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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Copyright 1991 by the American PsychologicalAssociation, Inc.1991, Vol. 61, No. 3, 440-449 0022-3514/91/ 3.00

Social Relat ionships Personali ty and A nxiety D urin g a Major Stressful EventN i a l l B o l g e r J o h n E c k e n r o d eU n i v e r s i t y o f D e n v e r C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i ty

Al though i t i s comm only be l i eved tha t soci a l r e l a t i onships buff er t he ef f ec t s of s t r es s on men ta lheal th , t hese a pparen t buf f er ing ef fec ts may be spur ious r efl ect ions o f per sonal i t y or pr ior men ta lheal th . Thi s po s s ib i l i tywas inves t iga ted n a prospect ive s tudy of a med ica l s chool ent r ance exami -nat ion . F ive weeks before t he exam inat ion , Ss (N = 56) r a t ed the i r p er sonal i t y ( extr aver sion an dneurot i c i sm) and soci a l r e l a ti onships (number o f soci a l contac t s and perce ived suppor t ). They thenra t ed the i r anxie ty for 35 days sur rounding the examinat ion . Cont ro l l i ng for per sonal i t y and p r ioranxiety, social contacts buffered a gain s t increases in anxiety, whereas perceiv ed suppo r t did no t .Fur the r analyses r eveal ed tha t d i s cr e t ionary soci a l contac t s were benefi c ia l whereas obl iga torycontac t s were not .

I t i s n o w c o m m o n l y b e l i e v e d t h a t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b u f f e rt h e e f f e c ts o f s t r e s s o n m e n t a l h e a l t h . A l t h o u g h t h i s b e l i e f i sg r o u n d e d i n m o r e t h a n a d e c a d e o f re s e a r c h (S . C o h e n & S y m e ,1 9 8 5 ; B . R . S a r a s o n , S a r a s o n , & P i e r c e , 1 99 0 ), s o m e c o m m e n t a -t o r s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e s t r e ss - b u f f e ri n g e f fe c t s o f s o c i a l r e l a -t i o n s h i p s m a y r e f le c t p e r s o n a l r a th e r t h a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e -s o u r c e s (e .g ., G o t t l i e b , 1 9 8 3 ; H a n s s o n , J o n e s , & C a r p e n t e r , 1 9 8 4 ;H e l l e r , 1 9 7 9 ; T h o i t s , 1 9 8 2 ). B o l s t e r i n g t h i s c l a i m i s e v i d e n c et h a t p e o p l e ' s p e r c e p t i o n s o f s o c ia l s u p p o r t a r e c o n f o u n d e d w i t hb o t h t h e i r p e r s o n a l i ty (H e n d e r s o n , B y r n e , & D u n c a n - J o n e s ,1 9 8 1) a n d t h e i r p r i o r m e n t a l h e a l t h ( M o n r o e , B r o m e t , C o n n e U ,& S t e i n e r , 1 9 86 ; T u r n e r , 1 9 8 1 ) . A l t h o u g h c o n t r a r y f i n d i n g s a l s oe x i s t (e .g ., S . C o h e n , S h e r r o d , & C l a r k , 1 9 8 6 ) , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y h a ts o c i a l s u p p o r t e f fe c ts a r e s p u r i o u s r e m a i n s a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t ot h e v a l i d i t y o f th i s a r e a o f r e s e a r c h .

T w o i s s u e s h a v e h a m p e r e d t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s q u e s t i o n ;o n e i s c o n c e p t u a l a n d t h e o t h e r i s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l. A t t h e c o n -c e p t u a l l e v e l, th e l i t e r a tu r e h a s n e g l e c t e d s t r u c t u r a l a n d i n t e r a c -t i o n a l f e a t u r e s o f r e l a t io n s h i p s , s u c h a s n e t w o r k s i z e a n d f r e-q u e n c y o f so c i a l c o n t a c t s ( C o y n e & B o l g e r, 19 9 0 ; H o u s e &K a h n , 1 9 8 5) . T h u s , r e s e a r c h s h o w i n g t h e c o n f o u n d i n g e f f e c ts o fp e r s o n a l i t y a n d p r i o r m e n t a l h e a l t h i s b a s e d o n p e r c e i v e d s u p -p o r t m e a s u r e s o f s o c ia l r e la t i o n s h i p s . W e w i l l a rg u e t h a t p e r -c e p t i o n s o f s u p p o r t a r e m o r e p r o n e t o t h e s e c o n f o u n d i n g e f -f e c ts t h a n a r e s t r u c t u r a l a n d i n t e r a c t i o n a l m e a s u r e s .

A t t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l le v e l, it is a m a j o r d r a w b a c k t h a t m o s te x i s t i n g so c i a l s u p p o r t r e s e a r c h h a s u s e d w e a k , c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l ,a n d r e t r o s p e c t i v e d e s i g n s ( M o n r o e & S t e i n e r , 1 9 8 6 ). S u c h d e -s i g n s a r e u n s u i t a b l e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c a u s a l r o l e o f so c i a lr e l a t i o n s h i p s i n a d a p t a t i o n t o s t r e ss . I n t h i s s tu d y , w e s o u g h t t o

We thank Jane Crawford for acces s t o t he s am ple and Paula H an-peter f or as si s t ance wi th da t a col l ec t ion . We a l so thank Daryl Bem,Sheldon Cohen, J ames Coyne, Gera ld in e Downey, Mark Fos t er , Ha r ryGol lob , J ames House , R onald Kess ler , Richard Pr i ce , Debra U mber -son, Am i ram Vinokur , E la ine Wethington , Cam i l l e Wo r tman, and twoanony mou s r eviewer s for comme nt s on previous dr af ts of t h i s a r t i c le .Cor r espon dence conc erning th i s a r t ic l e should be add res sed to Nia l lBolger , who i s now a t t he Dep ar tme nt o f Psychology, New York Univer -s i ty, 6 W ashington Place , Seventh Flo or , New York, New York 10003.440

e x a m i n e t h e s t r e ss - b u f f e ri n g e f fe c ts o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b yp e r f o r m i n g a l o n g i t u d i n a l , p r o s p e c t i v e s t u d y o f a m a j o r s tr e s s -f u l e v e n t .

T h e e v e n t w e c h o s e w a s a s i g n i fi c a n t s t r e s s o r a m o n g c o l l e g es t u d e n t s , a m e d i c a l s c h o o l e n t r a n c e e x a m i n a t i o n . B e c a u s e e x -a m i n a t i o n s a r e s c h e d u l e d e v en t s, w e c o u l d o b t a i n p r i o r m e a -s u r e s o f b o t h p e r s o n a l a n d s o c i a l re s o u r c e s . W e u s e d a 5 - w e e kd a i l y m e a s u r e m e n t d e s i g n t o m o n i t o r t h e i n d e p e n d e n t e f f ec tso f p e r s o n a l i t y a n d s o c i a l r e s o u r c e s o n m e n t a l h e a l t h a s t h e e x -a m i n a t i o n a p p r o a c h e d .

C o n c e p t s o f S o c ia l R e l a t io n s h i p s a n d S o c i a l S u p p o r tR e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a d o p t e d t w o m a j o r a p p r o a c h e s t o m e a s u r -

i n g s o c i a l re l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e f i rs t a p p r o a c h o p e r a t i o n a l i z e s r e l a -t i o n s h i p s i n s t r u c t u r a l t e r m s , t h a t i s, i n t e r m s o f t h e n u m b e r o rf r e q u e n c y o f so c i a l t i e s to f a m i ly , n e i g h b o r s , f r ie n d s , a n d v o l u n -t a r y a n d r e l i g io u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( e .g . , B e r k m a n & S y m e , 1 9 7 9 ;D o n a l d & W a r e , 1 9 82 ). M e a s u r e s s t e m m i n g f r o m t h i s a p p r o a c ha s s e s s w h a t i s c a l l e d soci l integr t ion ( D u n k e l - S c h e t t e r & B e n -n e t t , 1 99 0 ; H o u s e & K a h n , 1 9 8 5 ). T h e s e c o n d a p p r o a c h o p e r a -t i o n a l i z e s re l a t i o n s h i p s in f u n c t i o n a l t e r m s , t h a t i s , i n t e r m s o ft h e a m o u n t o f i n s tr u m e n t a l a n d e m o t i o n a l s u p p o r t t h a t t h er e l a t i o n s h i p s p r o v i d e ( H o u s e & K a h n , 1 9 8 5 ; T a r d y , 1 9 8 5 ; V a u x,1 9 8 8) . F u n c t i o n a l m e a s u r e s u s u a l l y f o c u s o n t h e p e r c e i v e d q u a l -i t y o f o n e ' s r e l a t io n s h i p s ( e .g ., h o w m u c h l o v e o r c a r i n g o t h e r sd i s p la y ) a n d a s s e s s w h a t G o t t l i e b (1 9 8 3) h a s c a l l e d t h e p s y c h o -l o g ic a l se n s e o f s u p p o r t

T h e s o c i a l s u p p o r t l i t e ra t u r e h a s f o c u s e d p r i m a r i l y o n s u p -p o r t p e r c e p t i o n s a n d h a s f o u n d t h a t p e r c e i v e d s u p p o r t a p p a r -e n t l y b u f f e rs o r r e d u c e s t h e n e g a t i v e ef fe c t o f st r e s s o n m e n t a lh e a l t h ( S . C o h e n & W i l ls , 19 8 5 ; K e s s l e r & M c L e o d , 1 9 8 5; W e t h -i n g t o n & K e s s le r , 1 9 8 6 ). T h i s e m p h a s i s o n p e r c e i v e d s u p p o r tr e f le c t s t h e r e a s o n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t p e o p l e ' s s u p p o r t p e r -c e p t i o n s a r e m o r e d i r e c t m e a s u r e s o f t h e h e l p f u l f e a tu r e s o fr e l a ti o n s h i p s t h a n a r e t h e c r u d e r a n d m o r e d i s t a l m e a s u r e s o fs o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n (S . C o h e n & W i l l s , 1 9 8 5 ) . S t r e s s - b u f f e r i n ge f fe c ts h a v e b e e n f o u n d l e s s c o n s i s t e n t l y f o r so c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n(S . C o h e n & W i l l s, 19 8 5 ; K e s s l e r & M c L e o d , 1 9 8 5; W i l l i a m s ,W a r e , & D o n a l d , 1 9 8 1 ) , a l th o u g h t h e p a u c i t y o f s t u d i e s o f s o c i a l

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S O C I A L R E L A T I O N S H I P S, P E R SO N A L IT Y , A N D A N X I E T Y 4 4 1i n t e g r a t i o n e f f e c ts m a k e s i t d i f fi c u l t t o d r a w a n y f i r m c o n c l u -s i o n s (H o u s e & K a h n , 1 9 8 5) .

T h i s n e g l e c t o f s o c ia l i n t e g ra t i o n h a s b e e n c r i ti c i z e d b y s o m ec o m m e n t a t o r s . C o y n e a n d D e L o n g i s (1 9 86 ), f o r e x a m p l e , l a b e lt h i s t r e n d t h e ' c o g n i t i z a t i o n ' o f th e s o c i a l s u p p o r t l i t e r a tu r e ( p .4 5 7 ). T h e y n o t e a n a b s e n c e o f s t u d i e s o f t h e c o n c r e t e i n t e r p e r -s o n a l t r a n s a c t i o n s th a t p r e s u m a b l y u n d e r l i e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i pe f fe c ts . S i m i l a r c o n c e r n s l e d H o u s e a n d K a h n ( 19 8 5 ) t o r e c o m -m e n d t h a t f u t u re s t u d i e s i n c lu d e b o t h s t r u c t u r a l a n d f u n c t i o n a lm e a s u r e s o f s o c i a l re l a ti o n s h ip s , a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n w e f ol -l o w e d i n t h i s s t u d y .

T h r e a t s t o t h e V a l i d i ty o f S o c i a l R e l a t i o n s h i p E f fe c tsA s w e n o t e d e a r l i e r, th e r e i s e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e a p p a r e n t s t r e s s -

b u f f e r i n g e f fe c t o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s s p u r i o u s . B y spur ousw e m e a n t h a t s o c ia l re l a t io n s h i p s a n d m e n t a l h e a l t h h a v e ac o m m o n c a u s e t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e t y p i c a l l y i g n o r e d . S u c h ac o m m o n c a u s e s h o u l d m e e t t h r e e c o n d i t io n s : (a ) I t s h o u l d b ea s s o c i a t e d w i t h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , (19) t s h o u l d i t s e l f b e a s t r e s sb u f fe r , th a t i s, i t s h o u l d m o d i f y t h e e f fe c t s o f s t r e s s o r s o n m e n t a lh e a l t h ( S. C o h e n & E d w a r d s , 1 9 8 9 ), a n d (c ) w h e n t h i s c o m m o nc a u s e i s s ta t i s t i c a l ly c o n t r o l l e d , s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s s h o u l d n ol o n g e r b u f f e r t h e e f f e c ts o f s t r e s s o r s o n m e n t a l h e a l t h .

B e c a u s e e x i s ti n g r e s e a r c h h a s m o s t l y u s e d p e r c e i v ed s u p p o r tt o i n d e x r e l a t i o n s h i p s , w e w i l l c o n f i n e o u r d i s c u s s i o n t o t h i sm e a s u r e . T h e t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s f o r r e n d e r in g p e r c e i v e d s u p p o r te f fe c ts s p u r i o u s a r e m e t b y p e r s o n a l i t y a n d p r i o r m e n t a l h e a l t h .C o n s i d e r p r i o r m e n t a l h e a l t h , a s l e a s t a s it h a s b e e n o p e r a t i o n -a l i z e d i n v a r i o u s m e a s u r e s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l d is t r e s s . I t m e e t st h e f i r s t c o n d i t i o n b e c a u s e p r i o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t r e s s le a d s t os u b s e q u e n t d e c r e a s e s i n p e r c e i v e d s u p p o r t ( T u r n e r , 1 9 8 1) . Itm e e t s t h e s e c o n d c o n d i t i o n b e c a u s e p e o p l e w h o a r e i n i ti a l lyh i g h i n d i s t r e s s a r e m o s t e m o t i o n a l l y r e a c t i v e t o s t r e s s ( C o y n e &D o w n e y , 1 9 9 1 ; H a m m e n , M a y o l , d e M a y o , & M a r k s , 1 9 8 6 ). F i -n a l l y i t m e e t s t h e t h i r d c o n d i t i o n b e c a u s e r e s e a r c h e r s w h o h a v ec o n t r o l l e d f o r p r i o r d i s t r e s s h a v e n o t f o u n d a s t r e s s -b u f f e r i n ge f fe c t o f s u p p o r t o n d i s t r e s s ( M o n r o e , 1 9 8 3 ; M o n r o e e t a l. ,1986) .

A m o n g p e r s o n a l i t y t r a it s t h a t m a y g e n e r a t e a n a p p a r e n ts t r e s s - b u f f e r i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p e r c e i v e d s u p p o r t a n dm e n t a l h e a l th , n e u r o t i c is m m e e t s t h e c o n d i t i o n s d e s c r i b e d e a r-l ie r . I t r e la t e s n e g a t iv e l y to p e r c e i v e d s u p p o r t ( P r o c i d a n o &H e l l e r , 1 9 8 3 ; S a r a s o n & S a r a s o n , 1 9 8 5 ) . I t i n t e r a c t s w i t h s t r e s s t op r e d i c t m e n t a l h e a l th : T h e s t a t e - t r a i t t h e o r y o f a n x i e t y p r e d ic t st h a t i n d i v i d u a l s h ig h i n n e u r o t i c i s m a r e m o s t e m o t i o n a l l y vu l -n e r a b l e t o s t r e s s ( E n d l e r & E d w a r d s , 1 9 8 2 ; E y s e n c k & E y s e n c k ,1 9 8 5 ; S p i e l b e r g e r , G o r s u c h , & L u s h e n e , 1 9 7 0 ; s e e B o l g e r , 1 99 0 ;B o l g e r & S c h i l l i n g , i n p r e s s ; O r m e l , S t e w a r t , & S a n d e r m a n ,1 9 8 9, f o r r e c e n t c o n f i r m a t i o n s o f t h i s t h e o r y ) . F i n a ll y , w h e nn e u r o t i c i s m i s s t a t i s ti c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d , t h e s t r e ss - b u f f e ri n g e f fe c to f s u p p o r t o n m e n t a l h e a l t h d i s a p p e a r s ( H e n d e r s o n e t al .,1981) .

I n s u m , e x i s t i n g e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s t r e s s - b u f f e ri n ge ff ec t o f p e r c e i v e d s u p p o r t m a y b e s p u r i o u s . W h e t h e r t h i sp r o b l e m a l s o a p p l i e s t o s o c i a l in t e g r a t i o n i s u n c l e a r , g i v e n th ep a u c i t y o f r e s e a r c h u s i n g t h i s m e a s u r e . T h e r e i s, h o w e v e r , r e a -s o n f o r t h i n k i n g t h a t s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n i s l e s s p r o n e t h a n p e r -

c e i v e d s u p p o r t t o a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m o f s p u r i o u s n e s s , t h a t i s ,s p u r i o u s n e s s d u e t o m o o d - d r i v e n r e s p o n s e b i a se s .

I t is w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t p o s i t iv e a n d n e g a t i v e m o o d s b i a ss o c i a l j u d g m e n t s : P o s i t i v e m o o d s i n d u c e p o s i t i v it y b i a s a n d n e g -a t iv e m o o d s i n d u c e n e g a t i v i t y b i a s (C l a r k & W i l l i a m s o n , 1 9 8 9) .P e r s o n a l it y a n d p r i o r m e n t a l h e a l t h m a y s p u r io u s l y c r e a t e b u f-f e r i n g e f fe c t s t h r o u g h t h e s e m o o d - i n d u c e d r e s p o n s e b i a s e s .C l e a rl y , p r i o r m e n t a l h e a l t h , w h e t h e r r e f l e c t e d i n m e a s u r e s o fa n x i e ty , d e p r e s s i o n , o r h o s t i li t y , a f fe c t s m o o d . A l s o , m a j o r p e r -s o n a l it y d i m e n s i o n s s u c h a s e x t ra v e r s io n a n d n e u r o t i c i s m c a nb e r e g a r d e d a s t r a i t f o r m s o f p o s i t iv e a n d n e g a t i v e m o o d s , r e -s p e c t i v e ly (C o s t a & M c C r a e , 1 9 8 0; W a t s o n & T e l l e g e n , 19 8 5 ).T h u s , p e r s o n a l i t y a n d p r i o r m e n t a l h e a l t h m a y l e a d to m o o d -i n d u c e d b i a s i n p e o p l e ' s r e p o r t s o f th e i r s o c i a l r e l a ti o n s h i p s . F o re x a m p l e , p e o p l e h i g h i n n e u r o t i c i s m m a y r e p o r t t h a t t h e y a r el e ss s u p p o r t e d t h a n t h e y a c t u a l l y a re . I f p e r s o n a l i ty a n d p r i o rm e n t a l h e a l t h a l s o h a v e a s t r e s s- b u f f e r in g ef f ec t o n c u r r e n tm e n t a l h e a l t h , t h e n s t u d i e s t h a t i g n o r e t h e s e f a c t o rs w i l l f i n d as p u r i o u s s t r e s s- b u f f e r i n g e ff e c t o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

O n e w o u l d n o t e x p e c t su c h m o o d - d r i v e n b i a s es to o p e r a t e o nj u d g m e n t s a b o u t i s s u e s t h a t h a v e l it t le o r n o e m o t i o n a l c o n t e n t .T h u s , j u d g m e n t s a b o u t c o n c r e t e , f a c t u a l i s s u e s s u c h a s t h e f r e -q u e n c y o f o n e ' s s o c i a l c o n t a c t s s h o u l d b e l e s s p r o n e t o b i a s t h a nj u d g m e n t s a b o u t e m o t i o n a l l y t o n e d i ss u e s s u c h a s w h e t h e r o n ei s lo v e d o r c a r e d fo r. T h e r e f o r e , a k e y h y p o t h e s i s o f t h i s s t u d yw a s t h a t m e a s u r e s o f s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n a r e l e s s v u l n e r a b l e t or e s p o n s e - b i a s e ff e c ts t h a n a r e m e a s u r e s o f p e r c e i v e d s u p p o r t .

C o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , L . H . C o h e n , T o w b e s , a n dF l o c c o ( 19 8 8) f o u n d t h a t e x p e r i m e n t a l l y in d u c e d d e p r e s s e dm o o d s l o w e r g e n e r a l p e r c e p t i o n s o f s u p p o r t . S i m i l a r ly , P r o c i -d a n o a n d H e l l e r ( 19 8 3) f o u n d t h a t n e g a t i v e m o o d l o w e r e d p e o -p l e 's p e r c e p t i o n s o f s u p p o r t f r o m f r i e n d s . I n c o n t r a s t , L . H .C o h e n e t a l. (1 9 8 8) f o u n d n o e f f e c ts o f d e p r e s s e d m o o d o n r e -p o r t s o f s p e c i f ic s u p p o r t i v e a c t s i n t h e p r e v i o u s m o n t h . T h i ss u g g e s t s t h a t c o n c r e t e , f a c t u a l m e a s u r e s s u c h a s s o c i a l i n t e g r a -t i o n a r e l e s s l ik e l y t o b e a f f e c t e d b y n e g a t i v e m o o d s t h a n a r em o r e g l o b a l a n d s u b je c t iv e m e a s u r e s s u c h a s p e r c e iv e d s u p p o r t .

S o c i a l R e l a t io n s h i p s a n d A d a p t a t i o n t o a M e d i c a lS c h o o l E n t r a n c e E x a m i n a t i o n

T o e x a m i n e t h e s t r e s s- b u f f e r i n g e f fe c t s o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n -s h i p s , w e d e s i g n e d a s t u d y o f a m a j o r s t r e ss f u l e v e n t a m o n gp r e m e d i c a l s t u d e n ts , t h e M e d i c a l C o l le g e A d m i s s io n s T e s t( M C A T ) . T h e M C A T i s a d a y -l o n g s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t t a k e n b ya l m o s t a l l a p p l i c a n t s to m e d i c a l s c h o o l . B e c a u s e i t is a m a j o rh u r d l e i n t h e m e d i c a l s c h o o l e n t ry p r o c e s s a n d c a n h a v e i m p o r -t a m c a r e e r c o n s e q u e n c e s , t h e M C A T i s h i g h ly s t re s s f u l.

M a j o r e x a m i n a t i o n s s u c h a s t h e M C A T a r e u s e f u l f o r s t u d y -i n g t h e s t r e s s- b u f f e r in g e f f e ct s o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r s e v e r a lr e a s o n s . F i r s t , s t re s s - b u f f e ri n g e ff e c ts c a n b e m o r e e a s i l y d e -t e c t e d i n i n t e n si v e , p r o s p e c t i v e s tu d i e s o f a m a j o r s t r e s s o r t h a ni n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e t r o s p e c t i v e s t u d i e s . B u f f e r i n g e ff e c t s a r e d i f f i-c u l t t o d e t e c t i n r e t r o s p e c t i v e s t u d i e s u s i n g l i f e - e v e n t i n v e n t o -r i e s: S u c h s t u d i e s t y p i c a l l y s a m p l e f e w r e s p o n d e n t s w h o h a v ee x p e r i e n c e d a r e c e n t m a j o r s t re s s o r ( H o u s e , U m b e r s o n , & L a n -d i s , 1 9 88 ) . I n c o n t r a s t , i n t e n s i v e s t u d i e s o f a m a j o r s t r e s s o r c a ne x a m i n e s t r e s s b u f f e r i n g w h e n t h e e v e n t c a n b e e x p e c t e d t oh a v e i ts l a rg e s t i m p a c t - - n e a r t h e t i m e i t o c c u r s.

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4 4 2 N I A L L B O L G ER A N D J O H N E C K E N R O D ES e c o n d , b e c a u s e e x a m i n a t i o n s e n t a i l t h e s a m e o b j e c t i v e

e v e n t f o r a l l p e o p l e , i n v e s t i g a t i n g s u c h e v e n t s e n s u r e s t h a t d i f -f e r e n c e s i n s tr e s s o u t c o m e s a r e n o t d u e t o u n m e a s u r e d d i ff e r-e n c e s i n t h e t y p e s o f s t re s s fu l e v e n t s p e o p l e e x p e r i e n c e . M a n yn a t u r a ll y o c c u r r i n g t y p e s o f s t re s s o rs a r e h e t e r o g e n e o u s . F o re x a m p l e , n o t a l l m o t o r a c c i d e n t s a r e e q u a l l y s ev e r e, a n d t h i sh e t e r o g e n e i t y m a y e x p l a i n w h y s o m e p e r s o n s b e c o m e m o r e d i s -t r e s s e d t h a n o t h e r s .T h i r d , e x a m i n a t i o n s d o n o t i n h e r e n t l y i n v o l ve c h a n g e s i ns o c i a l re l a t i o n s h i p s . M a n y s t r e s s - b u f f e r in g s t u d i e s h a v e c o n -f o u n d e d m e a s u r e s o f s tr e ss a n d s u p p o r t b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e i n -c l u d e d l i f e e v e n t s t h a t i n v o l v e m a j o r c h a n g e s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,s u c h a s d i v o r c e a n d w i d o w h o o d ( T h o i ts , 1 9 8 2) .

F i n al ly , s t u d y i n g a n e x a m i n a t i o n a l l o w e d u s t o t e s t t h e b u f -f e r i n g h y p o t h e si s w i t h i n p e r s o n s o v e r ti m e . I n c o n v e n t i o n a l ,b e t w e e n - s u b j e c t s s t u d i e s , r e s e a r c h e r s e v a l u a t e s t r e s s - b u f f e ri n ge f fi c a c y b y c o m p a r i n g p e o p l e w h o h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d h i g h st r es sw i t h t h o s e w h o h a v e n o t . B y c o n t r a s t , w e c o u l d m o n i t o r t h es a m e p e o p l e a s t h e y m o v e d f r o m a t i m e o f l o w s t re s s to a t i m e o fh i g h s tr e ss , a n d w e c o u l d d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r p r i o r s o c ia l re l a -t i o n s h i p s d i f f er e n t i a te d t h o s e w h o b e c a m e h i g h l y d i s t re s s e df r o m t h o s e w h o d i d n o t . B e c a u s e e a c h p e r s o n s e r v e s a s hi s o rh e r o w n c o n t r o l , t h is d e s i g n i s m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n t h e c o n v e n -t i o n a l b e t w e e n - p e r s o n s s t r a t e g y .

I n t h i s s tu d y , w e p r o s p e c t iv e l y m e a s u r e d t w o m a j o r p e r s o n a l -i t y d i s p o s i t i o n s , e x t r a v e r s i o n a n d n e u r o t i c i s m . B o t h h a v e p r e v i -o u s l y b e e n s h o w n t o r e l a te t o so c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p m e a s u r e s ( I. G .S a r a s o n & S a r a s o n , 1 9 8 5 ) , a n d , a s n o t e d e a r l i e r , a t le a s t o n es t u d y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s t r e s s - b u f f e r i n g e f f e c t o f s o c i a l r e l a t io n -s h i p s m a y b e a s p u r i o u s p r o d u c t o f n e u r o t i c i s m ( H e n d e r s o n e ta l . , 1981) .

W h i l e c o n t r o l l i n g f o r t h e s e p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s a n d f o r p r i o rm e n t a l h e a l t h , w e w i s h e d t o t e s t w h e t h e r t h e s t re s s - p ro t e c t iv ee f fe c t o f s o ci a l r e la t i o n s h ip s w o u l d e m e r g e a s t h e e x a m i n a t i o na p p r o a c h e d , t h a t i s , a s st r e s s in c r e a s e d . T o t r a c e t h i s e f f e c t, w eo b t a i n e d d a i l y m e a s u r e s o f a n x i e t y f r o m 1 7 d a y s b e f o r e t o 17d a y s a ft e r t h e e x a m i n a t i o n . W e a l s o i n c l u d e d b o t h s t r u c t u r a l( i. e. , s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n ) a n d f u n c t i o n a l ( i. e. , p e r c e i v e d s o c i a l s u p -p o r t ) m e a s u r e s o f s o c i a l r e la t i o n s h i p s . T h i s a l l o w e d u s t o t e s t ak e y h y p o t h e s i s - - t h a t s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n w o u l d b e a m o r e e f fe c -t i ve s tr e ss b u f f e r t h a n p e r c e i v e d s u p p o r t o n c e p e r s o n a l i ty a n dp r i o r m e n t a l h e a l t h w e r e c o n t r o l le d . F u r t h e r m o r e , w e w i s h e dt o s e e w h i c h f a c e t s o f s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n (e .g ., k i n , n e i g h b o r s , a n dw o r k ) a n d p e r c e i v e d s u p p o r t (e .g ., i n s t r u m e n t a l a n d e m o t i o n a l )w e r e m o s t e f f i c a c i o u s a s s t re s s b u f f e rs .

M e t h o dDesign and Sample

We recru i t ed s ub jec t s a t an MCAT reg i s t r a t ion s es s ion a t a majorun ivers ity , a t wh ich 226 s tuden t s r eg i s t e r ed . Rec ru i tm ent to ok p lace 9weeks before the examina t ion . As s tuden t s l e f t t he r eg i s t r a t ion ha l l ,t h e y r e c e i v e d a h a n d o u t i n v i ti n g th e m t o t a k e p a r t i n a s tu d y o f e x a m i -na t ion s t r es s . For the i r par t i c ipa t ion , w e of f e r ed s ub jec t s $20 and f eed-back on the r es u l ts o f t he s tudy . Becaus e the f low of s tuden t s th roughthe ha l l was very s wi f t , on ly 106 s tuden t s r ec e ived handout s . O f thes e ,84 s a id they were in t e r es t ed in l ea rn ing m ore abo ut the s tudy .Four w eeks l a t e r (5 weeks before the exam ina t ion) , we m ai l ed in t e r -es t ed per s ons $5 in cas h and an in i t i a l (T ime 1) ques t ionnai r e tha t

as s es s ed demo graphic , per s ona l ity , and s oc ia l r e l a tions h ip var i ab les .S ix ty-e igh t per s ons agreed to par t i c ipa te in the s tudy and comple tedthe T im e 1 ques t ionnai r e .Seven teen days before the exa mina t ion , s ub jec t s rece ived the f i r st o ff ive bookle t s o f da i ly d i a r i es ( s e l f - r epor t ques t ionnai r es ) and a fu r ther$5 in payment . Eac h bookle t con ta ined s even da i ly d i a r i es . The d ia r i esm e a s u r e d c h a n g e s i n a n x i e t y d u r in g t h e 5 w e e k s su r r o u n d i n g t h e e x a m -ina t ion . Subjec t s comple ted th e i r d i a r i es da i ly a t bed t im e, and th i s t askus ua l ly took l es s than 2 min . S ubjec t s rece ived add i t iona l book le t se a c h w e e k a n d r e t u r n e d t h e b o o k l e t s b y m a i l w e e k ly . O n c o m p l e t i o n o fthe d i a ry ph as e o f the s tudy , each s ub jec t r ece ived a f ina l $10 payment .F i f ty -s ix s ub jec t s com ple ted th e T im e 1 ques t ion nai r e and a l l d i a r i esu p t o a n d i n c l u d in g t h e e x a m i n a t i o n d a y - - t h e 1 8 th d a y o f th e d i a r yper iod .T h i s f i n a l s a m p l e ( N = 5 6 ) c o n si s te d o f 2 8 m e n a n d 2 8 w o m e n ; t h eaverage age was 20.3 years SD = 0.8) , the av erage GPA wa s 3.4 SD =0 .3) , and the average M CAT s core was 63 . 7 SD = 7.6) . We were con-cerne d tha t t h i s sample m igh t no t be r epres en ta t ive o f the popula t iont h a t t o o k t h e e x a m i n a t i o n . O f t h e 1 60 s t u d e n ts w h o t o o k t h e e x a m i n a -t io n- r e ca l l t ha t 226 had r eg i s t e r ed to take i t on ly 35% (56/160) p ro-v ided co mple te d a ta in th i s s tudy , t ha t i s, da t a up to an d inc lud ing thee x a m i n a t i o n d a y . W e o b t a i n e d t h e G P A a n d M C A T s c o re s o f s tu d e n t sw h o t o o k t h e t e s t a n d c o m p a r e d t h e s e s c o re s w i th t h o s e o f o u r s a m p l e.T h e G P A a n d M C A T m e a n s f o r o u r s am p l e c l o se l y m a t c h e d t h o s e o fthe popula t ion (popula t ion GPA: M= 3 .37 , SD = 0.38, z= 0.56, ns for at es t o f t he hypothes i s tha t t he s amp le [M = 3 . 40] was r andomly draw nf rom a popu la t ion w i th M = 3 . 37 ; popula t ion M CAT s core : M = 62 .1 ,SD = 8.3, z = 1.06, ns, fo r a t es t o f t he hyp othes i s t ha t t he s amp le [M =63 . 7] was random ly drawn f rom a popula t ion w i th M = 62 . I ) .

Independent VariablesSocial integration. Socia l i n t egra t ion was as s es s ed in the T ime 1ques t ion nai r e by us ing the Socia l Netwo rk L i s t (S . Cohen , 1991) . L ikeo ther s oc ia l i n t egra t ion mea s ures ( e .g ., Berkm an & Syme, 1979; Wi l -l i ams , Ware , & Don ald , 1981) , t he Socia l Network L i s t ob ta ins da ta onvar ious dom ains o f s oc ia l i n t egra t ion s uch as k in , f r iends , and ne igh-

bor s . For each dom ain , s ub jec t s r epor t ed the nu mb er o f per s ons theyin te r ac ted wi th a t l eas t once d ur ing a typ ica l 2 -week per iod . The con-t ac t cou ld be in per s on o r by te l ephone . The us e o f a typ ica l 2 -weekper iod e ns ures tha t s oc ia l i n t egra t ion i s meas ured a t a l eve l o f t empora lgenera l i ty s imi l a r t o tha t fo r typ ica l p erce ived s uppor t m eas ures . Weobta ined r epor t s fo r each o f e igh t s oc ia l i n t egra t ion dom ains : ( a) par -ents, (b) other relat ives , (c) me mb ers o f rel igious group s , (d) me mb ers o fleisure groups , (e) co-w orkers ( i f the subjec t had a p ar t- t im e job) , ( f )c l as s mates , (g ) f ri ends , and (h ) ne ighbor s . We cons t ruc te d an add i t iveindex tha t was bas ed on r es pons es to thes e e igh t i tems ( index M = 24 . 9per s ons , SD = 7.3 persons).N o t e t h a t t h e s a m e i n d i v i d u a l c o u l d b e n o m i n a t e d i n s e v er a l s o c i a lin t egra t ion domains , f o r example , one cou ld in t e r ac t wi th the s ameper s on in a l e i s ure g roup and in a r e l ig ious g roup . Th i s over l ap wi l lincreas e the cor r e l a t ion be tween the s oc ia l i n t egra t ion s ubs ca les . I neva lua t ing the im pact o f any par t i cu la r s ubs ca le , t herefore , we ad jus t edfor i ts corre lat ion with the ot her sub scales (see Resul ts sect ion) .Perceived social support. We us ed the Soc ia l P rov i s ions Sca le (Cu-t rona & Rus s e l l , 1987; Rus s e l l & Cut rona , 1984) , i nc luded in the in i t i a lques t ionnai r e , t o meas u re perce ived s uppor t . Th i s 24- i t em ins t rumen topera t iona l i zes Weiss 's ( 1974) s ix s oc ia l s uppor t f unc t ions : a t t achmen t ,s oc ia l i n t egra t ion , r eas s urance of wor th , r e l i ab le a l l i ance , gu idance ,and oppo r tun i ty fo r nur tu rance . T ypica l it ems inc lude there a r e peo-p le I can de pend o n to he lp me i f I r ea l ly need i t , ' t here i s no one I f ee lc o m f o r t a b l e t a l k in g a b o u t p r o b le m s w i t h a n d I fe e l a s t r o n g e m o -t iona l bon d wi th a t l eas t one o ther per s on? ' Sub jec t s r a ted the 24 i t emson a s ca le f rom strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree 4) . We comp uted

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S O C I A L R E L A T I O N S H I P S , P E R S O N A L IT Y , A N D A N X I E T Y 4 4 3t h e t o t a l p e r c e i v e d s u p p o r t s c o r e b y s u m m i n g s c o r e s o n a l l 2 4 i t e m s( M = 82 .2, S D = 8 .2) . T he r e l i ab i l it y o f t he t o t a l sca l e ( Cr onbach ' salpha) w as .87.

D e p e n d e n t V a ri ab le : A n x i e t yT h e d a i l y d i a r y i n s t r u m e n t c o n t a i n e d t h r e e i t e m s f r o m t h e P r o f i le o fM ood S ta t es ( L or r & M cNai r , 1971) : (a ) "on edg e ," (b ) "uneas y" a nd (c )" n e r v o u s . " T h e s e w e r e t h e t h r e e h i g h e s t l o a d i n g i t e m s o n a n a n x i e t yf ac to r ob t a ined in a va l ida t ion s tudy us ing co l l ege s tuden t s ( see L or r &

Mc Nai r , 1971 , p . 26) . Respo nden t s r a t ed each i t em on th e ex t en t t ow h i c h t h e y h a d e x p e r i e n c e d t h e p a r t i c u l a r e m o t i o n d u r i n g t h e p r e -v ious 24 h r . T hey use d the f o l l owing 5 - po in t sca l e : I = not at all, 2 = alittle, 3 = moderately, 4 = q uite a bit, 5 = extrem ely W e c o m p u t e d s c a l esco r es by summ ing the i t em sco r es . T he sca l e r anged f r om 3 to 15 un i ts .T he r e l i ab i l it y o f t he sca l e ( Cr onbach 's a lpha), based on a l l t he d i a r yobse r va t ions , was .87 .For ana ly t i c pu r poses , we aver aged each pe r son ' s da i l y anx ie tysco r es f o r d i a r y Days 1 - 10 and 11 - 17 . W e chose t h i s d iv i s ion o f days tod i s t in g u i s h a t i m e t h a t w e t h o u g h t w o u l d b e p s y c h o l o g ic a l l y m e a n i n g -f u l t o t h e M C A T s t u d e n t s - - t h e f i n a l w e e k b e f o r e t h e e x a m i n a t i o n( Days 11 - 17) . We r easoned tha t t h i s f i na l week w ou ld be a t ime whe nt h e i m m i n e n c e o f t h e e x a m c o u l d n o t b e i g n o r e d a n d w h e n f e e l i ng s o fa n x i e t y w o u l d g ro w . T h u s w e i n t e n d e d t h e D a y 1 - 1 0 m e a s u r e o f a n x i -e ty t o se r ve as a base l ine o r con t r o l pe r io d aga ins t w h ich to gauge l a t e rincreases in anxiety.

C o n t r o l V a r i a b l e sInitial anx iety S e e t h e s e c t io n o n t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b le a b o v e .Personality I n t he i n i t i a l ques t i onna i r e , each sub jec t comple t ed

For m B o f t he E ysenck Per sona l i t y I nven to r y ( E PI ; E ysenck & E ysenck ,1964) . We measu r ed ex t r aver s ion us ing r esponses t o 24 i t ems in t heE PI . E ach i t em use d a yes- o r - no f o r mat ; each yes w a s s c o r e d 1 a n d e a c hno was sco r ed 0 ; t hus , t he t o t a l sco r e cou ld r ange f r om 0 to 24 . T hesamp le me an sco r e was 13 .7 SD = 3 .8 ) . T yp ica l i t ems inc lude "do o the rpeop le t h ink o f you as l i ve ly?" and "gener al ly , do yo u p r e f e r r ead ing tom e e t i n g p e o p l e ? " A s w i t h e x t r av e r s io n , w e m e a s u r e d n e u r o t i c i sm u s -ing 24 i t ems f r om the E PI , and the t o t a l sco r e cou ld r ange f r om 0 to 24 .T h e s a m p l e m e a n s c o r e w a s 1 2 . 1 SD = 4 .7 ) . T yp ica l i t ems inc lude" w o u l d y o u c a l l y o u r s e l f a n e r v o u s p e r s o n ? " a n d " a r e y o u t r o u b l e dwi th f ee l i ngs o f i n f e r io r i t y?"

T a b l e 1In terre la t ionships o f Socia l In tegrat ion , Perceived Support ,Pe r s ona l i t y and Da i l y Anx i e t y : Pe ar s on Pr oduc t -M om e n t Cor re la ti ons N = 56 )

Soc ia l Pe r ce ivedVar i ab l e i n t eg r a t i on suppor tSoc i a l i n t eg r a t i on - - .31"P e r c e i v ed s u p p o r t . 3 1 " - -Extra versio n .34* .26*N e u r o t i c i s m - . l 1 - . 3 1I n i t i a l anx ie ty( M o v e r D a y s 1 - 1 0 ) - . 1 9 - . 1 4P r e e x a m i n a t i o n a n x i e t y( M o v e r D a y s 1 1 - 1 7 ) - . 3 9 * - . 2 8 ** p < .05, two- ta i led.

T a b l e 2S t anda r d i z e d R e gr e s s i on Coe f fi c ie n t s Re l a t i ng Soc i a lI n te gr a ti on and Pe r c e i v e d Suppor t t o Pr e e x am i na t i on A nx i e t yControl l ing for In i t ia l Anxie ty Extravers ion,and Ne ur o t i c i s m N = 56 )

Rela t ionsh ip t o Soc i a l Pe r ce ivedpr eexa mina t ion anx ie ty i n t eg r a t i on suppor t

U n a d j u s t e d ( P e a rs o n p r o d u c t -m o m e n t c o r r e la t io n ) - . 3 9 * - . 2 8 *Con t r o l l i ng f o rN e u r o t i c is m a l o n e - . 3 4 * - . 1 6E x t r a v er s i o n a l o n e - . 2 6 " - . 7N e u r o t i c s m + e x t r av e r s io n - . 2 7 * - . 11Neur o t i c i sm + ex t r aver s ion , +i n i ti a l a n x i e t y - . 2 0 " - . 1 4* p < .05, two- ta i led.

R e s u l t sI n t e r r e la t i o n s h i p s o f S o c i a l I n t e g r a t i o na n d P e r c e i v e d S u p p o r t

T a b l e 1 p r e s e n t s P e a r s o n p r o d u c t - m o m e n t c o r r e l a t io n ss h o w i n g h o w t h e s o c i a l r e la t i o n s h i p m e a s u r e s r e l a t e d to o n ea n o t h e r a n d t o p e r s o n a l i t y a n d a n x i e t y. S e v e r a l f i n d i n g s a r en o t e w o r th y . F i r s t , s o c i a l i n te g r a t i o n a n d p e r c e i v e d s u p p o r t c o r -r e l a t e p o s i t iv e l y , b u t o n l y t o a m o d e r a t e e x t e n t , r ( 5 4 ) = . 3 1 , p