 4t is

!ltimately abo!t the way in which anomalo!s %rames %or interpreting h!man beha#ior = the

modernist national %rames re%erred to here = are !sed as instr!ments o% power and control in a

world in which more and more people no longer correspond to the categories o% s!ch %rames.

This problem is not restricted to asyl!m cases@ we can also see it in the %ield o% schooled

instr!ction 9e.g. 0ollins and ?lot 2::3; media regimes and #ario!s %orms o% lang!age

policing therein and so many other places and e#ents where instit!tions ha#e to addressc!lt!ral globalization. The dominant re%le+ to increases o% hybridity and deterritorialization

1</



!n%ort!nately too o%ten appears to be a rein%orced homogeneity and territorialization. e will

see #ery similar phenomena in o!r ne+t e+ample as well.

The theoretical 6!estions this raises are momento!s and we sho!ld pa!se to consider

one o% them. 4t is clear that a socioling!istics o% lang!ages doesn(t o%%er m!ch hope %or

impro#ement. 4t is precisely the totalizing concept o% lang!age which is !sed in cases s!ch as

these to dis6!ali%y people o%ten on the basis o% the %limsiest o% e#idence. hat is needed =

and here 4 reiterate one o% the main theoretical points o% this book = is a socioling!istics o%

speech and o% resources o% the real bits and ch!nks o% lang!age that make !p a repertoire and

o% real ways o% !sing this repertoire in comm!nication. Socioling!istic li%e is organized as

s!ch as mobile speech not as static lang!age and li#es can conse6!ently be better

in#estigated on the basis o% repertoires set against a real historical and spatial backgro!nd. 4t

is on the basis o% s!ch an analysis o% reso!rces that we were able to answer the lang!age"

based claims o% the 5ome *%%ice abo!t Aoseph(s national belonging. 4n work on these topics

we sho!ld keep track o% the strong de%initional monoglot e%%ect o% the modern state = o% the

way in which time and space are made 9literally; Hstatic( 9i.e. a %eat!re o% the state; in relation

to lang!age = and part o% any post"modern phenomenology o% lang!age and c!lt!re sho!ld be

de#oted to !nderstanding the #ery non"post"modern ideologies and practices that shoot

thro!gh post"modern globalized realities. e need to balance both and to !nderstand that a

totalized modern concept o% lang!age is #ery m!ch part o% post"modern realities.

$.3. 6ainstreaming the migrant learner

Aoseph(s li%e was meas!red against a Hmainstream( which was a re%lection o% the national

order. The ling!istic reso!rces he had bro!ght with him d!ring his escape and mo#e to 8!rope

lost weight and #al!e d!ring the >o!rney and by the time he o%%ered them %or inspection in

?ritain they had been t!rned into arg!ments that co!ld be !sed against him. This was done by

a state apparat!s the immigration a!thorities and we saw that their response to Aoseph(s

deterritorialized and mobile e+istence was a #ery modernist one stressing the national order

o% things as i% he had ne#er migrated. 4n the %ace o% s!per"di#ersity go#ernments appear to

ret!rn 6!ickly to the sa%e %ortresses o% modernism emphasizing homogeneity and !ni%ormity

across the pop!lation and !sing tools to categorize and discriminate in the process. ang!age

has become s!ch a critical tool.

Aoseph(s presence in 8!rope was part o% the new migrations we ha#e alreadyrepeatedly mentioned and as we know s!ch migrations in#ol#e a wide range o% nationalities

1<<



dri#en by a wide range o% moti#es and !sing #ery di%%erent modalities o% migration. 0hildren

o% s!ch new migrants go to school and let !s now consider what happens there. 4 will draw on

work done in B!tch immersion classes in the Flemish part o% ?elgi!m in 2::2"2::3. 'ewly

immigrated children are de%ined as Hother"lang!age newcomers( 9anderstalige nieu%&omers in

B!tch; and are bro!ght into at least one year o% B!tch immersion prior to being

Hmainstreamed( in reg!lar classes. 'ote that there is a #ery strong political"ideological

!nderc!rrent that s!pports this immersion tactic in the conte+t o% migration the Flemish

Go#ernment increasingly emphasizes the importance o% B!tch as a prere6!isite to

Hintegration( into the host society 9see ?lommaert and Dersch!eren 1< %or a general

disc!ssion;. This phenomenon is another %ace o% globalization while the %low %rom center to

periphery is characterized by international reso!rces s!ch as 8nglish the %low %rom the

periphery to the center is trapped in localism and regionalism. 4n ?elgi!m immigrants ha#e to

learn B!tch and French not 8nglish@ they need to learn Swedish in Sweden German in

Germany Spanish in Spain and so on.

4n an earlier p!blication 9?lommaert 0re#e and illaert 2::; we pointed o!t that

immigrant children are being declared Hlang!age"less( and illiterate when they enter s!ch

immersion classes. Their o%ten intricate m!ltiling!al repertoires are not recognized and

certainly not !sed as e+isting and #al!able ling!istic"comm!nicati#e instr!ments and p!pils

%ind themsel#es in an H-"?"0( en#ironment in which lang!age and writing needs to be learned

%rom scratch. The proced!re and moti#ation are simple. hen a child does not speak B!tch

its ling!istic reso!rces are considered to be witho!t #al!e Hto li#e in o!r society( and children

so to speak ha#e to !n"learn their lang!ages and literacy practices replacing them with

B!tch"only ones. - strong Hmonoglot( image o% ling!istic and c!lt!ral homogeneity transpires

%rom these practices which are #ery o%ten e+ec!ted by highly moti#ated and well"meaning

teachers whose goal is gen!inely to promote the well"being o% their migrant p!pils in ?elgian

society and to impro#e their Hsocial integration( in ?elgian mainstream society. Teachers #ery

o%ten belie#e that writing is the best way to Hcorrectly( learn a lang!age. ?!t writing is

interpreted in a c!rio!sly restricted way as the prod!ction o% partic!lar forms of %riting4

0onse6!ently tremendo!s e%%orts are spent in ac6!iring highly speci%ic %ormal writing skills

s!ch as the graphic shape o% the Hs( symbol below 9the !nderlined %orm is the teacher(s

instr!ction;

9F4GCE8 1 58E8. 0aption HDis(;

1<



The climate in s!ch classes is hardly stim!lating. ,!pils painstakingly repeat the

writing e+ercises in attempts to Hgetting it right( and #ery little other learning goes on.

ang!age = B!tch in this case = has become an oppressi#e monolith something that is so

center"stage in the learning process that di%%erences between Hright( and Hwrong( de%ine the

learning tra>ectories. Boing it Hright( will 6!ickly lead to 6!ali%ications o% ed!cationally

s!ccess%!l 9i.e. Hintelligent( Hsmart(; children while doing it Hwrong( leads to 6!ali%ications o%

learning problems 9i.e@ the Hnot"so"smart( or Hstr!ggling( learner;. This regime obsc!res

backgro!nds or o#erlooks the many other learning processes that children e%%ecti#ely display

in s!ch classrooms. -nd in that sense they #ery o%ten miss the ways in which migrant

children deploy the totality o% their ling!istic and semiotic repertoires in creati#e and

prod!cti#e blends that re#eal real progress. The child who wrote the H#is( e+ample abo#e was

already literate. 5e already knew how to write. These writing skills were bro!ght along %rom

pre#io!s learning e+periences and the child writes in e%%ect a per%ectly ade6!ate #ersion o%

H#is(. 5is writing skills are howe#er dis6!ali%ied and he is now %acing the task o% writing the

word precisely in the way the teacher did. The point is the child already knew how to write

b!t he was con%ronting a task replete with ideological perceptions o% Hright( and Hwrong( in

which Hright( stands %or e$actly the way a ?elgian child wo!ld write H#is(. The real learning

that the child already possessed and which he deployed in this task were backgro!nded. 4

want to %oc!s now on one partic!lar piece o% writing prod!ced by a 12"year old boy %rom

?!lgaria whom we shall call Dladi 9a pse!donym;. Fig!re 2 is a page %rom his copybook in

which he practiced his writing o% dictated words.

9F4GCE8 2 58E8. 0aption HDladi(s copybook(;

Dladi(s writing shows signs o% !n%amiliarity with the writing con#entions o% B!tch.

e see the !nwarranted !se o% capitals 9HFiets( HlocomotieF(; and di%%ic!lties in se6!encing

the graphic symbols into one !ninterr!pted string 9as in H#is( abo#e; he writes separate

symbols. 'otwithstanding that Dladi(s writing is largely correct e#en when it comes to

realizing some o% the more tricky pec!liarities o% the B!tch orthographic system s!ch as the

do!ble symbols ui and au. The more interesting are the errors. Dladi pro#ides two #ersions o%

the B!tch word fiets Hbicycle( fiets and fits. -nd he also writes these two #ery pec!liar %orms

9F4GCE8 3 58E8. 0aption HTwo words %rom Dladi(s notes(;

1:



Transliterated these wo!ld read as zei!anent!intihi and enent%intiih. These are realizations o%

what in standard B!tch orthography wo!ld be ze!ent%intig Htwenty"se#en( and eenent%intig

Htwenty"one(respecti#ely.

These %orms are intensely interesting beca!se what Dladi writes here is a #ery

acc!rate graphic appro+imation o% the local Dutch accent of the teacher . Dladi(s school was

in -ntwerp and his teacher was an -ntwerp nati#e. 4n the teacher(s local accent the

distinction between long and short PiQ so!nds is !nnoticeable e#en i% they are represented by

two di%%erent graphemes i 9short PiQ; and ie 9long PiQ;. So in the teacher(s accent the PiQ in !is

and in fiets wo!ld so!nd identical 9P#isQ and P%itsQ; and this ina!dible di%%erence is re%lected

in Dladi(s !se o% both graphemes i and ie. This is e#en more o!tspoken in the case o%

zei!anent!intihi in the teacher(s local accent the word ze!enent%intig 9Pze#VnVntwntVjQ;

wo!ld be prono!nced as Pz#VnVntwintVjQ and this is precisely what Dladi writes he writes

the -ntwerp dialect accent that he hears %rom the teacher !sing the con#entional grapheme ei

%or PQ. Dladi is %reewheeling here. hile most other %orms he writes 9e.g. Hlocomotie%(; are

the res!lt o% %ormal learning he also e+periments in his copybook noting down new words he

has heard = ze!enent%intig and eenent%intig = or attempting to combine words with articles

as in het locomotief 9which sho!ld be de locomotief Hthe locomoti#e(;. 4n making these bra#e

attempts we see that Dladi e+ploits what he has already learned in the way o% orthographic

logic and that he sim!ltaneo!sly #ent!res into the many places where s!ch logic is absent. 4n

his enent%intiih he writes the initial long PeQ as e orthographically wrong b!t

!nderstandable beca!se long PeQ can also be written as e. 4n the same word the PwQ is

correctly written as % while in zei!anent!intihi he wrote the same so!nd as !. Together with

the %inal so%t PjQ the PwQ is notorio!sly hard to ac6!ire %or many non"nati#e speakers o%

B!tch@ the orthographic errors are th!s !nderstandable.

Dladi prod!ces #oice here the #oice o% an eager and enth!siastic learner who p!shes

the limits o% his learning by e+perimenting with the reso!rces he already has. 8#en i% his

writing skills s!%%er %rom basic imper%ections = his !se o% capitals etc. = we see that it o%%ers

him a capacity to start reprod!cing and e+panding the things he knows. 5is #oice is howe#er

that o% an immigrant he records the local accent probably witho!t an awareness that it is not a

standard %orm o% B!tch. -ny B!tch is B!tch %or those who do not know it 9like any 8nglish is

8nglish %or those who don(t know it;. The orthographic errors he prod!ces conse6!ently

re#eal his partic!lar position #is"R"#is B!tch that o% a non"nati#e learner in -ntwerp

11



s!rro!nded by local nati#e accents and con%ronted with the compelling normati#ity o% a

standard orthography. 5is writing in short de%ines the immigrant learner.

The tension is easily sketched. Dladi(s writing re#eals Hsocial integration( in a real

socioling!istic en#ironment. 5e picks !p perhaps also reprod!ces in speaking the local

accent o% B!tch. 5e does that #ery well and in that sense his writing skills are e+cellently

de#eloped. ?!t his per%ormance as a lang!age learner will be >!dged not on the basis o% the

socioling!istic reality in which he %inds his place b!t on the basis o% a normati#e standard that

only e+ists %or him as a set o% %ormal writing con#entions 9which can be seen %rom his

alteration o% I%itsI and I%ietsI;. Simply p!t while his writing o% zei!anent!intihi is absol!tely

acc!rate as a replica o% socioling!istic reality it is >!st an error when seen %rom the normati#e

standard 9Hmonoglot(; #iewpoint. -nd so while %rom the %irst perspecti#e Dladi is %!lly

integrated he is not integrated %rom the second perspecti#e. Cnless we see his writing skills as

skills %or prod!cing an e+periential #oice we will be tempted to dis6!ali%y them as >!st Hbad

writing(. 8ntering the mainstream here means being able to reprod!ce a strictly regimented

set o% skills the %!nction o% which is >!st re%le+i#e to demonstrate that one can reprod!ce

them.

hat we see in these e+amples is how p!pils constr!ct #oice !nder se#ere constraints

on ling!istic choice. The p!pils had to work in a medi!m that was not theirs and they all

clearly str!ggled with some o% the basic skills they had to !se. The e%%ects o% literacy and

lang!age when percei#ed as normati#e and as #ehicles %or >!st a small set o% stereotypical

Hling!istic( %!nctions is that ling!istic prod!cts are silenced and made in#isible. The te+ts

disc!ssed in both e+amples are all #ery !nremarkable and easy to dismiss as >!st tri#ia

doc!menting a partic!lar stage in a learning tra>ectory. 4 pre%er to see them as little sites o%

str!ggle = a str!ggle to make sense and to make onesel% !nderstood !nder e+acting and

restraining conditions. S!ch conditions characterize m!ch o% what we !nderstand by

globalization %or many people who are part o% globalization processes they are disabling

rather than enabling e+cl!ding rather than incl!ding and repressing rather than liberating.

,rod!cing #oice !nder s!ch conditions is possible b!t detecting it re6!ires a tactic o%

e+amination that %oc!ses on implicit patterns on the poetics o% semiotic %orm rather than the

ling!istics o% str!ct!re. 4t re6!ires in other words a demanding and comple+ %orm o% analysis

= one howe#er which 4 belie#e to be #ery necessary i% we belie#e in e6!ity and e6!ality.

4 am not the %irst to de%ine schools as sites o% str!ggle@ indeed this #iew is %ar %rom

original and shared by generations o% ed!cational researchers. ?!t we also need to !nderstandschools as instit!tional en#ironments in which the elementary processes o% s!b>ecti#ity =

12



making yo!rsel% heard and !nderstood by other people = can be and are problematic in an age

o% globalization. ,eople !se all there is to !se in making sense@ they !se e+plicit ling!istic

reso!rces as well as implicit socioc!lt!ral ones. 4% we solely %oc!s on the e+plicit reso!rces

and deny the e+istence o% the implicit ones chances are that their #oices are not identi%ied

recognised and heard.

$.!. The en of the state an ine&uality=

4n the disc!ssion in chapter 2 o% commodi%ied -merican accents 4 pointed o!t that the state

had to share its normati#e a!thority in the %ield o% lang!age with new commercial pro#iders

who !se the 4nternet %or their lang!age teaching b!siness@ 4 also pointed o!t how this created

partic!lar tensions between di%%erent orders o% inde+icality operating at di%%erent scale le#els.

4n the preceding analysis howe#er 4 hope to ha#e shown that s!ch a di#ision o% labor does

not mean that the state is Ho!t(. The %act that the state does not hold absolute power o#er

e#erything does not mean that the state doesn(t ha#e any power at all. 4t does ha#e close

control o#er %or instance immigration and lang!age plays an increasingly important part in

that dynamic o% power. 4n the %ield o% immigration we see that the state as a scale"le#el is still

o% cr!cial importance %or an !nderstanding o% contemporary globalization processes. 8+cl!de

or %orget the state %rom an analysis and the analysis will be incomplete. Migrants are drawn

reterritorialized and %irmly locked into a national scale"le#el. This shi%t between scale"le#els

we ha#e seen abo#e in#ol#es a wholesale reordering o% the %rames within which migrants are

treated and their stories analyzed. The histories they draw !pon in trying to make sense to

immigration inter#iewers are cast aside and replaced by a stable !ni%orm b!rea!cratic

TimeSpace horizon in which they o%ten do not make sense. The reso!rces they bro!ght along

which ha#e their origins in di%%erent TimeSpace %rames are s!b>ect to dis6!ali%ication or

Hmisrecognition( in the sense o% ?o!rdie!. 4t is with the static and timeless image o% the

lang!age = the Sa!ss!rean synchrony o% lang!age = that state a!thorities go to work on the

s!per"di#ersity that now characterizes their !rban centers. The instr!ment needless to say is

%!ndamentally %lawed and there is little hope that good things will happen with it.

This insight 4 hope is sobering %or those who belie#e that globalization only o%%ers

opport!nities. 4t s!rely does o%%er opport!nities to some people = think o% this a!thor = who

can deploy their mobile reso!rces across di%%erent spaces and scales. ?!t it is serio!sly

constraining %or many others who do not possess s!ch reso!rces or whose reso!rces do notmatch the orders that are imposed !pon them in the p!nishing %ormats o% immigration

13



applications. 4t is also sobering 4 hope to those people who belie#e that globalization means

that the state becomes less and less rele#ant as a le#el o% political and economic agency. 4t

becomes less and less rele#ant %or people like the present a!thor who can s!r% the web and

tra#el the world on the strength o% his solid 8!ropean passport and his middle"class highly

ed!cated class %eat!res. 4t is e+traordinarily rele#ant %or those lower on the social ladder

whose well"being 9and indeed sometimes their li%e; depends on the goodwill o% state systems

%or immigration control and the control o% po#erty !nemployment !nsa%e ho!sing and so on.

The bottom line is that we see how ine6!ality becomes an engine o% a system o% globalization

o% which the state is one highly rele#ant scale"le#el. The %act that states all o#er the western

world these days employ #ery similar tactics %or immigration control 9see ?lommaert 2::1a

Maryns 2::; does not represent a %!ndamental problem here each state operates within the

partic!lar con%ines o% its national bo!ndaries and it acts there with absol!te oppressi#ely

absol!te control.

,eople s!ch as Aoseph are mobile people who in many ways epitomize globalization.

Their li#es are globalized li#es and this sho!ld teach !s a lesson abo!t what globalization is

abo!t. 4% we compare him to the c!stomers o% the -merican accent co!rses or to the a!thors

o% the email %ra!d messages in the pre#io!s chapter we see that Aoseph belongs to a speci%ic

strat!m o% globalization = to the bottom o% the globalization market so to speak. 5e is not

wanted or targeted as a c!stomer %or new 4nternet b!siness and neither is he the sa##y g!y

who sends o!t cle#er messages to cred!lo!s western addressees. 5e is not someone who

makes the most o% globalization. 5is position in the processes o% globalization is #ery

#!lnerable e#en i% his position is de%initional o% globalization. 5e is a #ictim o% globalization

and it is good to de#ote some attention to people s!ch as him too.

1$



'. "eflections

'.1. +ketch of a roa map

4n the pre#io!s chapters 4 ha#e de#eloped some concept!al tools %or a socioling!istics o%

globalization. 4 arg!ed that s!ch a socioling!istics o!ght to be a socioling!istics o% mobile

reso!rces and not o% immobile lang!ages. 4 showed how mobility a%%ects the phenomenology

o% lang!age and how we needed to think abo!t it in terms o% scales orders o% inde+icality and

polycentricity. 4 then tried to de#elop a perspecti#e on locality arg!ing that the socioling!istic

world needs to be seen in terms o% relati#ely a!tonomo!s comple+es ob#io!sly in%l!enced by

global %actors b!t still %irmly local. 4 arg!ed that thro!gh all o% this we needed to think o%

tr!ncated repertoires rather than o% Hcomplete( lang!ages in the traditional sense o% the term

and that we needed to see comm!nication in globalization as o%ten H!n%inished( as a

deployment o% incomplete comm!nicati#e %orms. -nd 4 o%%ered ine6!ality as a perspecti#e on

all o% this arg!ing that parado+ically perhaps in a so"called postmodern age the modern state

is #ery o%ten the engine behind m!ch ine6!ality. Together these arg!ments and concepts %orm

a kind o% cosmology %or the socioling!istics 4 ha#e in mind@ they sho!ld o%%er !s a sketch o% a

road map %or the poorly charted waters in which we now %ind o!rsel#es.

The shi%t %rom lang!age to reso!rces is cr!cial in all o% this. 4t is not a new item

abandoning str!ct!ral notions o% lang!age %or more phenomenological ones in which

lang!age e#ents and e+periences are central rather than lang!age"as"%orm"and"meaning has

been a key ingredient o% what is called pragmatics 9e.g. Dersch!eren 1<;@ it also !nderlies

contemporary ling!istic anthropology and se#eral branches o% disco!rse analysis 9?lommaert

2::& Aohnstone 2::<; and recent socioling!istics has e+plored it as well 9Eampton 2::@

Makoni and ,ennycook 2::/;. The conse6!ences o% that shi%t howe#er are not yet deeply

!nderstood. e m!st %or instance accept that abandoning a str!ct!ral notion o% lang!age 9a

ling!ists( constr!ct as we know; compels !s to replace it by an ethnographic concept s!ch as

!oice which embodies the e+periential and practice dimensions o% lang!age and which wo!ld

re%er to the way in which people act!ally deploy their reso!rces in comm!nicati#e practice.

Traditional notions related to m!ltiling!alism s!ch as code"switching then become moments

1&



o% #oice in which people draw reso!rces %rom a repertoire that contains materials

con#entionally associated with Hlang!ages(. The Hlang!age( dimension howe#er is not o%

paramo!nt importance in !nderstanding what s!ch people do and m!ltiling!al practices s!ch

as those wo!ld better be seen as heteroglossic practices in which di%%erent #oices are being

blended. -nd this can be done in con#entionally de%ined Hmonoling!al( as well as

Hm!ltiling!al( speech. 5eteroglossia is the de%a!lt mode o% occ!rrence o% comm!nication and

di%%erences in lang!age materials do not present a %!ndamental complication %or this it(s >!st

heteroglossic speech. The occ!rrence o% the tr!ncated reso!rces described in chapter $ = the

de%a!lt mode o% occ!rrence o% m!ltiling!al speech 4 wo!ld s!ggest = wo!ld then be

describable in terms that are %ar more sensiti#e to immediate and distant historical conte+t.

e then see how the a!thors o% the %ra!d email messages attempt to constr!ct the #oice o% a

tr!stworthy b!siness partner o!t o% the reso!rces that they ha#e at their disposal technological

reso!rces and skills c!lt!ral ones and ling!istic ones. -nd we see that d!e to the partic!lar

con%ig!ration o% these reso!rces se#eral #oices are being prod!ced that o% the tr!stworthy

b!siness partner along %ith that o% someone %rom -%rica writing 8nglish with an -%rican

accent 9a historical conte+t"%eat!re; the #oice o% a crook trying to l!re me into a tricky deal

and so %orth. e get in short a clearer image o% the real comm!nication that is attempted in

these messages.

So the shi%t %rom lang!age to reso!rces in o!r perspecti#e sho!ld not pose any serio!s

di%%ic!lties. ?!t there is a second shi%t one %rom a #iew in which lang!age is narrowly tied to

a comm!nity a time and a place 9the Sa!ss!rean synchrony also precipitated into notions o%

the speech comm!nity and related ones; and in which lang!age is primarily seen as ha#ing

local %!nctions to a #iew in which lang!age e+ists in and %or mobility across space and time.

This shi%t 4 wo!ld say is concept!ally %ar more momento!s than the pre#io!s one beca!se it

%orces !s to consider ling!istic signs detached %rom their traditional loc!s o% origin 9with a

speech comm!nity and with a speci%ic set o% local %!nctions; and instead re"placed so to

speak in #ery di%%erent loci o% prod!ction and !ptake = where the con#entional associati#e

%!nctions o% s!ch signs cannot be taken %or granted. e saw e+amples o% this in chapter 2

when we disc!ssed 'ina(s Berri)re and 4 arg!ed there that s!ch shi%ts %orce !s to abandon the

con#entional connections between lang!age and its ling!istic %!nctions the French was not

ling!istic French in Aapan it was emblematic French and it only became ling!istic French

when someone with a degree o% ling!istic competence in French walked by. The !pshot o% this

is that we need to think o% lang!age semiotically and not ling!istically i% we intend to capt!rewhat goes on in s!ch cases. More in partic!lar we need to think o% ling!istic signs as being

1



inde$ically organized where inde+icality stands %or the pro>ection o% socioc!lt!ral %!nction

onto semiotic %orm. S!ch pro>ections o% %!nctions can be widely di#erse and the range o%

possible %!nctions %or ling!istic signs is %ar larger than >!st their con#entional ling!istic

%!nctions. Thinking abo!t s!ch signs ling!istically as lang!age obsc!res many o% these

%!nctions and p!ts !s on an !nprod!cti#e track o% 9con#entionally !nderstood;

m!ltiling!alism. 4t(s only when we think o% ling!istic signs as being #ery m!ch Hopen( signs

onto which se#eral %!nctions 9sim!ltaneo!sly; can be pro>ected that we can start to %ind

answers to the comple+ity and o%ten bewildering phenomenology o% lang!age in globalization

9see Sil#erstein 2::3a@ -gha 2::/ %or a broad disc!ssion o% these themes;.

hat 4 want to do ne+t is to show how the concept!al tools 4 ha#e de#eloped here can

be !sed to prod!cti#ely recast hotly debated socioling!istic iss!es and 4 will take the hottest

possible one 8nglish in the world. The topic o% 8nglish its spread and its many modi%ied

#arieties worldwide de%ines the socioling!istics o% globalization in its c!rrent %orm. -nd as

we ha#e seen repeatedly one #ery dominant paradigm in addressing this iss!e is that o%

ling!istic imperialism 9,hillipson 12; and ling!istic rights 9Sk!tnabb"Kangas 2:::;. This

paradigm s!bscribes to a socioling!istics o% immobile lang!ages = 4 ha#e disc!ssed aspects o%

this in chapter 2 = and ass!mes that where 8nglish occ!rs indigeno!s 9and especially

minority; lang!ages are threatened %irst with attrition and e#ent!ally with lang!age death 9the

so"called Hling!icidal( hypothesis within the ling!istic rights paradigm hence%orth abbre#iated

as E,;. 4 ha#e already repeatedly emphasized that this paradigm misses the point o% what

s!ch new globalized lang!age hierarchies mean 9e.g. ?lommaert 2::1b;. et me now try to

apply the instr!mentari!m o% a socioling!istics o% globalization to this 6!estion.

'.2. 9nglish in the periphery< imperialism re/isite

4 will do so by re#isiting some o% my own research on the regime o% lang!age in Tanzania

98ast -%rica;. 4 will di#ide my disc!ssion into three s!bsections. 4n the %irst one 4 shall

s!mmarize the main %indings o% a pre#io!s st!dy on state ideology and lang!age in Tanzania

9?lommaert 1b;. The o!tcome will be a parado+ the state(s attempt towards the

generalization o% Swahili at 9almost; all le#els o% society was a h!ge s!ccess@ its attempt

towards ideological hegemony howe#er was a %ail!re. The two s!bsections to %ollow will

o%%er e+planations %or this %irst by e+amining the position o% the state #is"R"#is de#elopments

both at higher and at lower scale"le#els and second by looking at some grassroots lang!age

1/



practices that may re#eal some o% the dynamics that ca!sed the parado+. Finally 4 will address

the way in which this case may in%orm a di%%erent approach to ling!istic rights and ine6!ality.

Thro!gho!t this disc!ssion my aim is to clari%y the theoretical re%lections made

elsewhere in this book and to demonstrate that they may ha#e some analytical p!rchase. More

speci%ically 4 hope to demonstrate that the !s!al E, ass!mptions can be s!pplanted by the

ones o!tlined abo#e and that this might lead to better more precise and more empirically

s!stainable o!tcomes. 4n E, the arg!ment o% ling!istic rights 9a; almost in#ariably in#ol#es

the promotion o% indigeno!s lang!ages as stat!s lang!ages at all le#els o% society and 9b; it

!s!ally identi%ies the state as a cr!cial actor in this process both negati#ely 9the state denies

rights to people; and positi#ely 9the state is the actor that sho!ld pro#ide and sec!re rights %or

people;. Tanzania is a case in point.

The Tanzanian parado!

The case is easily s!mmarized. The postcolonial Tanzanian 9then still Tanganyikan; state was

one o% the %irst to declare an indigeno!s lang!age Swahili the national lang!age o% the

co!ntry. 4t also became an o%%icial lang!age alongside the %ormer colonial lang!age 8nglish.

Swahili was immediately introd!ced as the medi!m o% instr!ction in primary ed!cation. The

real boost %or Swahili came when the state embarked on a massi#e campaign o% nation"

b!ilding in the mid"1:s. This nation"b!ilding campaign was an attempt towards

establishing socialist hegemony and Swahili was gi#en a cr!cial role in this. The lang!age

was de%ined as the lang!age o% -%rican"socialist 9971amaa* ; ideas and the generalized spread

o% Swahili wo!ld be a meas!rable inde+ o% the spread o% socialism across the pop!lation.

- %ew 6!ali%ications are in order here. First the ideal sit!ation en#isaged by the

architects o% the campaign was monoglot 9Sil#erstein 1;. The campaign wo!ld be a

s!ccess when the pop!lation wo!ld !se one language imbued %ith one set of ideological

loads those o% C>amaa. 5omogeneity was the target and the spread o% Swahili"and"C>amaa

wo!ld ha#e to go hand in hand with the disappearance o% other lang!ages"and"ideologies. The

%irst target ob#io!sly was 8nglish = the lang!age o% imperialism capitalism and oppression@

b!t the same went %or the local lang!ages which were seen as #ehicles %or traditional

precolonial c!lt!res as well as %or Hnonstandard( #arieties o% Swahili 9e.g. code"switching the

!se o% !rban #arieties; that were sensed to indicate the incompleteness o% the process o%

hegemony. The Hbetter( and Hp!rer( one(s Swahili wo!ld be the better a socialist Tanzanian

1<



patriot one wo!ld be. e ha#e here a typical 5erderian cocktail o% one lang!ageIone

c!lt!reIone territory as an ideal organization %or society.

Second not only the conception o% lang!age as a #ehicle %or a speci%ied 9politically

de%ined; set o% 5erderian ideological #al!es b!t the whole operational conception o%

lang!age was inherited %rom colonial predecessor regimes. e see a long history at work

here. Swahili was standardized and its main #ehicle was 9normati#e; literacy prod!ced

thro!gh %ormal ed!cation systems. Scholarly e%%orts concentrated on standardization

lang!age Hde#elopment and modernization( p!rism and so %orth@ in short on the constr!ction

o% Swahili as an arte%act o% normati#ity %oc!sed on re%erential %!nctions. There was a model

%or s!ch a degree o% H%!ll lang!ageness( 8nglish. Thro!gho!t the history o% postcolonial

ling!istics in Tanzania scholars kept re%erring to 8nglish as the kind o% le#el o% Hde#elopment

and modernization( that needed to be attained %or Swahili. -nd pending that H%!ll

lang!ageness( o% Swahili 8nglish wo!ld ha!e to be !sed in higher ed!cation in order to

prod!ce a class o% top"notch intellect!als needed %or specialized ser#ice to the co!ntry. Th!s

while Swahili was spread to all corners o% the co!ntry and was !sed in almost e#ery aspect o%

e#eryday li%e post"primary ed!cation remained 9and still is; a domain where 8nglish was

hegemonic.

Becades o% concentrated e%%orts towards the goal set %orth in the early 1:s res!lted

in the generalized spread o% Swahili. Socioling!istically Swahili and its #arieties ha#e

become the identi%ying code o% p!blic acti#ities thro!gho!t Tanzania. ?!t what did not

happen was the ideological homogenization o% the co!ntry = while Swahilization was

mani%estly a s!ccess the monoglot ideal was a %ail!re. 'either 8nglish nor local lang!ages

and Himp!re( #arieties o% Swahili disappeared. -nd the spread o% Swahili did not gal#anize the

hegemony o% C>amaa the one"party system collapsed in the late 1<:s and it was replaced by

a m!ltiparty liberal capitalist state"organization which ironically adopted Swahili as its

#ehicle %or nationwide comm!nication 9>!st as the postcolonial state had adopted Swahili as

an interesting instr!ment %or propaganda and grassroots organization %rom the ?ritish

colonialists be%ore them;.

4n s!m Tanzania is a case where the state granted prestige stat!s to an indigeno!s

lang!age. 4t also granted its citizens %!ll rights to ac6!ire that lang!age. -nd it was a state

where the %ormal colonial lang!age was certainly d!ring the 1/:s a stigmatized lang!age

that sho!ld !ltimately be completely replaced by Swahili. 4n terms o% E, e#erything seemed

to be in place. So what went wrong7

1



The state in space and time

et !s begin by looking at how Tanzania %itted into larger pict!res. -s said earlier we ha#e to

concei#e o% the state as one scale"le#el in a strati%ied polycentric system. So what the state did

needs to be placed in a wider dynamic o% e#ents at other le#els. F!rthermore all o% this is

ca!ght in di%%erent historical processes and e#ery ingredient o% the process will show resid!al

elements o% these historical processes as well. From this #antage point se#eral obser#ations

can be made.

1. Tanzania was a space o% its own and the nation"b!ilding attempt was a typical state acti#ity

the range o% which was the territory controlled by the state. ?!t we clearly see a lot o%

moments where the state oriented towards higher"le#el transnational centers. -t the most

general le#el the constr!ction itsel% o% a national space was a %actor o% the international world

order o% the day which imposed the adoption o% colonial bo!ndaries onto the postcolonial

states and which also o%%ered models %or organizing the state b!rea!cracy and administration.

Tanzanians oriented towards a n!mber o% transnational ideals panafricanism and -%rican

liberation 9which sp!rred the !ni%ication o% Tanganyika and \anzibar and which also %orti%ied

socialism as a state ideology;@ the kind o% socialism championed by the organization o% 'on"

-ligned States 9in t!rn something which strongly oriented towards the 0old"ar %ramework;@

de!elopment ideals that e#ol#ed aro!nd s!stainable grassroots de#elopment 9an in%l!ence o%

Maoist 0hina;@ and standard western models o% %ormal education as cr!cial both to

de#elopment and nation"b!ilding.

2. Tanzania also oriented to transnational models o% lang!age and comm!nication. -s

mentioned earlier the state is o%ten the le#el where a modernist static homogeno!s and

rei%ied notion o% lang!age is constr!cted and !sed as something to which others need to orient

9?o!rdie! 11@ see also Ferg!son and G!pta 2::2;. Tanzania adopted earlier e+isting

models o% a monoglot regime o% lang!age %oc!sed aro!nd standard p!ri%ied and literacy"

dri#en #arieties o% Swahili 9c%. Fabian 1<@ 8rrington 2::1;. 4t also adopted a classic

nationalist model o% lang!age"and"ideology the 5erderian one. -nd it o%%ered these models as

normati#e to gro!ps in Tanzanian society both in e#eryday li%e in administration in

ed!cation and in scienti%ic work. 'e+t to this it also adopted e+isting worldwide ling!istic

hierarchies in which H%!lly de#eloped lang!ages( s!ch as 8nglish or French stood at the topand were the model %or Swahili 9de%ined in the same mo#e as somewhat lower on the ladder

2::



o% lang!age de#elopment;. 4n short Tanzania adopted a regime o% lang!age which was

transnational 9and which also de%ined the colonial era in the co!ntry; and inserted Swahili into

that regime.

3. Most o% what is said in 91; and 92; represents the dur?e dimension o% the Tanzanian

lang!age regime general conditions !nder which the Tanzanian state operates and which

o%ten become in#isible as soon as they are Hrepatriated( bro!ght into the national space as part

o% a national pro>ect 9that o% nation"b!ilding;. 4n its most simple %orms the transnational

models to which the state orients are trans%ormed into national models and o%%ered as points to

which s!b"national gro!ps o!ght to orient. The world system disappears o!t o% sight as soon

as the state brings it into the national space.

$. -t the same time this is not a static phenomenon and we need to consider the di%%erent

histories o% this phenomenon here. The position o% the Tanzanian state #is"R"#is higher le#els

shi%ts repeatedly thro!gho!t the postcolonial period. 4n general = and generalizing = three

periods can be de%ined 91; the shi%t o!t o% the colonial world order something which takes

the Tanzanian state a %ew years a%ter 4ndependence@ 92; the 0old ar i.e. the global world

order prior to 1:@ and 93; the post"1: world order i.e. the era o% contemporary

globalization and capitalist hegemony. 4n each o% these periods changes in the relati#e

inde+icalities occ!r. For instance with regard to the H#al!e( o% 8nglish it is clear that it shi%ts

%rom an ambi#alent stance in the %irst period 9being the lang!age both o% the %ormer oppressor

and the model %or organizing the independent state; to a markedly negati#e stance d!ring the

0old ar period and again to a moderately positi#e stance in the post"1: period. 8nglish in

each period 9b!t also Swahili and any other lang!age or #ariety; recei#es #al!e attrib!tions

that deri#e %rom scales #alid transnationally and the de#elopment o% lang!age e#al!ations

testi%y to the shi%ting alignments o% the Tanzanian state in the world system. 'ote too that the

three periods are not to be separated rather than breaks between one period and another we

see how resid!al aspects o% the #al!e system in pre#io!s periods still occ!r in later ones. 'ew

orders o% inde+icality are b!ilt o!t o% the r!bble o% earlier ones.

&. ?!t the state also responded to grassroots and ci#il society %orces notably with regard to

the relationship between Swahili and local minority lang!ages. ithin the normati#e %rame

%or which the state as a 9strong; center stood #ario!s gro!ps in society de#eloped co!nter"hegemonic disco!rses and practices. 4n its most #isible %orm people were !nwilling to

2:1



replace their e+isting repertoires with the monoglot comple+ o% Swahili. 'obody act!ally

disp!ted the importance o% national ling!istic !nity b!t only a %ew people accepted the idea o%

indi#id!al monoling!alism. Most people allocated speci%ic %!nctions to the Swahili #arieties

they had adopted into their repertoires and enth!siastically shi%ted between #ario!s

ingredients in their repertoires 9Mekacha 13@ Msan>ila 1< 2::$;. F!rthermore especially

the emerging class o% pro%essional intellect!als while !s!ally strongly s!pporting

Swahilization la!nched themsel#es into debates abo!t %hat &ind of .socialist/ !alues the

lang!age was s!pposed to disseminate. The state was %orced into s!ch debates and the

general assessments o% lang!age policies were e%%ects o% s!ch debates between state and ci#il

society. To be precise the way in which the state(s actions were seen as either s!ccesses or

%ail!res was an e%%ect o% a national dynamic in which the transnational dimension was hardly

#isible = in itsel% e#idence o% the way in which the state %!nctions as a centering instit!tion

creating a Hnational( space and th!s e%%ecting clos!re to aspects o% the iss!e that transcend the

national space. For local intellect!als in s!ch debates the only center to which they oriented

was the state@ %or the state it was both the world system and ci#il society.

. The bottom line to all o% this is the state was an intermediate instit!tion responding both to

calls %rom abo#e and %rom below and the state to some e+tent got st!ck between these two

le#els. The state was not an a!tonomo!s actor b!t an embedded one one that in#ited #ery

di%%erent approaches dependent on the le#el %rom which one approached it. -dd to this the

heritage o% models o% lang!age and lang!age in%rastr!ct!res = the monoglot p!rist standard

5erderian comple+ = handed down as part o% the way in which Tanzania had to %it into the

world order 9and de#eloped %or Swahili by colonial ling!istics; and we end !p with a

strangely contradictory general image. The state was e+tremely power%!l as the actor that

de%ined the national space and some critical ingredients o% it and as the actor that had

absol!te control o#er an in%rastr!ct!re that led to generalized lang!age spread. ?!t at the same

time it was e+tremely weak beca!se the instr!ments with which it co!ld work were both

de%icient in scope and capacity 9Tanzania was and is a #ery poor co!ntry; and hand"me"

downs %rom transnational le#els that co!ld ne#er answer the ambitions o% the state itsel% nor

those o% local gro!ps in ci#il society. To p!t it in its cr!dest 9and hence o#erstated; %orm the

state had adopted socioling!istic models and ideals that were recipes %or ine6!ality where#er

they were applied while these models were at the same time always o%%ered as recipes %or

progress modernization and de#elopment. The state adopted cr!cial orders o% inde+icality o%a capitalist society and attempted to apply them in the constr!ction o% a socialist state.

2:2



,ooling around with language

e ha#e now described the awkward position o% the state. et !s now mo#e down thetemporal and spatial scale le#el to that o% e#eryday li%e in !rban Tanzania and ask what did

people e%%ecti#ely do with lang!age7 -gain we ha#e to keep the general model in mind a

strati%ied polycentric system in which people orient to a #ariety o% 9hierarchically ordered;

systemically reprod!ced inde+icalities. The state pro#ided s!ch a set o% inde+icalities and it

did so with considerable %orce aplomb and determination. ?!t let !s not %orget that

4t is entirely possible 9L; that in the ordinary co!rse o% their history comm!nities will

come to di%%er in the degree and direction in which they de#elop their ling!istic means

9L; The same ling!istic system as !s!ally described may be part o% di%%erent let !s

say socioling!istic systems whose nat!re cannot be ass!med b!t m!st be

in#estigated 95ymes 1/$ /3 emphasis in original;.

To the e+tent that we re6!ire e#idence to back this !p ?en Eampton(s work on

Hcrossing( and Hstyling( 91& 2::; is a ready candidate. Eampton demonstrates how ondonadolescents o% a #ariety o% ethnoling!istic backgro!nds create ways o% speaking that orient to

new peer"gro!p or pop!lar yo!th c!lt!re inde+icalities and th!s allow Hcrossing( into

ethnoling!istic inde+ical spaces not c!stomarily theirs 9e.g. white -nglo kids adopting

Aamaican 0reole;. 4n practice Hc!stomarily( here stands %or inde+icalities that are #alid at

higher le#els and are prod!ced by other centring instit!tions s!ch as ed!cation neighborhood

norms or national norms o% Hstandard( and Hs!bstandard( or prestige and stigma. Th!s what

co!nts as a prestigio!s lang!age #ariety %rom the point o% #iew o% the school system can be a

stigmatized #ariety %rom the point o% #iew o% the p!pils and #ice #ersa 9e.g. Easta slang can

be a prestige code;. ing!istic reso!rces can indeed %!nction in #ery di%%erent socioling!istic

systems to adopt 5ymes( terms and they can do so sim!ltaneo!sly.

This 4 wo!ld arg!e is the le#el at which we ha#e to look i% we want to !nderstand

what people act!ally do with lang!age what lang!age does to them and what lang!age

means to them in what partic!lar ways it matters to them. -nd i% we want to make ling!istic

rights more than >!st a trope in political"ling!istic disco!rse this is where we sho!ld start.

2:3



4n#ariably alas we end !p with a rather complicated image. et me gi#e a %ew e+amples %rom

Tanzania.

Public "nglish

Oears ago 4 started noticing the o%ten pec!liar #arieties o% written 8nglish !sed in all kinds o%

p!blic displays in !rban Bar es Salaam. S!ch #arieties wo!ld come to me in the %orm o% signs

on doors and walls o% shops bars and resta!rants inscriptions on the small pri#ately operated

b!ses that pro#ide mass transportation ad#ertisements in newspapers or on billboards road

signs and so %orth. The most striking aspect o% these p!blicly displayed %orms o% 8nglish

literacy was the density o% Herrors( or rather !ne+pected t!rns o% phrase in them. 5ere is a

small sample

" )und rising dinner party 9on a banner in central Bar es Salaam;

" Disabled 8ios& 9the name o% a Hkiosk( = a con#erted container that ser#es as a small

shop = operated by a disabled man;

"(hole sallers of hard%ere 9sign at a hardware shop;

"#he&ilango -escaf? 9the name o% a ca%J on Shekilango road in s!b!rban Bar es

Salaam;

"ne% #i&inde tea .room/ 9the name o% a ca%J note the brackets;

"#liming food 9in an ad#ertisement %or a health shop;

"Con )ord 9written on a b!s;

" Appro$i Mately 9written on a b!s;

"#leping Coach 9written on a long"distance b!s;

0learly these inscriptions are packed with in%ormation. They re#eal a problem with

the distrib!tion o% ling!istic reso!rces standard 8nglish with its codi%ied re%erential meanings

on the one hand normati#e literacy con#entions %or 8nglish on the other. Seen %rom the angle

o% monoglot normati#ity the people who wrote and !sed these inscriptions display incomplete

insertions in economies o% ling!istic %orms. 4n that sense they testi%y to some o% the cr!cial

problems o% lang!age policy in Tanzania the lasting prestige %!nctions attrib!ted to 8nglish

combined with the e+tremely restricted access to its prestige"bearing standard #arieties 9the

latter being completely conditioned by access to post"primary ed!cation;.

2:$



?!t there are other aspects to this. 4t is clear that the prod!cers 9and cons!mers; o%

these signs orient towards the stat!s hierarchy in which 8nglish occ!pies the top. This is an

orientation to a transnational global hierarchy rein%orced by the state(s ambi#alent and

meandering stance on 8nglish. There is an orientation to 8nglish as a code associated with

core #al!es o% capitalist ideas o% s!ccess entreprene!rship mobility l!+!ry and %emale

bea!ty. The !se o% 8nglish is sensed to inde+ all o% this. ?!t at the same time it inde+es this

not in terms o% internationally #alid norms 9e.g. standard #arieties o% written 8nglish; b!t in

term o% local diacritics. The man who commissioned the disabled &ios& sign probably did not

imagine himsel% as an international b!sinessman b!t he did imagine himsel% as a b!sinessman

in Bar es Salaam 9or e#en more speci%ically in the Magomeni neighborhood o% Bar es

Salaam;. -nd at this point a new space o% meaning"attrib!tion is opened. e ha#e an act o%

comm!nication which at once orients towards transnational inde+icalities and to strictly local

ones and the e%%ect is that the 8nglish !sed in these signs has to make sense here in

Magomeni = b!t as "nglish i.e. as a code s!ggesting a Hmo#e o!t( o% Magomeni and an

insertion into transnational imaginary networks.

This is a repatriation o% sign"comple+es which o%%ers a tremendo!s semiotic potential

%or !sers they can prod!ce strictly local meanings o% great density and e%%ect. The man who

wrote Con )ord on his b!s was sim!ltaneo!sly ad#ertising the brand o% his #ehicle all!ding

to the %olk"category o% Hconmen( = smooth talkers and ladies( men = and boasting the

standards o% com%ort in his b!s while also displaying his wit and capacity to per%orm word

play in 8nglish. The same goes %or the owner o% the #he&ilango -escaf? an anchoring in the

local geography goes hand in hand with a display o% knowledgeability o% prestigio!s

8!ropean brand names 9'esca%J; a s!ggestion o% a degree o% sophistication and 8!ropean"

to!ch"o%"class %or his b!siness and a %lair %or %inding well"so!nding names %or things. -nd as

%or the a!thors o% fund rising or sliming food they target an a!dience who wo!ld percei#e the

total #al!e o% the 8nglish display rather than its normati#e correctness and so o%%er them a

space %or identi%ying with high"class internationalized categories o% acti#ities. 4t is the #al!e

o% 8nglish and o% literacy in Dar es #alaam that has to be p!t central.

So contrary to what a certain literat!re wo!ld s!ggest we are not really witnessing an

in#asion o% an Himperialist( or Hkiller( lang!age here. hat we are witnessing is a highly

comple+ intricate pattern o% appropriation and deployment o% ling!istic reso!rces whose

#al!es ha#e been relocated %rom a transnational to a national set o% inde+icalities. 4t is a

'anzanian bo!rgeois 9or bo!rgeois"aspiring; reso!rce.

2:&



'ough tal& and its norms

4n the mid"1:s 4 started to note the emergence o% a hip"hop scene among yo!ngsters in Bar

es Salaam. *ne thing led to another and 4 soon %o!nd mysel% in the company o% yo!ng people

willing to initiate me into their ways o% li%e. 4t started with a girl telling me that her brother

now spoke is%ahili i.e. the pl!ral o% HKiswahili( = m!ltiple Swahilis at the same time. The

boy was called and he prod!ced some phrases to me in the presence o% his %ather who

disappro#ingly said that Hthis was not Swahili( and told me that the boy anaongeza chum!i =

Hadded salt( e+aggerated went too %ar. E!les had been broken. 9'ote that at this point we

already ha#e two metapragmatic 6!ali%ications %or the talk o% the boy one that re%ers to a

pl!rality o% Hlang!ages( another marking He+centricity(.;

The girl and her brother bro!ght me in contact with a gro!p o% appro+imately 1$

yo!ng people all li#ing in the neighborhood and all between 1$ and 2: years old. The gro!p

consisted o% si+ male core members and a second circle o% boys and girls. 4n terms o% ethnic

backgro!nd as well as social class the gro!p was highly heterogeneo!s some o% the members

were poorly paid waiters or messengers one worked as an aide to a shoe repairman while

some others were children o% middle"class %amilies and had access to prestige goods 9clothes

shoes m!sic cassettes; and cars. Oet there was clearly a Hgro!p( here.

"Bespite class di%%erences all o% the members wo!ld de%ine their o!tlook on li%e in

terms o% deep %r!stration = an awareness o% being on the margins o% the world

e+pressed thro!gh mottos s!ch as 1ua &ali Hb!rning s!n( or Hhard heat( 9a metonym %or

the general condition o% po#erty and misery in Tanzania; or machungu sana Hm!ch

bitterness( 9i.e. %r!stration; and marked re%erences to places displaying an awareness

o% sit!atedness in a world system ma1uu Hthe est( 9literally Hthe things !p there(;

Jahanam Hthe third world( 9literally H5ell(; or motoni Hthe third world( 9literally Hin the

%ire(;.

"F!rthermore the core members had adopted nicknames and insisted on being called

by these names in the conte+t o% the gro!p. The names again re#eal #ario!s

orientations to stat!s comple+es andIor identity categories. Some were modelled on

-%rican"-merican acronyms 8J another copied the name o% a well known Eeggae

artist 'oshi 9,eter Tosh; another was called blazameni = a local #ersion o% Hbrother

man(. Oet another was called msafiri Hthe tra#eller( 9the boy had spent some time inSo!th -%rica working in the mines = an e+perience con%erring considerable prestige;

2:



and %inally the oldest member o% the gro!p was called 1ibaba Hlittle %ather( 9he had

%athered a child;.

"The gro!p also identi%ied themsel#es as belonging to a larger category o% !rban

yo!ngsters %ahuni Hcrooks( Hbandits( the Swahili e6!i#alent o% the HGangsta( o%

-merican 5iphop c!lt!re. 4t was 6!ickly pointed o!t to me that this label sho!ld not

%righten me %or there were se#eral categories o% %ahuni. They reass!red me with

statements s!ch as and sisi hatuibi Hwe don(t steal( 9in other words Hwe are not real

criminals(;.

"The gro!p had its own meeting places a container con#erted into a bar in %ront o%

which the shoe repairman who employed one o% the members had his small shop 9a

small stall with one bench;. -nother hango!t %or the gro!p was a soccer %ield a %ew

h!ndred meters %!rther where they co!ld meet in plenum. There was a distinct locality

to the gro!p = a barrio awareness.

-lready we see how the gro!p organized itsel% in re%erence to m!ltiple centers the

world system and their own marginalized position therein was one s!ch #ery salient %oc!s o%

orientation@ it pro#ided a %rame o% re%erence in which 8nglish hip"hop slang Easta slang and

tra#elling co!ld ac6!ire partic!lar emblematic #al!es to be e+ploited in naming and

6!ali%ying practices. They shared some aspects o% their gro!pness with other %ahuni in Bar es

Salaam = a generic %ahuni scene being another center the %oc!s o% which were the star rap

gro!ps o% Bar es Salaam 9gro!ps with names s!ch as II Proud and Da Dee3plo%3matz and

with colossal prestige. 0apitalizing on the stardom o% the rap gro!ps two weekly tabloid

magazines had started to !se bits o% &ihuni in their attempt to reach the yo!ng !rban readers;.

This le#el was in t!rn s!perimposed by transnational 9b!t essentially -%rican"-merican;

HGangsta( c!lt!re notably %oc!sed on international rap stars s!ch as T!pac. -nd %inally the

neighborhood = their barrio = was a power%!l %oc!s o% orientations. *ther %ahuni gro!ps

were all identi%ied in re%erence to Bar es Salaam neighborhoods the %ahuni o% Manzese o%

Magomeni o% Cb!ngo and so %orth.

The gro!p o% %ahuni spoke &ihuni the lang!age o% the bandits and the !is%ahili

earlier mentioned to me. 4 started recording con#ersations with the gro!p and in#ariably s!ch

con#ersations took the shape o% !nilateral displays o% &ihuni in the %orm o% single words or

phrases. The gro!p !ns!rprisingly was deeply committed to the creation and maintenance o%

an Hantilang!age( shared by the whole o% the Bar es Salaam %ahuni scene. 4t consisted o% ba%%ling instances o% ling!istic mi+ing borrowing and rele+i%ication in Swahili 8nglish and

2:/



other lang!ages and so!nd play. 0onsider the %ollowing e+amples loosely categorized as

8nglish 9rele+i%ied; borrowings@ rele+i%ications %rom Swahili@ borrowings %rom other

lang!ages@ so!nd play !ifupi 9shortened %orms; and so on

8nglish borrowings

"&u&ipa to lea#e to take o%% 9 Hto keep(;

3&utos to lea#e alone 9 Hto toss(;

"macho balbu eyes wide open in amazement or %ear 9balbu HPlight"Qb!lb(;

"mentali %riend 9 Hmental( re%ers to Hmental %it(;

" 8rezi %riend 9 Hcrazy(;

"&umaindi to want something 9 Hmind(;

"&u&rash to disagree 9 Hto crash;

"de%a&a man"o%"all"trades 9 Hday worker(;

"bati bl!e >eans 9 Hboard( corr!gated iron roo% plates;

" pusha dr!gs dealer 9 Hp!sher(;

Eele+i%ications %rom Swahili 9HSS( standard Swahili;

"unga cocaine 9SS Hmaize %lo!r(;

"mzigo marih!ana 9SS Hbag( Hl!ggage(;

"chupa cha chai 9also thermos; small plane 9SS Htea %lask( Hthermos %lask(;

" pipa big plane 9SS Hoil dr!m(;

"&u&ong*otea to stalk 9SS &u&ong*ota Hto hit( Hto beat(;

"&upiga bao to ha#e se+ 9SS Hto o#ertake a #ehicle(;

?orrownings %rom other lang!ages

"m%ela police man 9 Maasai;

"&ulupango >ail 9 !ba &u lupango;

"gan1a marih!ana 9 Aamaican 0reole Easta Slang;

"&aya marih!ana 9Aamaican 0reole Easta Slang;

So!nd play etc.

3&upasha k!pata to recei#e

3zibiliduda a girl who plays hard to get 9also gozigozi;"&ibosile a rich man 9Hboss(;

2:<



"&ishitobe a girl with a large backside 9re%ers to the name o% a Greek cargo #essel;

" 8*oo Kariakoo 9a neighborhood;

" Bese Manzese 9a neighborhood;

" Migomigo: Magomeni 9a neighborhood;

" Jobegi Aohannesb!rg

The dynamics o% &ihuni are not e+ceptional #ery similar phenomena will be met

elsewhere in similar kinds o% gro!ps. 'either is the domain distrib!tion o% &ihuni s!rprising.

Terms co#er domains s!ch as crime dr!gs se+!al interco!rse with girls %emale genital

morphology tra#el po#erty #s. wealth the city the gro!p and its networks.

?!t more interesting is the normati!ity in which all o% this is co!ched. 8ihuni had its

own centers its own bodies o% codi%ied norms the rap stars and the tabloids that !sed &ihuni.

The gro!p spontaneo!sly %ormalized its sessions with me t!rning them into a kind o% %ormal

instr!ction into the lang!age. 4 a!dio"recorded what went on b!t they also insisted that 4

sho!ld ma&e notes o% the words and phrases they o%%ered me. -nd while 4 was making notes

they wo!ld watch care%!lly how 4 noted the words and phrases and they wo!ld occasionally =

rather #igoro!sly = correct me whene#er what 4 wrote down did not correspond to what they

tho!ght it sho!ld be. 4 re#erted to a pattern o% e+plicit checking what 4 had written asking

hi!yo@ 9Hlike this7(; and showing them my notes. *rthography mattered. For instance a

%re6!ently !sed term was toto = a se+!alized term %or Hgirl( deri#ed %rom Swahili mtoto

Hchild(. The pl!ral o% toto is totoz instead o% adding a ?ant! pl!ral pre%i+ 9%a3toto; the gro!p

!sed a 5ip"hop slang pl!ral s!%%i+ H z ( tying the !se o% the term %irmly to transnational

Gangsta c!lt!re by e+ploiting the morphology and orthography o% Swahili.

hat this means is that remarkably &ihuni is a literate code = or at least that written

images o% &ihuni terms mattered in the process o% trans%erIinitiation in which 4 was in#ol#ed.

The code trans%erred to me needed to be correct and in their #iew o% what a lang!age sho!ld

be this meant that it was s!b>ect to standards o% written %orm %or control o#er written

#arieties o% &ihuni o%%ered opport!nities %or semiotic alignment with the local and the

translocal. This %le+ible hermetic s!bc!lt!ral code dismissed by parents and others as Hnot

Swahili( was concei#ed o% as a H%!ll lang!age( by its !sers = as one o% the many !is%ahili

controlled by apparently 6!ite strict 9Hperipheral(; norms and r!les.

A!st like in the case o% the 8nglish inscriptions disc!ssed earlier the pict!re we get

here is one o% relocation and appropriation = in other words o% semiotic opport!nity = ratherthan o% deterioration o% standards lang!age loss or any other simple metaphor o% 8nglish

2:



imperialism. There is not one single comple+ o% inde+icalities attached to the highly Himp!re(

blend o% whate#er ling!istic material these kids co!ld get hold o%. The inde+icalities are

m!ltiple and again like in the cases disc!ssed earlier re#ol#e aro!nd the capacity to s!ggest

the transnational while %irmly remaining within the national the regional e#en the strictly

local it is a repertoire that allows them to Hget o!t( o% Bar es Salaam culturally to c!lt!rally

relocate their local en#ironments in a global semiotics o% class stat!s blackness

marginalization. -nd i% we look %or the #al!e the code has %or the kids themsel#es it is their

language capt!red in normati#e perceptions and acti#ities as soon as someone %rom the

o!tside intends to ac6!ire it. 4t is treated as i% it were a H%!ll( lang!age with a name 9&ihuni; a

set o% spoken norms and registers and e#en an orthography.

$hat went wrong

4% we now combine the elements disc!ssed in this section we can begin to see what went so

dramatically wrong in Tanzania = in the eyes o% its own lang!age planners. The key to

!nderstanding this is the %act that Tanzania was not an a!tonomo!s space that it was

encaps!lated in di#ergent processes both at a higher and at a lower le#el. The state was not an

a!tonomo!s actor and it co!ld not operate in total %reedom it had to operate !nder conditions

that were both historically and synchronically constraining. -t the same time it was the actor

!pon which e#erything con#erged it was the centring instit!tion in the process. The %ail!re o%

its own de%inition o% hegemony lies in the %act that the state was so weak because it was so

strong. The cr!cial center did what it had to do be the cr!cial center@ b!t it had to do that

!nder constraints that precl!ded s!ccess.

The e%%ect was the creation o% a space in which a h!gely !ne6!al pattern o% distrib!tion

o% ling!istic reso!rces occ!rred and started to operate 9#ery di%%erent %rom ?o!rdie!(s !ni%ied

ling!istic market;. Dernac!lar Swahili was generally spread with some degree o% literacy in

Swahili %or a rather large gro!p o% the pop!lation. 4n a di%%erent stream 8nglish contin!ed to

be a prestigio!s reso!rce beca!se o% its embeddedness in a class"organizing system o%

reprod!ction higher ed!cation which %or a long time was the only ticket to the elites. This

order o% inde+icalities in which 8nglish standard and literate lang!age #arieties stood on top

and #ernac!lar Swahili and local ethnic lang!ages were way below was a national order b!t

it was ob#io!sly permeated by transnational orders. -nd the #ario!s scale"le#els at which

s!ch inde+icalities operated = the transnational the national the regional the strictly local =co!ld all be oriented to by speakers. ?y !sing one way o% speaking #ers!s another they co!ld

21:



Hplace( themsel#es in relation to images c!lled %rom the #ario!s le#els the combination o%

which was a strongly local semiotics o% identity probably only %!lly !nderstandable = %!lly

Hsocial( = to people %rom that place as we saw in chapter 3.

This s!rely is a %eat!re o% ine6!ality the capacity to Hmo#e o!t( by means o% speci%ic

semiotic reso!rces is de%initely one o% the elements o% what we !nderstand by Hempowering(

while reso!rces with a Hplacing( e%%ect = keeping speakers Hin place( = wo!ld be a %eat!re o%

disempowerment. 4% the !se o% a partic!lar %orm o% 8nglish %ails to t!rn yo! into an

international b!sinessman b!t rather makes yo! more than e#er the small"time shopkeeper

%rom Magomeni then the mapping o% %orm o#er %!nction needs to be looked into care%!lly.

?!t the point is that s!ch mappings occ!r locally that the Hsocioling!istic system( re%erred to

by 5ymes cannot in any way be e6!ated to some s!pposedly internationally #alid system in

which 8nglish is always empowering or disempowering and similar simplicities are applied

to indigeno!s lang!ages = the socioling!istic system consists o% the local orders o%

inde+icality. hat is disempowering in the case o% Tanzania is the whole historical process o%

being ca!ght in a marginal position in the world system. This whole process go#erns the #al!e

o% the ling!istic reso!rces it go#erns what people can do with them and what they do to

people. 4n the case o% Tanzania ine6!ality resides in the %act that the %!nctions o% ling!istic

reso!rces controlled by speakers are primarily local and this goes %or local lang!ages Swahili

and 8nglish alike. -s soon as they get mo#ed o!t o% the local en#ironment and get circ!lated

translocally they lose %!nction at a rapid pace. The strong"weak state has le%t its mark. 1

"iscussion

et me now try to mo#e this disc!ssion back to the iss!e o% ling!istic rights. 4 shall %irst

s!mmarize my case. 4 ha#e tried to show that i% we adopt an ethnographic #iewpoint on the

iss!e o% lang!age in society we need to %oc!s on how ling!istic reso!rces are act!ally

employed and !nder what conditions in real societies. 4n order to arri#e there we can !se a

%ramework in which lang!age !se is seen as oriented towards m!ltiple b!t strati%ied centers

that constr!ct and o%%er opport!nities to reprod!ce inde+icalities. S!ch inde+icalities

determine the Hsocial( in lang!age !se and they are the basis o% interpreti#e work. The way in

which they are organized is the loc!s o% ine6!ality.

4n order to !nderstand real processes o% ine6!ality the di%%erent processes need to be

sit!ated. 4n contemporary scholarship no analysis o% national phenomena can a%%ord too#erlook the global le#el which de%ines or constrains a lot o% what can be done nationally.

211



This is where we need a %resh look at the state as an actor in this %ield e#en i% the state

appears to be weak its position #is"R"#is global %orces remains cr!cial as does its position

#is"R"#is grassroots and ci#il society processes. e m!st look howe#er not e+cl!si#ely at the

state(s concrete performati!e actions s!ch as legislation en%orcement o% regimes o% lang!age

in ed!cation and b!rea!cracy and so %orth b!t also at its role as a center a point o% re%erence

contrast and comparison which o%ten de%ines the #al!e and rele#ance o% actions !ndertaken by

other actors. ooking at socioling!istic phenomena %rom this angle might help !s !nderstand

the real role and %!nction o% lang!age practices %or people = their #al!e"attrib!tions and their

!nderstandings o% s!ch practices. For i% we belie#e we can do something abo!t ine6!ality we

need to know its loc!s its real mod!s operandi its str!ct!re and ob>ects. -nd this 4 wo!ld

arg!e re6!ires an ethnographic o!tlook in%ormed by history and general socioling!istic

insights.

-pplying this as in the case o% Tanzania may yield dist!rbingly comple+ and

ambi#alent b!t solidly realistic res!lts. 4n the Tanzanian case 4 cannot be led to belie#e that

8nglish is only an agent o% oppression or minorization. The #arieties o% 8nglish spread across

society enter a local social"semiotic economy and so o%%er opport!nities %or localizing

transnational inde+icalities to speakers the e%%ects o% which are highly meaning%!l locally.

The problem is they are only meaning%!l locally they do not co!nt as H8nglish( as soon as

translocal norms are imposed on them. The kinds o% 8nglish we ha#e seen in o!r disc!ssion

abo#e 9and in #ario!s e+amples in the pre#io!s chapters; are what we co!ld call Hlow"

mobility( %orms o% 8nglish they only co!nt as 8nglish in that partic!lar en#ironment. So the

story o% the Hkiller lang!age( 8nglish becomes considerably more complicated 9and

interesting 4 wo!ld s!ggest;. There are #ery di%%erent 8nglishes at play at #ery di%%erent

scale"le#els and with #ery di%%erent e%%ects and %!nctions.

'either can 4 be led to belie#e that Swahili an indigeno!s lang!age has only been the

key to progress and liberation %or the Tanzanians. -gain it isn(t that simple. Swahili was

d!ring its heyday as the national lang!age o% 71amaa Tanzania as e%%ecti#e an Himperial(

lang!age as 8nglish E!ssian or Mandarin 0hinese. 4t was imposed as a monoglot standard

with its own prestige #arieties and it was promoted together with strong enco!ragements to

stop !sing other lang!ages. The introd!ction o% Swahili in primary ed!cation in the early

1:s may be seen %rom one angle as a liberating and re#ol!tionary act which eroded the

!n6!estioned hegemony o% 8nglish in the co!ntry. Seen %rom another angle o% co!rse it

meant the elimination o% the h!ndred"pl!s other indigeno!s lang!ages as media o% %ormalinstr!ction@ and %or those speaking these other lang!ages the new medi!m o% instr!ction was a

212



foreign lang!age = a %oreign prestige lang!age a lang!age o% power and control = that needed

to be ac6!ired. 9et !s not o#erlook the simple %act that a lang!age is not less H%oreign(

beca!se it is one(s neighbors( lang!age.; 4% indigeno!s minority lang!ages ha#e disappeared

in Tanzania since the 1:s Swahili is most likely to be one o% its killers to adopt %or a

moment the E, line o% arg!ment.

The point is howe#er that single Hlang!ages( attached to single collections o%

attrib!tes #al!es and e%%ects will ne#er do as a %ramework %or thinking abo!t these iss!es.

8thnographically we will always see comple+ blending mi+ing and reallocation processes in

which as said at the o!tset the di%%erences between Hlang!ages( are altogether >!st one %actor.

4ne6!ality has to do with modes of language use incl!ding >!dgments passed on s!ch !se not

with lang!ages and i% we intend to do something abo!t it we need to de#elop an awareness

that it is not necessarily the lang!age yo! speak b!t ho% yo! speak it %hen yo! can speak it

and to %hom that matters. 4t is a matter o% !oice not o% lang!age.

'.3. ;onclusion

4 hope this long ill!stration clari%ies the potential o% the di%%erent approach 4 ha#e tried to

sketch in this book and pers!ades others to e+plore the opport!nities it appears to o%%er. S!ch

opport!nities 4 wo!ld #ent!re lie in se#eral domains o% socioling!istic in6!iry. -s 4 said at

the o!tset socioling!istics is traditionally more at ease while st!dying a #illage than while

st!dying the world. St!dying the world has become ine#itable now and what is re6!ired %or

that is a di%%erent socioling!istics one that has recast its %o!ndations so as to %it the c!rrent

phenomena and processes. S!ch phenomena and processes are messy as we ha#e seen and

many o% the traditional concepts o% socioling!istics will ha#e to be sacri%iced in %a#o!r o%

more open and %le+ible ones capable o% capt!ring the !npredictability o% socioling!istic li%e

in the age o% globalization.The main sacri%ice %or socioling!istics is the old Sa!ss!rean synchrony the idea that

lang!age phenomena can be e+amined witho!t taking into acco!nt their spatial and temporal

sit!atedness. There is no room %or s!ch a synchrony in the socioling!istics o% globalization

that 4 ha#e sketched here. 4 ha#e arg!ed that the obser#able socioling!istic phenomena and

processes = synchronic in traditional >argon = are in e%%ect synchronizations o% tremendo!sly

complicated series o% historical and spatial processes. 8#ery synchronic snapshot o%

socioling!istic reality represents a moment in a process o% temporal and spatial mobility and

we can !nderstand this synchronized reality only when we consider the mobility dynamic in

213



which they are encaps!lated. 4t is the end o% the Sa!ss!rean synchrony that makes this shi%t

paradigmatic. 4t is a shi%t in the %o!ndations o% the st!dy o% lang!age in society not >!st in its

methods or #ocab!lary. The %!ndamental image o% lang!age now shi%ts %rom a static totalized

and immobile one to a dynamic %ragmented and mobile one and it is %rom this %!ndamental

image that we now ha#e to start working.

This work is only beginning and this book has only >!st scratched the s!r%ace. 4 ha#e

tried to de%ine the paradigmatic shi%t that we need to make emphasizing the %oc!s on mobile

reso!rces rather than on immobile lang!ages. 4 ha#e tried to de#elop a little #ocab!lary %or it

with terms s!ch as orders o% inde+icality scale and polycentricity at its core. 4 ha#e tried to

show that we need to !nderstand the socioling!istic world as one in which lang!age gets

dislodged and its traditional %!nctions distorted by processes o% mobility. 4 ha#e arg!ed that

we need to see the socioling!istic world as a system o% relati#ely a!tonomo!s local systems

each with their own historicity and patterns o% e+perience and normati#e cond!ct. 4 ha#e

arg!ed that socioling!istic reso!rces and repertoires conse6!ently appear in a di%%erent shape

and need to be !nderstood as Htr!ncated( and H!n%inished(. This 4 e+plained by looking at the

historicity o% lang!age phenomena arg!ing that we need to look at synchronic realities as

synchronized realities in the sense o!tlined abo#e. -nd 4 %inally tried to demonstrate how

contemporary socioling!istic realities o% globalization artic!late old and new patterns o%

ine6!ality and so make lang!age into a problem %or many people. Globalization is something

that has winners as well as losers a top as well as a bottom and centers as well as peripheries

and thro!gho!t the book 4 ha#e o%ten %oc!sed on the periphery as the loc!s %rom which we

need to look at globalization. This 4 belie#e is essential part o% the shi%t we need to make is

also a shi%t away %rom a metropolitan perspecti#e on globalization stressing the !ni%ormity o%

s!ch processes towards a perspecti#e that does >!stice to H#ernac!lar globalization( to the

myriad ways in which global processes enter local conditions and circ!mstances and become

a localized reality.

This wo!ld be especially bene%icial %or st!dies on the topic that de%ines socioling!istic

globalization 8nglish in the world as 4 ha#e demonstrated in the pre#io!s section. 4 hope to

ha#e con#incingly arg!ed against the shortcomings o% approaches that capt!re this

phenomenon merely in terms o% oppression and imperialism. S!rely there is oppression and

perhaps there is imperialism b!t s!ch patterns wo!ld occ!r in certain segments o% society

only and so be locked into speci%ic scale"le#els. 8lsewhere in society realities may be

pro%o!ndly di%%erent and it is o!r task to take these realities into acco!nt as well.Socioling!istics has e#erything to win by being comprehensi#e n!anced and balanced in its

21$



acco!nts and >!dgments o% lang!age in society and by pro#iding the right diagnoses %or social

in>!stice and ine6!ality. 4n times o% globalization this becomes an e#er more pressing

challenge beca!se as we saw in the pre#io!s chapter there are people whose %ate may depend

on s!ch diagnoses acco!nts and >!dgments. The world is not a nice place %or e#eryone and

socioling!istics has the capacity to show in great detail and with an !nparalleled amo!nt o%

precision how lang!age re%lects the predicaments o% people in a globalizing world. 4t has the

capacity to read the in%initely big %eat!res o% the world %rom in%initely small details o% h!man

comm!nicati#e beha#io!r = at least when it takes on the challenges o!tlined here.

21&



(otes

(otes to chapter 2

1. The re%erence date %or the 4nternet data !sed in this section is 1& Aan!ary 2::<.

2. *bser#e also the inde+ical c!rrency o% a!thenticity e+pressed in Hthanks to God(

Sanaz is 4ranian there%ore he is M!slim and M!slims !se e+pressions like that.

3. 4t is interesting that none o% the websites here mentioned o%%ers Hplain speech( that

most Htypical( -mericanist symbolic speech economy embodied by p!blic %ig!res

ranging %rom Aoe Mc0arthy yndon ?. Aohnson and Eonald Eeagan to George .

?!sh. See Sil#erstein 92::3b; %or a disc!ssion on ?!sh(s Hplain( rhetoric. The speech

o%%ered by these websites is clearly technical high"brow and sophisticated aimed at

insertion in elite 9not Hplain(; networks.

$. 'ote the c!rio!s statement that -merican pron!nciation is di%%erent %rom spellingN.

*bser#e also that none o% the websites in addition makes re%erence to

multilingualism as an o!tcome o% learning -merican accent. The %act that the typical

c!stomer wo!ld not be a Hnati#e speaker( and that logically the learning e+perience

o!ght to res!lt in new m!ltiling!al repertoires is nowhere thematized. The #ision

artic!lated here is clearly monoglot -merican accent is more than eno!gh and the

only lang!age that really matters here 9Sil#erstein 1;.

(otes to chapter 3

1. Mzalendo the sing!lar %orm o% %azalendo was also the name o% a prominent

go#ernment"sponsored newspaper in C>amaa Tanzania.

2. *ne co!ld >!st think o% the partic!lar ring to names s!ch as ,aris the Kremlin Tien an

Men S6!are the hite 5o!se. The inde+icalities tied to s!ch places are o%ten the basis

%or their metonymic !sage in e#eryday or instit!tional speech. Th!s H?r!ssels( in

8!rosceptics( disco!rse means more than Hthe capital o% ?elgi!m(.

3. Fieldwork in esbank 5igh was done in A!ly"-!g!st 2::$ and contin!ed in A!ly"

-!g!st 2::& by teams o% st!dents %rom Ghent Cni#ersity. 'athalie M!yllaert and

21



Marieke 5!ysmans are responsible %or the data disc!ssed here and their inp!t is

grate%!lly acknowledged.

(otes to chapter !

1. See %or a basic s!r#ey o% the terms o% re%erence

httpIIen.wikipedia.orgIwikiI0ommon8!ropeanFrameworko%Ee%erence%orang

!ages

2. The -lmighty may e#en work in close concert with 40T technology. 5ere is a

%ragment %rom another message not incl!ded in the corp!s 4 then came across yo!r

address on the 4nternet as 4 was browsing thro!gh a 0hristian site and as a matter o%

%act it is not only yo! or yo!r ministry that 4 picked on the 0hristian site initially b!t

a%ter my %er#ent prayer o#er it then yo! were nominated thro!gh di#ine re#elation

%rom God so that was how 4 recei#ed s!ch a di#ine re#elation %rom the ord how 4 got

yo!r contact in%ormation and 4 then decided to contact yo! %or the %!nd to be !sed

wisely %or things that will glori%y the name o% God.N

3. Messages 4 recei#ed on other occasions were sent by the relati#es o% almost e#ery

dictator known to man Mob!t! Sese Seko Marcos Sani -bacha Saddam 5!ssein

warlords %rom iberia and Sierra eone and so %orth.

(otes to chapter #

1. The #ario!s contrib!tions in ?lommaert 9ed. 1; !sed the Hdebate( as a !nit %or

historical"socioling!istic analysis beca!se debates are historical moments in which

identi%iable actors engage in speci%ic lang!age"ideological practices with 9!s!ally;

clear o!tcomes and res!lts.

2. 4t was also a distinctly elite e#ent. Tickets were sold at &::: O!an an e6!i#alent o%

&:: 8!ro and the a#erage ann!al income o% a %armer in 0hina. The game was

organized by ,ine Dalley Gol% resort and 0o!ntry 0l!b described on its own website

as [the most e+cl!si#e pri#ate cl!b in 0hina %or b!siness leaders and the elite o%%ering

members and g!est the highest international standards in prod!cts and ser#ices %or

their leis!re as well as their b!siness entertainment[

9httpIIwww.pine#alley.com.cnIenI:::1.asp;. 'at!rally this is 6!ite ironic in light o%the appeal towards a Hharmonio!s comm!nity( disc!ssed below.

21/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_European_Framework_of_Reference_for_Languages


http://www.pinevalley.com.cn/en/00_01.asp



http://www.pinevalley.com.cn/en/00_01.asp



3. The %ollowing re%lections are based on a %ieldwork trip to Finnish Samiland in -pril

2::<. 4 thank Sari ,ietikainen and Eob Moore my partners on this trip %or #ery

#al!able inp!t.

(otes to chapter $

1. 4n the CK the inter#iew record is handwritten by the inter#iewer and is called

H#erbatim acco!nt(. Eegardless o% the act!al lang!age o% the inter#iew howe#er the

record is in 8nglish 9and th!s re%lects the instit!tional #oice;. 4t contains both the

6!estions and the answers. 4n the %irst inter#iew record o% the Hscreening inter#iew( in

'o#ember 2::1 Aoseph initialled all the answers written down by the inter#iewer as a

token o% agreement tho!gh he later arg!ed that the inter#iewer presented the

initialling ro!tine as >!st a matter o% pro#ing that the inter#iew had e%%ecti#ely taken

place. The %irst inter#iew was cond!cted partly in Kinyarwanda partly in E!nyankole@

the second one was cond!cted completely in 8nglish. 4n the second 9Hs!bstanti#e(;

inter#iew as well as in the o%%icial #erdict letter Aoseph(s nationality and his date o%

birth are 6!ali%ied as Hdisp!ted( or Hdo!bted(.

2. 4 am deeply grate%!l to the man 4 call Aoseph M!tingira here as well as to his legal

co!nsel -nna %or allowing me to p!blish elements %rom his case. 4 came across these

materials in the spring o% 2:: when 4 was asked to pro#ide an e+pert report %or the

appeal case on the treatment o% lang!age in Aoseph(s application.

3. - #ery good so!rce %or this is 0olette ?raeckman(s 91; book 'erreur Africaine.

$. Aoseph(s acco!nt o% the lady(s in#ol#ement is #ag!e and e#asi#e. 4t is not !nthinkable

that he deliberately tried to shield her %rom the probing eyes o% the 5ome *%%ice. 4t is a

common problem %or asyl!m applicants that they ha#e to narrate the details o% their

escape as this may endanger persons who assisted them in their escape andIor e+pose

#al!able networks o% migration s!pport. -t the same time #ag!eness and

contradictions in this part o% their story work hea#ily against them in the asyl!m

proced!re 9see Maryns 2:: %or e+amples and a detailed disc!ssion o% this problem;.

&. 4% Aoseph had been accepted as a minor the application proced!re and the legal

%ramework in which he wo!ld ha#e %o!nd himsel% wo!ld ha#e been signi%icantly

di%%erent and %ar more lenient. The way in which Aoseph was declared an ad!lt is a

gross #iolation o% his rights o% co!rse.

21<



. e see a %orm o% go#ernmentality here in which Horder( 9here national order; is

policed all the way down to the microscopic 9or Hcapillary(; le#els o% pron!nciation

and writing. This %orm o% policing to Fo!ca!lt wo!ld %it in a system o% sec!rity

9Fo!ca!lt 2::/;.

/. This makes the position o% interpreters in asyl!m applications 6!ite precario!s. 0ases

ha#e been reported in which 9go#ernment"appointed; interpreters identi%ied applicants(

accents as being a Hrebel accent(.

<. ang!ages o% that cl!ster in the Great akes region o%ten carry the pre%i+ HE!"H s!ch

as E!nyoro E!haya E!nyakitara and so on or the related H!"H pre%i+ s!ch as in

H!ganda(.

. The 5ome *%%ice did not display m!ch sensiti#ity to -%rican lang!age %eat!res in

general in this case. Th!s the name o% n!rsery school in Kenya which Aoseph

mentions is systematically written as HKinyatta( whereas it is no rocket science to

know that the school wo!ld #ery likely be called 8enyatta a%ter Kenya(s %irst

president and independence hero.

(otes to chapter '

1. 4n that sense the Tanzanian state played a role e6!i#alent to the French state described

by ?o!rdie! 911; and ?o!rdie!(s thesis that the state is the central actor in shaping

the ling!istic market remains #alid e#en %or Hstrong"weak( states s!ch as Tanzania.

The o!tcome howe#er need not be a H!ni%ied( ling!istic market@ it can be a highly

di#ersi%ied market. Eemember also the disc!ssion in chapter .

21



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2::: Linguistic Genocide in "ducation <r (orld%ide Di!ersity and +uman >ights@

Mahwah 'A awrence 8rlba!m.

Sk!tnabb"Kangas T. and ,hillipson E.

1& ing!icide and ling!icism. >olig Papir K Eoskilde Cni#ersitetscenter Benmark <3"

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1 ang!age ecology. 4n Dersch!eren A. et al 9eds.; +andboo& of Pragmatics2 HHH

Installment 1"2$. -msterdam Aohn ?en>amins.

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1& #ocial Literacies: Critical Approaches to Literacy in De!elopment2 "thnography2 and

"ducation. ondon ongman.

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2::1 -%rican mother"tong!e programmes and the politics o% lang!age ing!istic

citizenship #ers!s ling!istic h!man rights. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural

De!elopment 22I$ 33"3&&.

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1 Eeconstr!cting citizenship the re"scaling o% the State and the new a!thoritarianism

0losing the ?elgian mines. 7rban #tudies 33I< 1$"1&21.

Thesen . and #an ,letzen 8. 9eds.;

2:: Academic Literacy and the Languages of Change. ondon 0ontin!!m.

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2::2 Ee"scaling Hscale %ragmentation( and the reg!lation o% antagonistic relationships.

Progress in +uman Geography 2I /$3 /&.

Dersch!eren A.

1< 7nderstanding Pragmatics. ondon 8dward -rnold.Derto#ec S.

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2:: The emergence o% s!per"di#ersity in ?ritain. Centre on Migration2 Policy and #ociety2

(or&ing Paper ;. 9*+%ord Cni#ersity;

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2::: The promise o% ethnic con%lict militarization and encla#e"%ormation in So!th Ki#!. 4n

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%or the St!dy o% ang!ages and 0!lt!res o% -sia and -%rica 9Tokyo Cni#ersity o%

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Book- Blommaert- Sociolinguistics of Globalization

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