BOB-LME 2010 MS report · IWK Indah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd . Country Report on Pollution -...

BOBLME-2011-Ecology-11

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal and development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The BOBLME Project encourages the use of this report for study, research, news reporting, criticism or review. Selected passages, tables or diagrams may be reproduced for such purposes provided acknowledgment of the source is included. Major extracts or the entire document may not be reproduced by any process without the written permission of the BOBLME Project Regional Coordinator. BOBLME contract: PSA-GCP 212/10/2010 For bibliographic purposes, please reference this publication as: BOBLME (2011) Country Report on Pollution - Malaysia BOBLME-2011-Ecology-11

BOBLME: Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem

Malaysia

National Report on

Coastal Pollution Loading and Water Quality Criteria

Zelina Z. Ibrahim, Mohd. Pauzi Zakaria, Norhayati Mohd. Tahir*, Sutarji Kasmin, Abd. Muhaimin

Amiruddin, Norliza Ismail and Khairiyah Abd. Rahim.

Faculty of Environmental Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia

*Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu

Country Report on Pollution - Malaysia

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Contents

1. The Bay of Bengal Coast of Peninsular Malaysia ........................................................................... 8 1.1. Bio-geographical features ....................................................................................................... 8 1.2. Coastal activities ................................................................................................................... 11 1.3 Overview of Sources of Pollution .......................................................................................... 13

1.3.1 Land-based Sources ..................................................................................................... 13 1.3.2 Sea/Marine-based Sources ........................................................................................... 15 1.3.3 Priority Categories of Parameters ................................................................................. 16

2. International Instruments, Conventions, Protocols and Programmes........................................... 18 2.1 Environmental Agreements and Programmes ...................................................................... 18 2.2 Maritime Agreements and Programmes ............................................................................... 20

3. Governance ................................................................................................................................... 22 3.1 Policy, Legislation, Acts, Regulations and Orders ................................................................ 22 3.2 The Environmental Quality Act, 1974 ................................................................................... 23 3.3 Institutional Mechanisms ....................................................................................................... 26 3.4 The Department of Environment ........................................................................................... 28

4. Existing Water Quality Standards ................................................................................................. 30 4.1 Effluent Discharge Standards ............................................................................................... 30 4.2 Ambient Water Quality Standards ......................................................................................... 31 4.3 Marine Water Quality Standards ........................................................................................... 31

5 The National Water, Coastal and Marine Monitoring Programme and Current Status ................. 36 5.1 Environmental Monitoring ..................................................................................................... 36 5.2 River Water Quality Monitoring ............................................................................................. 36 5.3 Coastal and Marine Water Quality Monitoring ...................................................................... 38 5.4 Oil Pollution .......................................................................................................................... 43 5.5 Heavy Metals and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) ..................................................... 46 5.6 Harmful Algal Blooms ............................................................................................................ 52

6 Gaps and Challenges .................................................................................................................... 54 6.1 Governance Infrastructure ................................................................................................... 54 6.2 Knowledge and Human Resources Management ................................................................ 56 6.3 The Way Forward .................................................................................................................. 57


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List of Figures

Figure 1.1: The Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem ....................................................................... 8

Figure 1.2: The Strait of Malacca ............................................................................................................ 9

Figure 1.3: States and River Catchments on the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. ........................ 10

Figure 1.4: Percentage of Land Use According to State in West Coast Region in 2001 ..................... 11

Figure 1.5: Ports in Peninsular Malaysia. ............................................................................................. 13

Figure 1.6: Vessels Traversing the Straits of Malacca and Singapore Reporting to Klang VTS. ......... 16

Figure 1.7: Observed Exceedence of Malaysian Interim Marine Water Quality Standards ................. 17

Figure 2.1: MEH Demonstration Project Survey Area 1 ....................................................................... 21

Figure 5.1: Peninsular Malaysia River Basins Water Quality Status, 2008 .......................................... 37

Figure 5.2: State Population on West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, 2003-2007 ................................ 38

Figure 5.3: Percentage of Coastal Water Samples Exceeding Ambient Standards on West Coast of

Peninsular Malaysia, 2008 .................................................................................................................... 39

Figure 5.4: West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia Water Pollution Point Sources by Sector .................. 40

Figure 5.5: Malaysia: Distribution of Sewage Treatment Plants by State, 2008. .................................. 41

Figure 5.6: Distribution of Industrial Water Pollution Point Sources (Agro-based and Manufacturing

Industries) by State, 2008. .................................................................................................................... 41

Figure 5.7: Marine Water Quality Nearshore and Offshore. ................................................................. 42

Figure 5.8: Oil Spill Incidents in Malaysian Seas. ................................................................................. 43

Figure 6.1: Malaysian Research and Development Expenditure .......................................................... 57


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List of Tables

Table 1.1: Location of Major Industrial Lands on West Coast Peninsular Malaysia ............................. 12

Table 1.2: Oil Refineries on West Coast Peninsular Malaysia ............................................................. 12

Table 2.1: Progress in GPA Activities ................................................................................................... 19

Table 2.2: International Maritime Conventions Adopted by Malaysia. .................................................. 20

Table 3.1: Other Legislation Relevant for Marine Water Pollution Control ........................................... 22

Table 3.2: Environmental Quality Act 1974 and Amendments ............................................................. 24

Table 3.3: Regulations under EQA 1974 Relevant for Water Pollution ................................................ 24

Table 3.4: Orders under EQA 1974 Relevant for Water Pollution ........................................................ 26

Table 3.5: Agencies Relevant to Water Resources Management ........................................................ 27

Table 3.6: DOE EIA Report Guidelines Relevant to Coastal and Marine Projects ............................... 29

Table 4.1: Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979. .................... 30

Table 4.2: National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia ................................................................... 32

Table 4.3. DOE Water Quality Classification and Class Standards for Malaysia ................................. 34

Table 4.4: Malaysia Interim Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standards ........................................... 35

Table 5.1: Oil Spill Incidents in Malaysian Waters, 1975–1997 ............................................................ 45

Table 5.2: Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in Sediments and Perna viridis ............................... 47

Table 5.3: Concentration of Heavy Metals in Cultured Fishes, Langat River Estuary .......................... 47

Table 5.4: Hydrocarbons in Malaysian waters ...................................................................................... 49


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List of Abbreviations

AMWQC ASEAN Marine Water Quality Criteria

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

BOD Biochemical oxygen demand

COBSEA Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia

COD Chemical oxygen demand

DANCED Danish Cooperation for Environment and Development

DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

DID Department of Irrigation and Drainage

DO Dissolved oxygen

DOE Department of Environment

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

EPU Economic Planning Unit

EQA Environmental Quality Act

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FCZ Free Commercial Zones

FIZ Free Industrial Zones

GEF Global Environment Facility

GPA Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-

based Activities

HABs Harmful Algal Blooms

HCH Hexachlorocyclohexane

ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management

ICS International Chamber of Shipping

IHO International Hydrographic Organization

IST Individual Septic Tanks

IMO International Maritime Organisation

IMWQS Interim Marine Water Quality Standards

INTERTANKO International Association of Independent Tanker Owners

IWK Indah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd


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JPBD Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa (Town and Country Planning Department)

MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

MEH Marine Electronic Highway

MEHDP MEH Demonstration Programme

MIDA Malaysian Investment Development Authority

MMEA Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency

MyNODC Malaysian National Oceanography Data Centre

NH3-N Ammoniacal nitrogen

NH4 Ammonium

NIP National Implementation Plans

NPP National Physical Plan

NO2 Nitrite

NO3 Nitrate

NSC National Steering Committee

OCPs Organochlorine pesticides

PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls

PEMSEA Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia

PO4 Phosphorus

POPs Persistent organic pollutants

ppb part per billion

PSP Paralytic shellfish poisoning

SiO4 Silicate

SS Suspended solids

Sv Sverdrup, unit of measure of volume transport equivalent to 0.001 km3/s

STP Sewage Treatment Plant

t tonne

TSS Traffic Separation Scheme

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme


7

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Culture Organisation

WPKL Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur (Kuala Lumpur Federal Territory)

WQI Water Quality Index


8

1. The Bay of Bengal Coast of Peninsular Malaysia

1.1. Bio-geographical features

The Strait of Malacca lies in the southeastern corner of the BOBLME (Figure 1.1).The West Coast of

Peninsular Malaysia forms the eastern shoreline of the Strait (Figure 1.2a). The Strait extends from

the Andaman Sea, in the north, to the southern end of the Malay Peninsula. It is approximately 540

nautical miles or 1,000 km long. The northern entrance is 300 nautical miles or 555 km wide while the

southern end is about 6.5 nautical miles or 12 km wide (MEHDP, 2010a). The Strait is about 100 m

deep in the north and shallows to less than 30 m from One Fathom Bank, located approximately

midway in the Strait (Figure 1.2b). The water volume passing through the Strait is small and estimated

to be less than 0.01 Sv (1 X 106 m3s-1) (Namba and Ibrahim, 2002). The net current direction is

northwestward at about 1 knot (0.5 ms-1) and varies with the seasonal winds (Ibrahim and Yanagi,

2006). The tidal pattern is predominantly semidiurnal with the diurnal inequality increasing southward.

The tide ranges are meso-tidal in the north becoming macro-tidal in the centre, due to the funnelling

effect. To the south the tide range tends to be micro-tidal. The tidal currents generally set

southeastward during flood and northwestward during ebb.

AS - Andaman Sea, MS - Malacca Strait

Figure 1.1: The Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem

(source: http://www.seaaroundus.org/lme/34.aspx accessed 29 May 2010)

Peninsular Malaysia

Indian Ocean

Bay of Bengal

AS

MS


9

a. Eastern Corridor of the Strait of Malacca on the West Coast of Peninsular

Malaysia (Source: Chart No. MAL 5, National Hydrographic Centre at http://www.hydro.gov.my/images/charts/mal%205.jpg accessed 30 May 2010,

Ismail et al. 2003)

. b. 3D Bottom Surface and Longitudinal Cross Section of the Strait of Malacca

(Source: Hii et al. 2006)

Figure 1.2: The Strait of Malacca


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The area experiences uniform temperatures (22-33 oC), high humidity (70-90%) and abundant rainfall

(2400 mm) (Malaysian Meteorological Department, 2010). Four main seasons may be distinguished:

the southwest monsoon, the northeast monsoon and two inter-monsoon seasons. Maximum rainfalls

occur in October-November and April to May, during the early part of the northeast monsoon and

southwest monsoon, respectively.

There are eight coastal states that line the eastern corridor of the Strait of Malacca, on the West

Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. From north to south, they are Perlis, Kedah, Penang (Pulau Pinang),

Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca, and Johore (Figure 1.3a). The Federal Territories of

Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya lie within the state of Selangor and they contribute to discharges through

the state of Selangor.

Most rivers on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia are short and steep. There are over 37 river

catchments (Figure 1.3b) discharging into the Strait of Malacca. Much of the larger rivers are

harvested for public water supply and have altered flow regimes. These rivers are the main sources of

land-based pollution into the coastal waters and most are monitored for streamflow by the Department

of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) and for water quality by the Malaysian Department of Environment

(DOE).

a. States and Federal Territories (source: © 2009 Golbez, Mdzafri.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Malaysia_states_named.png accessed 29 May

2010)

b. River Catchments Monitored by DOE for Water Quality

(source: http://www.enviromalaysia.com.my/products_d_waterquality3.php accessed 29 May

2010 )

Figure 1.3: States and River Catchments on the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia.


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The coastal landscape varies from alluvial coastal plains to hills to rocky outcrops. The natural coastal

land cover is varied, with mudflats, sandy beaches, mangroves, seagrass meadows and algal beds,

coral reefs, limestone and granite cliffs, estuaries, fine sand tidal flats and small island ecosystems.

Ismail et al. (2003) have summarised the rich biodiversity of habitats found on the West Coast.

Studies on the marine ecosystems have concentrated on mangroves (Nixon et al., 1984; Ong et al.,

1991; Othman, 1994; Chong, 2006), coral reefs (Tan and Yusoff, 2002; Toda et al. 2007) and

seagrasses (Bujang et al., 2006). The hinterland land cover is mainly paddy, plantation agriculture,

secondary jungle, and virgin rainforest. The current circulation in the Strait and surrounding waters

has been described by Wrytki (1961).

1.2. Coastal activities

The hinterland of the west coast is the most developed portion of Peninsular Malaysia, with major

coastal urban developments in Penang, Selangor, Malacca and Negeri Sembilan. The landuse has

been summarised by the National Physical Plan (JPBD, 2009) (Figure 1.4). Much of the landuse is

agriculture and forest lands. Built-up area comprises only 5.6% of the total area. The 25 Free

Commercial Zones (FCZ) and Free Industrial Zones (FIZ) located along the West Coast of Peninsular

Malaysia are listed in Table 1.1. Currently, there are four oil refineries on the west coast of Malaysia

(Table 1.2).

Figure 1.4: Percentage of Land Use According to State in West Coast Region in 2001

(source: JPBD, 2009)

In addition to activities on land, the Strait of Malacca is an important seaway and is significant to the

fisheries industry of Malaysia. The total number of fishermen in the west coast is approximately

40,800, forming approximately 40% of the total fishermen in Malaysia. The total number of fishing


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vessel amounts to 17,932 fishing vessels, which is higher than any other part of Malaysia

(Department of Fisheries Malaysia, 2010).

The major ports (Figure 1.5) in Malaysia are expected to invest more than RM6 billion to expand their

capacities, handling facilities and services. The three major federal international ports on the West

Coast: are Penang Port, Port Klang and Port of Tanjung Pelepas. The Ministry of Transport's policy is

to make Port Klang as the national load centre and the regional trans-shipment hub, and to develop

the Port of Tanjung Pelepas as the trans-shipment hub for the southern region of Malaysia (MIDA,

2010).

Table 1.1: Location of Major Industrial Lands on West Coast Peninsular Malaysia

Industrial Zone Area State Free Commercial Zones

Butterworth; Bayan Lepas Penang North, South and West Port of Port Klang; Port Klang Free Zone; Pulau Indah MILS Logistic Hub; KLIA

Selangor

Port Tanjung Pelepas Johor Free Industrial Zones

Bayan Lepas I, II, III, IV; Seberang Perai; Kinta; Jelapang II Penang Telok Panglima Garang; Pulau Indah (PKFZ); Sungai Way I and II; Ulu Kelang

Selangor

Batu Berendam I and II; Tanjung Kling Malacca Tanjung Pelepas Johor

Table 1.2: Oil Refineries on West Coast Peninsular Malaysia

No. Refinary Company State Production 1 Melaka I Refinery Petronas Penapisan (Melaka) Sdn Bhd Malacca 126,000 bbl/d

(20,000 m3/d) 2 Melaka II Refinery Petronas/ConocoPhillips

Malaysia Refining Company Sdn Bhd Malacca 170,000 bbl/d

(27,000 m3/d) 3 Port Dickson

Refinery Royal Dutch Shell Shell Refining Company (FOM) Bhd

Negeri Sembilan

155,000 bbl/d (24,600 m3/d)

4 Esso Port Dickson

Refinery ExxonMobil Esso (Malaysia) Bhd

Selangor 86,000 bbl/d (13,700 m3/d)


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Figure 1.5: Ports in Peninsular Malaysia.

(source: www.portsworld.com/main/ports.htm, accessed 30 May 2010)

1.3 Overview of Sources of Pollution

1.3.1 Land-based Sources

Land-based, point and non-point pollution sources are important in causing marine pollution. The

DOE categorises point sources into sewage treatment plants, manufacturing industries, agro-based

industries, and animal farms. Recent studies of catchment pollutant loading estimates in Malaysian

rivers indicate that non-point pollutant contribution may be equivalent or greater to that of point

sources. About 83% of the population in Peninsular Malaysia have access to sewage treatment. The

discharge from sewage treatment plants is mandated to a standard enforced by the DOE. However,

many rural and older houses in urban areas still use an individual septic tank with kitchen wastes

being directly discharged into storm drains. Industrial activities, particularly involving heavy metals,

such as mercury and lead or cadmium, also cause pollution of coastal areas. In Malaysian coastal

waters, oil and grease, suspended solids and Escherichia coli (E. coli) are identified, in the annual

DOE Malaysia Environmental Quality Reports, as being the main contaminants of coastal waters.

Effluent discharges from large-scale manufacturing or heavy industries, such as the oil refineries and

the FIZ/FCZ complexes, including food processing industries are regulated by the Department of

Environment, and have to meet specific industrial and sewerage discharge standards prescribed

under the Environmental Quality Act 1974 (EQA 1974). The oil palm and rubber industries are

licensed under two separate regulations, also under the Environmental Quality Act 1974. Although

large industries are well regulated, smaller and medium industries may be exempted, due to the small


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discharge volume for example, or given temporary contravention licenses. In addition, many agro-

based and land development activities are not classified as an "industrial plant" and are not under the

purview of the Department of Environment. Such activities can result in pollution of waterways.

Some examples of the main land-based polluting activities sources have been identified by Dato

Ahmad Fuad Embi, former Deputy Director-General Drainage and Irrigation Department (pers comm.

Dato Ahmad Fuad Embi, former Deputy Director-General Drainage and Irrigation Department, 31 May

2010), based on his knowledge of numerous studies and observations, as:

· Earth Works - Inadequate and incompetent land management practices during land

clearance, earthworks, during construction or development activities, result in substantial

surface erosion and suspended sediment pollution during high-intensity rain events;

· Wet Markets - In almost all cases, the biggest single contributor of solid waste and

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) to urban drains and rivers (e.g., 70% in Sg Pinang in

Penang state). Almost all have waste water without treatment facilities;

· Abattoirs/Slaughterhouses - Also a big contributor of BOD, from blood and animal

entrails;

· Chicken Processing Stalls - Usually conveniently situated next to main drains or rivers, to

enable flushing of feathers and chicken remains directly to the waterways. This is a big

source of BOD;

· Landfills near Rivers - Usually the biggest source of solid wastes when situated on the

banks of the river concerned. High flows constantly erode the wastes from the site and

the toxic leachate seeps out continuously;

· Squatters on River Reserves - Big sources of solid waste, untreated sewage, together

with pest infestation, to the rivers concerned;

· Shared (‘Kongsi’) accommodation for workers at construction sites - These are big

sources of solid waste, sewage, etc., as they are not served by any public services or

facilities;

· Plastic Bags - Almost all urban rivers have beds heavily lined with plastic bags. Plastic

bags are a big source of pollution everywhere, especially at night markets locations;

· Individual Septic Tanks in old housing areas - Old housing areas use septic tank sewage

systems which, in most cases, are never or rarely desludged. These are sources of very

high BOD concentrations discharged to the drains in such areas;

· Old Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) not under the national sewerage system

management - About 50% of existing STPs are not under the national sewerage services.

These are mostly run by private contractors commissioned by the Local Authorities. Most

are old ‘end-of-life’ facilities, and release a lot of effluent to drains and rivers;


15

· Restaurants and food stalls - Almost all restaurants, food shops, in urban areas release

substantial amounts of waste food and fats which end up rotting in the drains in urban

areas, making them stink and creating health hazards by breeding disease vectors

(mosquitoes, cockroaches, rats);

· Sand Mines in and upsteam of rivers - Sand mining in upper catchment hills cause severe

degradation of pristine headwaters, resulting in heavy sedimentation in the river channels;

· Pig Farming Areas - Present Pig Farming areas are all badly regulated, passing out

concentrated effluents to rivers, leaving them stinking and dead from the sludge lining up

the river banks;

· Aquaculture in tidal flats - Large scale clearing of mangrove areas is a typical result of

aquaculture activities, especially in the upper Perak state area. The sludge from prawn

farms are toxic and have contaminated many estuaries; and

· Logging of Permanent Forest Reserves - The threatened logging of the Ulu Muda

permanent forest reserves by the Kedah State Government can have severe

consequences to the catchment, resulting in heavy sedimentation, degradation of water

quality, depletion of aquatic and fish life, and would have a permanent effect on the water

supply to Sg Muda, especially in the dry season.

These smaller industries and activities are often under the jurisdiction of the local district or town

authorities, or even state authorities, who often have insufficient manpower to evaluate and enforce

state and local by-laws, when available.

1.3.2 Sea/Marine-based Sources

Pollution from land-based activities eventually reach the sea. Sea pollution is generated by land,

atmospheric and sea sources. Most of the sea-based pollution is due to oil or ballast water discharged

from ships (either intentionally or accidentally due to collision or grounding). Pollution from sea-based

sources are mainly oil-based although other waste trash may also come from ships. Other sources

include shipping traffic, port operations and off-shore oil and gas exploration and production rigs. Due

to the high traffic volume in the Strait, it is difficult to track ship movements, monitor activities and

enforce compliance with international rules. As a result ships may take advantage of this to illegally

dump wastes during operational activities. This contributes to marine pollution problems in the Strait.

The main component in crude oil, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), is toxic to marine life and

very difficult to clean up. It could remain for years in the sediment and marine environments. Marine

species that are constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit physiological problems and are susceptible

to diseases.


16

In an effort to reduce ship collisions and the resulting discharge of oil, the International Maritime

Organisation (IMO) has adopted the Mandatory Ship Reporting System in the Straits of Malacca and

Singapore, known as "STRAITREP", as proposed by Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Based on

the record of reporting vessels the number of ships passing through the Strait is increasing at

approximately 7.5% per year over the last few years (Figure 1.6). About 54% of transiting vessels in

the Straits are general cargo vessels and container ships, while about 35% are crude oil and

petroleum products carriers. All these vessels are potential sources of pollution. The numbers

recorded by the STRAITREP is only that from reporting vessels. This may seriously underestimate the

total vessel traffic, as Kamaruzaman (1998) estimated a number of some 600 vessels daily, including

fishing vessels, traditional small crafts, pleasure crafts. This gives a number of 213,600 vessels over a

period of one year for 1998, which is more than five times the number of reporting vessels recorded in

1999.

Note: bars indicate number of vessels; line indicates % increase in reporting

Figure 1.6: Vessels Traversing the Straits of Malacca and Singapore Reporting to Klang VTS.

(Source: Malaysian Marine Department, http://www.marine.gov.my/ accessed 29 May 2010; MEHDP, 2010c)

1.3.3 Priority Categories of Parameters

In the 2008 Malaysian Environmental Quality Report, the DOE (2009) has prioritised three parameters

as being of major significance to marine pollution (Figure 1.7). They are Total Suspended Solids, Oil

and Grease and E. coli. Suspended Solids is high in coastal areas where rivers discharge. Oil and

Grease are problematic in high maritime traffic areas. Coliform levels often exceed the interim

ambient standards near urbanised locations.

Vessels Reporting to Klang VTS

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

80,000

90,000

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Year

Vess

els

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

% In

crea

se in

Rep

ortin

g


17

a. Exceedence for Years 2006 to 2008.

b. Exceedence by State, 2008.

c. Exceedence by Island Type, 2008.

Figure 1.7: Observed Exceedence of Malaysian Interim Marine Water Quality Standards

(Source: DOE, 2009)


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2. International Instruments, Conventions, Protocols and Programmes

2.1 Environmental Agreements and Programmes

Malaysia participates actively in the regional and international fora on environment and has good

working relationships with a number of international organizations, including the United Nations

Environmental Programme (UNEP), United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

(UNCED), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia

(COBSEA), UNESCO, GEF/UNDP/IMO, and PEMSEA. Malaysia is a party to the following

international environmental agreements relevant for marine pollution: Convention on Biological

Diversity; United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; Hazardous Wastes; United

Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; Marine Life Conservation; Ozone Layer Protection; Ship

Pollution; and Wetlands.

Most of these Multilateral Environmental Agreements are managed by the Ministry of Natural

Resources and Environment, through the DOE. For example, the DOE regulates toxic and hazardous

wastes and ozone-depleting substances in accordance with the Basel Convention on the Control of

Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal. For the Montreal Protocol, a

National Steering Committee was established under the DOE which serves also as the national focal

point. Trade aspects of toxic and hazardous wastes are controlled under the Customs Act, 1967, and

enforced jointly by the Royal Customs and Excise Department and the DOE. For chemicals in

general, the DOE plays the role of the Designated National Authority for industrial chemicals other

than pesticides. Pesticides are controlled by the Pesticides Board, Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-

based Industries. The DOE is designated as the Malaysian National Correspondent for the

International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals, the International Programme on Chemical

Safety, the implementation of the London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in

International Trade (Amended), 1989, the operation of the information exchange service and the prior

informed consent procedure, and other international chemical programmes. Marine life agreements

involve the Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industries. Ship pollution

is managed by both the DOE and the Marine Department Peninsular Malaysia, Ministry of Transport.

Implementation of Agenda 21 is monitored by an Inter-Agency Planning Group (IAPG) under the

Prime Minister's Office. In line with its commitment to Agenda 21, Malaysia signed the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 1993; Convention on Biological Diversity

1992; Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Toxic and Hazardous Wastes and Their

Disposal; the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands; and the Convention to Combat Desertification. In

2000 COBSEA endorsed the Regional Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine


19

Environment of the East Asian Seas from the Effects of Land-based Activities. Malaysia participates in

the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based

Activities (GPA). Progress in the region is measured based on five indicators (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1: Progress in GPA Activities

No. Indicators Progress 1 Development and

implementation of national legislation, policies and strategies

Malaysian environmental laws have been revised and updated; new scheduled wastes regulations (2005).

2 Strengthening of institutional arrangements

Malaysia has already set up a Department of Environment

3 Development of capacity in integrated watershed and coastal management and scientific input to policymaking and decision-taking programs

River Rehabilitation Programmes for 26 rivers identified based on pollution threat and importance for the use of drinking water, fisheries and tourism. In 2006, studies had been carried out on six rivers.

4 Increased access to safe water and improved sanitation and sewage services

Malaysia has embarked on a privatization program of all sewerage services, and is committed to providing treatment facilities for 100 percent of its urban population by 2015. The private concessionaires now operate over 8,400 sewage treatment plants throughout Malaysia. The government budget allocation for pollution prevention and control (to Department of Environment) amounts to $27.4 million (2004); and the operation and maintenance costs for private sewage treatment plans amount to $55.1 million (2005).

5 Forging of partnership arrangements for sustainable development of coasts and oceans.

Malaysia hosted the East Asian Seas (EAS) Congress 2003 focused on the theme Regional Implementation of WSSD Commitments for the Seas of East Asia. There are National Environmental Awareness Campaigns for both public and rural areas; awareness campaigns for specified groups (industrial, local community, NGOs and journalists); Environmental Awareness Camps for primary and secondary school teachers; Environmental Competitions between Institutions of Higher Learning; and Sustainable Schools Programme Environment Award. There is increased collaboration with NGOs in sustainable management activities and programmes, especially in community river management and rehabilitation.

Source: http://www.unescap.org/drpad/vc/orientation/legal/3_aware_mly.htm; http://www.cobsea.org/documents/Meeting_Documents/EAS%20IGR2%20Prep/Partnership%20Opportunities.pdf

Malaysia became a signatory to the Stockholm Convention on POPs on 16 May 2002 and is one of

the 12 countries selected to implement a GEF/UNEP-funded project entitled “Development of National

Implementation Plans (NIP) for the Management of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in

Malaysia”. The Malaysian government had established a National Steering Committee (NSC)


20

structure for the management of POPs at national level (Ramachandran and Mourin, 2006). The NSC

on POPs is the main body that was established to look specifically into various aspects related to the

management of POPs. Public input in the development of the NIP is considerably lacking. Awareness

among Malaysian public regarding POPs is still low. The NIP report reports that as many as 80% of

Malaysians did not have knowledge about POPs. More than 60% did not consider POPs as

hazardous (Sangaralingam, 2005).

2.2 Maritime Agreements and Programmes

Maritime agreements are under the purview of the Marine Department, Ministry of Transport. The list

of international conventions adopted by Malaysia is given in Table 2.2. Malaysia has ratified MARPOL

73/78 Annex V and has 15 ports that have reception facilities for garbage waste. The garbage

removal and disposal services at these facilities are provided by private contractors.

Table 2.2: International Maritime Conventions Adopted by Malaysia.

No. International Shipping Conventions 1 Convention on the International Maritime Organization, 1948

2 Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG)1972, as amended

3 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) 1974, as amended

4 Protocol of 1978 relating to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1974, as amended

5 International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969

6 Convention on the International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO)1976, as amended

7 Operating Agreement on the International Mobile Satellite Organization 1976, as amended

8 International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) 1978, as amended

9 International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (FUND) 1971

10 Protocol of 1978 relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 1973, as amended (Annex I, II & V)

11 International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC) 1990

12 Amendments Adopted in November 1991 to the Convention of the International Maritime Organization (Institutionalization of the Facilitation Committee)

13 Protocol of 1992 to amend the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC) 1969

14 Protocol of 1992 to amend the International Convention on the Establishment


21

of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage 1971

15 The International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001 (Bunkers Convention 2001)

16 The International Convention for the Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims, 1976 as Amended by Protocol of 1996 (LLMC Convention 1996)

The Strait of Malacca is one of the busiest sea lanes in the world, especially for oil tanker traffic. Due

to the high volume of shipping, the Strait is highly susceptible to ship-based marine pollution, such as

oil and grease. To reduce accidents, shipping traffic in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore are

managed by an International Maritime Organisation (IMO) approved routing system since 1977. The

system comprises a Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS) and a Deep-Water Route, as well as specific

navigating rules. The TSS applies in the southern half of the Strait which is narrow and shallow,

increasing the risk of ship collision or grounding. A key hydrographic survey (Figure 2.1) within the

shallow areas of the TSS of the Strait of Malacca and Singapore is underway as part of the Marine

Electronic Highway (MEH) Demonstration Project (Sekimizu et al., 2001). This is a regional project

that IMO is executing for the Global Environment Facility (GEF) / World Bank. The purpose is to

produce an updated electronic navigation chart of the area. The MEH is a co-operative arrangement

with Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore, as well as the Republic of Korea, the International

Hydrographic Organization (IHO), the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) and the International

Association of Independent Tanker Owners (INTERTANKO) (MEHDP, 2010a).

Figure 2.1: MEH Demonstration Project Survey Area 1

(Source: MEHDP, 2010b)


22

3. Governance

3.1 Policy, Legislation, Acts, Regulations and Orders

In 2002 Malaysia approved a National Policy on the Environment which integrates the three elements

of sustainable development: economic, social and cultural development and environmental

conservation. Although the Environmental Policy is relatively recent, control of pollution and

environmental impacts have been legislated much earlier through the EQA 1974. In addition to the

EQA, there are other complementary regulations such as laws governing resource use, vessel

operation and conduct, land use pattern, and other local government by-laws on earthworks, earth

removal, mining, sanitation and solid waste disposal (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1: Other Legislation Relevant for Marine Water Pollution Control

No. Legislation 1 Merchant Shipping Ordinance, 1952

2 Land Conservation Act, 1960

3 National Land Code, 1965

4 Forestry Act, 1984

5 Exclusive Economic Zone Act, 1984

6 Merchant Shipping (Central Mercantile Marine Fund) Rules 1984

7 Fisheries Act, 1985

8 Sewerage Services Act, 1993

9 Sarawak Natural Resources and Environment (Prescribed Activities) Order, 1994

10 Merchant Shipping (Amendment) Act, 1998

11 Sabah Conservation of Environment (Prescribed Activities) Order, 1999

12 Exclusive Economic Zone (Appointment of Authoritized Officer) Order 2001

13 Customs (Prohibition of Import) Order 1998, (Amendment), 2006

14 Customs (Prohibition of Export) Order 1998, (Amendment), 2006

15 Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Act, 2006

Malaysia does not yet have a coastal management policy although there are many management

initiatives which have resulted in coastal management planning documents. Among the notable

approaches implemented on the West Coast are Integrated Shoreline Management Plans developed

for Penang, Malacca and Negeri Sembilan, under the DID which controls development on the

coastline, and the integrated coastal management strategy for Port Klang, Selangor, developed with

assistance and training under GEF/UNDP/IMO/PEMSEA Regional Programme and implemented by

the Selangor Waters Management Authority.


23

The Government has been in the process of developing a coastal management policy and studies

have been undertaken since the 1990s. A draft National Coastal Resources Management Policy was

prepared under the oversight of the Agriculture Section of the Economic Planning Unit (EPU), at the

time. According to Mokhtar (2003), this document formed the basis for an EPU-DANCED project on

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), comprising pilot studies on coastal profiles in Penang,

Sabah and Sarawak. These studies were complemented by a federal component focusing on

institutional and legal frameworks for establishing an ICZM in Malaysia. The biggest problem in the

formulation of a national marine or coastal management policy is the very many different parties

involved - both public and private - aside from any consideration of national security issues and

transboundary concerns. The constitutional structure in Malaysia establishes that land, and waters up

to 3 nautical miles, is under State rather than Federal Government jurisdiction. Thus, any policy would

have to take into account the rights of the individual States, in addition to any concerns of agencies

responsible for resources management and enforcement at sea.

In addition to policies and administrative application of rules, some environmental instruments (EIs)

for environmental protection are applied. General tax incentives coupled with other instruments

(grants and subsidies) have been in place for the last 10 years (Khor and Obid, 2006). Only very few

recent projects, however, directly concern environmental conservation and rehabilitation in coastal

areas, in contrast with the many community-based and inland environmental projects.

3.2 The Environmental Quality Act, 1974

The most important legislation in Malaysia governing water quality management is the EQA 1974, and

its amendments (Table 3.2). The objective of the EQA is pollution prevention, abatement and control,

as well as environment enhancement. The legislation sets limits of allowable pollutant discharge

levels for both land and sea-based sources. Currently this Act has 29 regulations, 21 Orders, and 3

Rules (for compounding of offences) associated with it. Of the 29 regulations under the Act, 26 are

relevant for water pollution control (Table 3.3). The remaining three are related to air and noise. The

two air regulations are included in Table 3.3, as atmospheric fallout, through dry and wet deposition,

can contribute to water pollution. The regulations are for control of water pollution relate to licensing,

crude palm oil, raw natural rubber, scheduled (toxic) wastes, sewage and industrial effluents, halon

and refrigerants, and petroleum products. The discharge standards and procedures for handling the

various types of wastes, both from land and sea-based sources, are given in the Regulations. In

addition to the regulations there are several Orders which govern prescribed activities and prescribed

premises (Table 3.4).


24

Table 3.2: Environmental Quality Act 1974 and Amendments

No. Name

1 Environmental Quality Act 1974

2 Environmental Quality (Amendment) Act 1985





Table 3.3: Regulations under EQA 1974 Relevant for Water Pollution

No. Name 1 Environmental Quality (Appeal Board) Regulations 2003

2 Environmental Quality (Clean Air) (Amendment) Regulations 2000 3 Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978 - P.U.(A) 280/78 4 Environmental Quality (Control Of Emission From Diesel Engines) (Amendment)

Regulations 2000 5 Environmental Quality (Control Of Emission From Diesel Engines) Regulations

1996 6 Environmental Quality (Control Of Emission From Motorcycles) Regulations 2003 7 Environmental Quality (Control Of Emission From Petrol Engines) Regulations

1996 8 Environmental Quality (Control of Lead Concentration In Motor Gasoline)

Regulations 1985 9 Environmental Quality (Control Of Petrol And Diesel Properties) Regulations

2007 10 Environmental Quality (Control of Pollution From Solid Waste Transfer Station

And Landfill) Regulations 2009 11 Environmental Quality (Dioxin And Furan) Regulations 2004 12 Environmental Quality (Halon Management) Regulations 1999 13 Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations 2009 14 Environmental Quality (Licensing) Regulations 1977 15 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises Scheduled Wastes Treatment And

Disposal Facilities) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 16 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) (Amendment)

Regulations 1982 17 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977 18 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber)

(Amendment) Regulations 1980 19 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations

1978 20 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment And

Disposal Facilities) Regulations 1989 21 Environmental Quality (Refrigerant Management) (Amendment) Regulations


25

2004 22 Environmental Quality (Refrigerant Management) Regulations 1999 23 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) (Amendment) Regulations 2007 24 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989 (Revoked) 25 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005 26 Environmental Quality (Sewage And Industrial Effluents) (Amendment)

Regulations 1997 (Revoked) 27 Environmental Quality (Sewage And Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979 28 Environmental Quality (Sewage) Regulations 2009


26

Table 3.4: Orders under EQA 1974 Relevant for Water Pollution

No. Name 1 Environmental Quality (Declared Activities) (Open Burning) Order 2003 2 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers Halon Management) Order 2000 3 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers On Marine Pollution Control)

(Amendment) Order 1994 4 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers On Marine Pollution Control) Order

1993 5 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers On Marine Pollution Control) Order

1994 6 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers) (Investigation Of Open Burning) Order

2000 7 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers) (Perbadanan Putrajaya) Order 2002 8 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers) Order 2005 9 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assesment)

(Amendment) Order 1995 10 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assesment)

(Amendment) Order 1996 11 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment)

(Amendment) Order 2000 12 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment)

Order 1987 13 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Conveyance) (Scheduled Wastes) Order 2005 14 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Order 1977 15 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) (Amendment)

Order 1978 16 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Order 1978 17 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment And

Disposal Facilities Order) 1989 18 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment And

Disposal Facilities) (Amendment) Order 2006 19 Environmental Quality (Prohibition On The Use Of Chlorofluorocarbons And Other

Gases As Propellants And Blowing Agents) Order 1993 20 Environmental Quality (Prohibition On The Use Of Controlled Substance In Soap,

Synthetic Detergent And Other Cleaning Agents) Order 1995

3.3 Institutional Mechanisms

In Malaysia, the administration and management of water resources is carried out by Federal and

various state government agencies. The Federal Government sets the policies and undertakes

studies at the national level for overall planning and development purposes. The National Water

Resource Council established in 1998 has the responsibility of streamlining water resource

development and management activities of all states. Recently, the Federal Government initiated the

National Water Resource Studies to evaluate availability of water resources to the year 2050.


27

The relationship between the states and Federal Government in terms of legislative and executive

powers is governed by the Federal Constitution. Under the Constitution, land is a state matter and,

hence, state governments have legislative powers over rivers, lakes, streams, aquifers, including

turtles and riverine fishing, including waters up to 3 nautical miles offshore. The key agencies that

deal with the implementation, management and monitoring of water resources, and their roles, are

described in Table 3.5. In addition to government agencies, there are universities and NGOs who are

relevant to marine water quality.

Table 3.5: Agencies Relevant to Water Resources Management

No. Agency Role 1 Department of Irrigation and

Drainage, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Involved in development works, operations, and maintenance of water supply and infrastructures. Also, provides other technical services such as flood control, coastal pollution information, hydrological data collections, irrigation and river conservancy.

2 Department of Environment (DOE), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Its mission is to promote, ensure and sustain sound environmental management in the process of nation building. Has responsibility to ensure the water in rivers is clean by controlling and monitoring pollution. Also undertakes mitigation measures through implementation of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for projects.

3 State Water Departments State agencies are responsible for water abstraction, treatment, and distribution to consumers and industrial users

4 Local Authority, State Governments

The local authorities indirectly influence the state of rivers and water resources through their overall development plans and land use decisions.

5 Department of Town and Country Planning, Ministry Housing & Local Government

Controls land use patterns and pace of development as the Department gives the final approval to developers. Land-use zoning directly affects river and water resources.

6 Forestry Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Responsibility to manage state gazetted forests, peat wetlands and mangrove forests as well as catchment areas and rivers within forests. It also controls logging activities through the selective management system (SMS).

7 Fisheries Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry

Develops and manages the country's fisheries sector in a dynamic, competitive and sustainable manner based on scientific research and quality services.

8 Malaysian Institute of Marine Affairs (MIMA), Ministry of Transport

Private advisory body under the Ministry of Transport

9 Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency (MMEA)

Formed in April 1999 to resolve overlapping functions and jurisdiction. The agency functions are to enforce law and order under any federal law, perform maritime search and rescue, prevent and suppress the commission of an offence, lend assistance in any criminal matters on a request by a foreign State as provided under the Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters Act 2002 (Act 621), carry out air and coastal surveillance, establish and manage maritime institutions for


28

training, ensure maritime security and safety. On the high seas, MMEA play a major role in maritime search and rescue, controlling and preventing maritime pollution, preventing and suppressing piracy and preventing and suppressing illicit traffic in narcotic drugs. In times of war, emergency or special crisis, the Agency may be placed under the command and control of Malaysian Armed Forces by order of the Minister.

10 National Oceanography Directorate Division, Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation

National central point for marine science and oceanographic R&D activities in Malaysia; national marine science and oceanography R&D agenda; coordinate and monitor research in marine science and oceanography.

11 Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry

Government research institute focusing on the aquatic environment. Research focuses on six major disciplines of research such as fishery resources (marine and inland), aquaculture, aquatic ecology, biotechnology, fisheries product development and fish health.

12 National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Research center for water and its environment in the services as an expert center on water and its environment management to ensure sustainable growth in order to improve the quality of life and well being. Referral centre, co-ordinate research activities, conduct consultancy service centre in development projects related to water and its environment.

13 Universities Provides expertise in various fields such as environment, engineering, biology and chemistry, contributing to the development of national reports on water resources, quality, health. University research studies contribute to improving understanding of processes and factors. The relevant research Centres of Excellence for coastal and marine studies are distributed among the universities.

14 NGOs Some of the local community groups and NGOs that are active on environmental issues include: Friends of the Earth (Sahabat Alam Malaysia), World Wildlife Fund for Nature (Malaysia), Malaysian Nature Society, Malaysian Fisheries Society, Environmental Protection Society of Malaysia, Public Media Club, and various charity organizations.

3.4 The Department of Environment

The DOE was institutionalised in 1975 and acts to enforce the EQA 1974. The Department’s main

role is to prevent, control and abate pollution through the enforcement of the EQA 1974 and its 34

subsidiary legislations. Another role of the DOE is to promote environmental awareness. This is

largely through formal and informal education, wide dissemination of environmental information

through environmental publications, seminars, workshops, lectures, and the mass media. At present

the Department has more than 1,500 staff, dispersed between 15 States Offices and 26 Branch

Offices.

The DOE has also adopted a preventive approach in order to minimize adverse environmental

impacts and to enhance environmental quality. The requirement of environmental impact assessment


29

(EIA) for prescribed projects has served as one of the useful tools in decision-making and

management. The Malaysian EIA system is regulated under the EQA 1974 as the Environmental

Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order (1987). Guidelines for the

development of the EIA report related to water quality and the coastal and marine environment are

listed in Table 3.6. For development projects not subject to EIA, the regulations require project siting

evaluation and pollution control assessment prior to project implementation. The pollution control and

prevention strategy is supported by other on-going environmental programs including training, new

program formulation, inter-agency and federal state cooperation and coordination and international

affairs.

Table 3.6: DOE EIA Report Guidelines Relevant to Coastal and Marine Projects

No. Guideline Title 1 EIA Guidelines For Coastal Resort Development Projects 2 EIA Guidelines For Petrochemical Industries 3 EIA Guidelines For Development Of Tourist And Recreational Facilities On

Island In Marine Parks 4 EIA Guidelines For Fishing Harbours and/or Land Based Aquaculture Projects 5 EIA Guidelines For Coastal and Land Reclamation


30

4. Existing Water Quality Standards

4.1 Effluent Discharge Standards

The standards for water quality may be categorised as discharge standards and ambient standards.

The maximum discharge limits for inland waters, and discharge of effluent and sludge onto land,

including accidental spills, of more than 60 m3, are enforceable and listed under the Environmental

Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979 (Table 4.1). There are three effluent

standards. Standard A applies to discharges upstream of a public water supply intake point on a

waterway. Standard B applies to discharges downstream of a water intake point. The third standard is

other than Standard A or B. In addition there are seperate standards for industries processing oil palm

and rubber.

Table 4.1: Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979.

Parameters Units Standard

A B Other 1 Temperature degC 40 40 45

2 pH - 6.0 - 9.0 5.5 - 9.0 5.0-9.0

3 BOD5 at 20oC mg/l 20 50 400

4 COD mg/l 50 100 1000

5 Suspended Solids mg/l 50 100 400

6 Mercury mg/l 0.005 0.05 0.10 7 Cadmium mg/l 0.01 0.02 2.0 8 Chromium, Hexavalent mg/l 0.05 0.05 2.0 9 Arsenic mg/l 0.05 0.10 2.0

10 Cyanide mg/l 0.05 0.10 10 11 Lead mg/l 0.10 0.5 10 12 Chromium, Trivalent mg/l 0.20 1.0 10 13 Copper mg/l 0.20 1.0 10

14 Manganese mg/l 0.20 1.0 10 15 Nickel mg/l 0.20 1.0 10 16 Tin mg/l 0.20 1.0 10

17 Zinc mg/l 1.0 1.0 10 18 Boron mg/l 1.0 4.0 - 19 Iron (Fe) mg/l 1.0 5.0 50 20 Phenol mg/l 0.001 1.0 5.0 21 Free Chlorine mg/l 1.0 2.0 5.0 22 Sulphide mg/l 0.50 0.50 2.0

23 Oil and Grease mg/l Not detectable 10.0 100


31

4.2 Ambient Water Quality Standards

The ambient National Water Quality Standards for inland waters and waterways, and Water Quality

Classes, are not enforceable and serve as a planning and monitoring tool (Table 4.2). A Water Quality

Index has been derived by the DOE for public information (Table 4.3). The DOE Water Quality Index

(WQI) is used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to pollution load characterization

and designation of classes of beneficial uses as stipulated in the National Water Quality Standards for

Malaysia (NWQS). The WQI comprises weighted linear aggregation of sub-indices of Dissolved

Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Ammoniacal

Nitrogen (NH3-N), Suspended Solids (SS) and pH.

4.3 Marine Water Quality Standards

The objective of the Malaysian Interim Marine Water Quality Standards (IMWQS) (Table 4.4) is for the

protection of the coastal and marine water quality. This brings indirect protection for the various

beneficial uses of the coastal and marine resources. The IMWQS was based on ASEAN Marine

Water Quality Criteria (AMWQC). These criteria have been derived for the specific beneficial uses of

the coastal and marine resources of significance in ASEAN marine waters. Four water use Classes

have been identified.

In the third quarter of 2011, the Department of Environment awarded a project on “Study on the

Establishment of a Marine Water Quality Index”. The purpose of the study is to evaluate and review

the current interim standards for Marine Water Quality and to propose the concept and method for

formulating a Marine Water Quality Index for Malaysia. The project is expected to end by the third

quarter of 2012.


32

Table 4.2: National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia

a) Water Quality Standard Levels


33

b) Water Quality Classes and Uses


34

c) DOE-Water Quality Index and Water Quality Classification

Table 4.3. DOE Water Quality Classification and Class Standards for Malaysia


35

Table 4.4: Malaysia Interim Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standards

Parameter Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class E

Benefical Uses

Preservation, Marine

Protected areas, Marine

Parks

Marine Life, Fisheries,

Coral Reefs, Recreational

and Mariculture

Ports, Oil & Gas Fields

Mangroves Estuarine & River-mouth

Water

Temperature (°C)

≤ 2°C increase over

maximum ambient


maximum ambient


maximum ambient


maximum ambient

Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) >80% saturation 5 3 4

Total suspended solid (mg/L)

25 mg/L or ≤ 10% increase in seasonal

average, whichever is

lower

50mg/L (25 mg/L) or ≤

10% increase in seasonal


lower

100 mg/L or ≤ 10% increase in seasonal


lower

100 mg/L or ≤ 30 % increase

in seasonal average,

whichever is lower

Oil and grease (mg/L) 0.01 0.14 5 0.14 Mercury* (µg/L) 0.04 0.16 (0.04) 50 0.5 Cadmium (µg/L) 0.5 2 (3) 10 2 Chromium (VI) (µg/L) 5 10 48 10 Copper (µg/L) 1.3 2.9 10 2.9 Arsenic (III)* (µg/L) 3 20(3) 50 20 (3) Lead (µg/L) 4.4 8.5 50 8.5 Zinc (µg/L) 15 50 100 50 Cyanide (µg/L) 2 7 20 7 Ammonia (unionized) (µg/L) 35 70 320 70

Nitrite (NO2) (µg/L) 10 55 1,000 55 Nitrate (NO3) (µg/L) 10 60 1,000 60 Phosphate (µg/L) 5 75 670 75 Phenol (µg/L) 1 10 100 10 Tributyltin (TBT) (µg/L) 0.001 0.01 0.05 0.01 Faecal coliform (count faecal coliform /100mL) (Human health protection for seafood consumption - Most Probable Number (MPN))

70 100 (70) 200 100

(70)

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAHs) (ng/g)

100 200 1000 1000

*IMWQS in parentheses are for coastal and marine water areas where seafood for human consumption is applicable.

(Source: DOE, 2009)


36

5 The National Water, Coastal and Marine Monitoring Programme and Current Status

5.1 Environmental Monitoring

The DOE conducts a national water quality monitoring programme for the whole country. The

monitoring programme covers air, river water, ground water, coastal and marine waters. The purpose

is to detect water quality changes and identify pollution sources. Each year the results of the

monitoring is summarised in an Environmental Quality Report. Monitoring of industrial effluents is also

carried out, normally by requiring industries to submit effluent quality reports. Monitoring is, in most

cases, now conducted by a designated private contractor, Alam Sekitar Malaysia Sdn. Bhd.

5.2 River Water Quality Monitoring

The DOE has been conducting river water quality monitoring since 1978. The purpose is to establish

the status of water quality and observe water quality trends. Identification of major pollution sources in

a river catchment is also carried out. A total of 1,064 manual river water quality stations are located in

a total of 143 river basins throughout the whole of Malaysia. Sampling is carried out at regular

intervals from designated stations for in situ observations and laboratory analysis to determine the

physico-chemical and biological characteristics. Depending on the level of development in the

catchment, water quality sampling is carried out at each station from 3 to 12 times a year. The more

developed the area the more frequent the sampling. A total of 10 automatic water quality monitoring

stations had been installed to monitor river quality changes on a continuous basis on the West Coast.

They are located on Sg.Perai (Seberang Perai – Pulau Pinang), Sg. Perak (Perak), Sg. Selangor

(Selangor), Sg. Jinjang (WPKL), Sg. Langat (Selangor), Sg. Linggi (Negeri Sembilan), Sg. Labu

(Negeri Sembilan), Sg. Batang Benar (Negeri Sembilan), Sg. Melaka (Malacca), and Sg. Putat

(Malacca).

Water quality status is categorized into clean, slightly polluted or polluted conditions (Table 4.3). The

DOE-WQI value is used also to classify river water quality into in Class I, II, III, IV or V. Thus, in nearly

every station the six parameters of DO, BOD, COD, NH3-N, SS and pH are always measured. Other

parameters, such as heavy metals and bacteria, may be measured according to site requirement. The

results of river water monitoring for 2008 is shown in Figure 5.1.


37

Figure 5.1: Peninsular Malaysia River Basins Water Quality Status, 2008

(Source: DOE 2009)

The DOE annual Environment Quality Report (DOE 2009) identifies the problematic river basins in

2008 (Figure 5.1). These are River Pinang, Juru, Merlimau, and Danga which discharge into the

Malacca Strait. These rivers are polluted due to their small catchment size and relatively highly

developed conditions. For these river basins, the major pollutants detected were BOD, NH3-N and

SS. High BOD can be attributed to untreated or partially treated sewage and discharges from agro-

based and manufacturing industries. The main sources of NH3-N were livestock farming and

domestic sewage, whilst the sources for SS were earthworks and land clearing activities. Figure 5.1

also shows that the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia is more polluted than the East Coast. This is

due to the higher population density and urbanization conditions on the West Coast.

The National Physical Plan (NPP) has projected that the population in Peninsular Malaysia will

increase from 18.5 million in year 2000 to 26.8 million in 2020, at 1.9% per annum growth between

2000 and 2020. The population projected could be supported by the projected economic and

employment growth. The economic-based projection for 2020 could allow for the immigration of about

800,000 non-citizens. The highest growth was projected for Selangor, WPKL, Negeri Sembilan and

Malacca, which had an average of 3% per annum between 1980 and 1991, and a 4% per annum


38

between 1991 and 2000. This increase in population will increase the organic waste load to rivers and

the coastal waters. The increase in population can be seen in Figure 5.2 for the years 2003 to 2007.

Figure 5.2: State Population on West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, 2003-2007

(Source: Department of Statistics)

5.3 Coastal and Marine Water Quality Monitoring

Coastal and marine water quality monitoring is carried out by the DOE to determine the degree of

pollution from land-based sources as well as from the sea. Stormwaters carry most of the pollution

from land-based sources into rivers. The pollutants are then flushed out from the river basin to the

coastal region. However, most of the pollution is diluted offshore, except for SS, E.coli and oil and

grease. They contribute to significant contamination of the coastal area, as evidenced by the amount

of coastal water samples which persistently exceed the ambient standards (Figure 5.3).

According to DOE (2009, 2010), total suspended solid was the main contaminant for the West Coast

of Peninsular Malaysia, followed by E. coli and oil and grease. Compared to the previous year, there

was an increase in total suspended solids, oil and grease, E.coli, mercury, arsenic and total chromium

levels and a decrease in copper, cadmium and lead. All samples collected from Perlis and Kedah

showed that total suspended solids remained a significant contaminant of marine water as all the

samples exceeded the IMWQS. Perak recorded the highest percentage by 97% of total samples

exceeding the IMWQS followed by Selangor with 80% of the samples were exceeding the IMWQS for

oil and grease. Perlis with 95% of samples was highest for E.coli contamination. Lead pollution was

found in Perak (73%). Perak used to be an important tin mining area. Lead (Pb) was the most


39

prominent heavy metal detected in the marine waters followed by mercury and copper. Heavy metals

were comparatively low in the marine waters.

Figure 5.3: Percentage of Coastal Water Samples Exceeding Ambient Standards on West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, 2008

(Source: DOE, 2009)

The sources of pollution were run-off from land-based activities, such as land clearing and land

reclamation for development, and agriculture activities which contributed to the contamination of total

suspended solids in the marine waters. Untreated or partially treated animal, uncontrolled sewage

from coastal premises such as hotels and restaurants and domestic wastes from residential areas

nearby attributed to E. coli. The presence of oil and grease in the coastal waters resulted from

leakages of ships, discharges by shipping vessels and disposal of engine oil by boat operators. As for

heavy metals they were mainly from land-based uncontrolled industrial discharges. The DOE

compiles statistics of point sources from sewage treatment plants, agro-based and manufacturing

industries, and from animal farms. In 2008, for the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, water pollution

point sources comprise of sewage treatment plants (54%), manufacturing industries (39%), animal

farms (4%) and agro-based industries (3%) as shown in Figure 5.4. However, the point sources

counted do not include those activities which are not under the purview of the DOE, such as small

industries and land development activities, as mentioned previously.

The waters around 71 islands are monitored as part of the Marine Island Water Quality Monitoring

Programme. The islands monitored are categorised as development islands (3 islands), resort islands

(25 islands), marine park islands (38 islands) and protected islands (5 islands). A total of 344 samples

were collected and analysed. The main pollutants analysed are total suspended solids, E. coli and oil

and grease. Beaches are also monitored for tarballs. Tarball residues on beaches are usually caused


40

by oily discharges from fishing boats as well as passing vessels. In 2007 it was found that all the 133

monitoring stations were free from tarball pollution.

Figure 5.4: West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia Water Pollution Point Sources by Sector

(Source: DOE, 2009)

The number of sewerage treatment plants has increased in the last few years as Malaysia targets to

reduce sewage pollution. In 2008, the total number of STPs managed by Indah Water Konsortium

Sdn Bhd (IWK), a national sewerage company, was 9,524. The highest number was in Selangor

(28.5% of total) followed by Perak (14.9% of total), Johor (11.1% of total) and Negeri Sembilan (9.9%)

(Figure 5.5). Although STPs are regarded as point sources, individual Septic Tanks (IST) are

regarded as non-point sources of pollution. Other important sources are industries (Figure 5.6) and

these are concentrated on the West Coast.

In terms of nutrient dynamics, Bong and Lee (2008) studied the total SS, DO and dissolved inorganic

nutrient concentrations (ammonium (NH4), nitrite (NO2), nitrate (NO3), phosphorus (PO4) and silicate

(SiO4) in offshore selected sites of the Strait of Malacca. Both SS and DO showed large differences

between nearshore and offshore sites (Fig. 5.7) as might be expected in low current areas. SS was

elevated nearshore (> 250 mgL−1) but was < 100 mgL−1 offshore. DO was at healthy levels (> 300 μM

or 9.6 mgL−1) offshore but were low and sometimes exhibited hypoxia (< 125 μM or 4 mgL−1)

nearshore. Dissolved inorganic nutrients were generally higher nearshore and this reflected how

anthropogenic activities are affecting the coastal water quality.


41

Figure 5.5: Malaysia: Distribution of Sewage Treatment Plants by State, 2008.

(Source: DOE, 2009)

Figure 5.6: Distribution of Industrial Water Pollution Point Sources (Agro-based and Manufacturing Industries) by State, 2008.

(Source: DOE, 2009)


42

a) Average total suspended solids (SS, mg/L)

and dissolved oxygen (DO, µM)

b) Average ammonium (NH4, μM), nitrite (NO2, μM) and nitrate (NO3, μM)

Figure 5.7: Marine Water Quality Nearshore and Offshore.

(Source: Bong and Lee, 2008.)

± Standard Deviation bars for nearshore stations are also shown.

c) Average phosphorus (PO4, μM) and silicate (SiO4, μM) concentrations


43

5.4 Oil Pollution

The Strait of Malacca is most susceptible to ship-based marine pollution such as oil and grease due

to the heavy volume of shipping in the Strait (Kasmin, 2010). Crude oil and chemical tankers

constitute the largest number of transiting vessels in the Strait. Law and Hii (2006) reported an

increasing trend in oil spill incidents between 1976 and 2000 (Figure 5.8). By nature, oil is toxic to

marine life, especially the PAHs, one of the main components in crude oil that is very difficult to clean

up, and could remain for years in the sediment and marine environment. Marine species that are

constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems and are more susceptible to

diseases. The number of ships passing through the Strait in 2000 was 55,957 and increased to

62,621 ships 5 years later. During the five-year period from 2000 to 2005, there were 144 cases of oil

spills into the sea. From this number, 108 cases were due to illegal discharge of dirty oil by ships. Of

the 144 cases, only 32 ships were charged and 14 found guilty. The fines imposed by the courts

ranged from RM 10,000 to RM 25,000, except for three cases in which one ship was fined RM

100,000 and the other two ships were each fined RM 120,000.

Figure 5.8: Oil Spill Incidents in Malaysian Seas.

No data were found for 1979, 1983, 1985, 1998 and 1999.

(Source: from Law and Hii, 2006)

In 2007, a total of 70,718 ships passed through the Strait. Based on the rate of growth of reporting

ship traffic of approximately 7.5% per year, it can be estimated that by 2015, a total of more than


44

125,000 ships can be expected to pass through the Strait. Thus, the number of cases of ships

discharging dirty oil into the sea illegally is expected to increase. Dirty oil discharged illegally by these

ships is one of the sources of marine pollution that threaten the fisheries industries in the Strait of

Malacca. Kasmin (2010) concluded that the responsible agencies monitoring maritime transport in the

Strait are inadequately equipped and trained to deal with the illegal discharge of dirty oil into the sea.

In order to overcome these weaknesses, he proposed several new initiatives.

A marine traffic simulation study by SimPlus Pte Ltd, Singapore,

(http://www.news.gov.sg/public/sgpc/en/media_releases/agencies/mpa/press_release/P-20091028-

2.html), projecting future increase in marine trafffic in the southern portion of the Straits of Malacca

and Singapore, where the TSS applies, concluded that there would be minimal impact from a

doubling of traffic in the Strait of Malacca. The study concluded that the Strait could efficiently and

safely sustain traffic up to five times the 2007 level of 126,000 transits, arrivals and departures. The

model assumed that non-ferry cross-traffic between Malaysia and Indonesia is negligible.

Nevertheless, this computer simulation result may not be in concordance with the views of ships’

captains who physically experience navigation in the Straits in all types of weather conditions and in

the dark at night using radar, with a myriad of smaller vessels traversing under the ship’s bow. Only

the navigation risk of ship to ship collision was evaluated in the study. Based on present records of

between 2000 to 2005, it can be conjectured that a doubling of traffic may result in a doubling of oil

spill incidents, from about 2.4 per month to perhaps more than 4 spills a month, or 1 a week, and

similarly, that a quintupling of traffic may result in 12 spills per month.

The threat of oil spills as a result of accidents has been recognized over the years. Law and Ravinthar

(1989), in early studies of hydrocarbon pollution off the coast of Negeri Sembilan, located about

midway along the Strait of Malacca, concluded that the source of hydrocarbon pollution was likely to

be ship-based rather than land-based. Therefore, we can deduce that there will an increasing number

of oil spill incidents in the Straits. The impacts of oil spills on marine habitats in the Strait, such as the

mangroves, coral reefs, and sea grass beds, are of major concerns (Zakaria and Takada, 2007).

Coral reefs in the straits have been largely affected by years of spills, and recovery has been slow.

There were several major oil spill incidents involving oil tankers in the straits from 1975 to 1997 (Table

5.1). More recent spills (Law and Hii, 2006) are MV Able Ensign (330 L) at Langkawai (1998),

unidentified vessels at Kedah Peir (4 mt) (1998), and Sun Vista (2100 mt) (1999). Although Malaysia

has a relatively short history of industrialization and modernization as compared to the more

established and developed countries, several factors may contribute to petroleum pollution (Zakaria

and Takada, 2007). First, the Malacca Strait is a major international tanker route transporting crude oil

from the Middle East to northeast Asia. Oil spills and tanker accidents are frequent in the straits.

Second, Malaysia itself is an oil producing country and exports crude oil to other countries. Third,

Malaysia is undergoing rapid industrialization, and petroleum is a most important source of energy.

The demand for petroleum has increased very rapidly in the past few decades with increasing


45

population and urbanization. Motor-vehicle ownership has also quadrupled in recent years.

Furthermore, dumping of used oil products, especially from small industries and diffuse non-point

sources can lead to serious oil pollution problems in Malaysia. Industrial activities may also be

important sources but it is the small petrol stations, motor vehicle workshops, as well backyard

operators, who are other important land-based contributors. Contribution from boat operators, ports,

harbours, marinas, and tanker accidents, are also becoming more important in Malaysian coastal

environments.

Table 5.1: Oil Spill Incidents in Malaysian Waters, 1975–1997

(Source: http://www.marine.gov.my/service/kp_oil.html )

Year Name of Ship Location Cause Type and Quantity of Oil Spill

1975 Showa Maru The Strait of Singapore Grounding Crude oil 4000 tons 1975 Tola Sea The Strait of Singapore Collision Fuel oil 60 tons

1976 Diego Silang The Strait of Malacca Collision Crude oil 5500 tons

1976 Mysella The Strait of Singapore Grounding Crude oil 2000 tons 1976 Citta Di Savonna The Straitof Singapore Collision Crude oil 1000 tons 1977 Asian The Strait of Malacca Collision Fuel oil 60 tons

1980 Lima The Strait of Singapore Collision Crude oil 700 tons 1981 MT Ocean

Treasure The Strait of Malacca Human Error Fuel oil 1050 tons

1986 Bright Duke/ MV Pantas

The Strait of Malacca Collision -

1987 Mv Stolt Adv The Strait of Singapore Grounding Crude oil 2000 tons 1987 Elhani Platform The Strait of Singapore Grounding Crude oil 2329 tons

1988 Golar Lie The Strait of Singapore Grounding -

1992 Nagasaki Spirit Near Medan Collision Crude oil 13000 tons 1997 Evoikos / Oradin

Global The Strait of Singapore Collision Fuel oil 25000 tons

1997 An Tai The Strait of Malacca Material Fatigue Fuel oil 237 tons

The levels of sedimentary PAHs in Malaysia are low to moderate when compared with other

industrialized countries. Nonetheless, there is some concern about the effects of PAHs accumulation

on the aquatic and benthic ecosystems because Malaysian sediments are impacted by petrogenic

PAHs (Zakaria et al., 2002). It has been suggested that petrogenic PAHs are more available for

biological uptake. In addition, the likely source, used crankcase oil, poses a wide range of potential

hazards to aquatic organisms because it contains heavy metals and other toxic chemicals in addition

to PAHs.


46

5.5 Heavy Metals and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

Yap et al. (2002) has reported the concentrations of copper (Cu) and lead (Pb) in the offshore and

intertidal sediments of the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia (Table 5.2). For the off-shore

sediments, the higher metal levels at the islands of Pulau Langkawi and Pulau Pangkor, in the

northern part of the Strait, indicated that the offshore area had started to receive impacts from sea-

based activities. For the intertidal sediment, some elevations of heavy metal levels were found

especially in Bukit Tambun, K. Juru and Kg. Pasir Puteh. The elevated levels of metals could be due

to land-based activities in general. By using mussels (Perna viridis) as a biomonitoring agent, the

contamination of cadmium (Cd), Cu, Pb and zinc (Zn) in the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia was

found not to be serious (Yap et al., 2004). Since P. viridis accumulates heavy metals in the soft

tissues and constitutes one of the important food-chains in the coastal environment, this information is

therefore useful for predicting any metal contamination in the coastal communities. The heavy metal

concentrations in the mussels from the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia could be attributed to

natural or anthropogenic metal sources affecting their habitats. The ranges of Cu and Pb were low in

comparison to regional data. Some intertidal areas were identified as receiving anthropogenic Cu and

Pb. Although the contamination due to Cu and Pb in the west coast, especially in the offshore areas,

were not serious, regular biomonitoring studies were recommended.


47

Table 5.2: Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in Sediments and Perna viridis

Heavy metal concentration (µg/g)

Parameters Cd Cu Pb Zn

Location of Sediments1

Offshore area, West coast, Peninsular Malaysia 0.25– 13.82 3.59– 25.36

Intertidal area, West coast, Peninsular Malaysia 0.40– 314.80 0.96– 69.80

Malaysian Food Regulation 1985 1.00 30.0 2.00 100

Location of Perna viridis2

Pulau Aman, Penang 0.60–1.42 8.88–13.3 2.50–5.99 61.7–173

Kuala Dinding, Perak 0.74–1.80 4.96–25.1 6.22–0.53 65.2–119

Bagan Lalang, Selangor 0.71–2.14 6.46–10.7 0.68–8.96 75.4–139

Pasir Panjang, Negeri Sembilan 0.63–1.61 8.85–13 4.82–11.2 74.13–135

Kuala Linggi, Negeri Sembilan 0.77–2.11 4.31–12.8 4.95–9.74 66.8–145

Sebatu, Malacca 0.61–1.65 8.89–14.8 4.77–12.3 63.1–89.7

Muar Estuary, Malacca 0.26–1.73 4.74–11.9 1.45–12.4 53.3–97.0

1 - Yap et al., 2002 2 - Yap et al., 2004

Mokhtar et al. (2009) determined and compared the concentration levels of heavy metals Pb, Cd,

nickle (Ni), Cu, iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn) and Zn in samples of tiger prawns

(Penaeus monodon) and tilapia fish (Oreochromis spp.) obtained from aquaculture ponds in Bandar

and Jugra. Both areas are near the Langat estuary in the state of Selangor. Concentrations of Cd, Cu

and Zn were found to be higher in tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) in Bandar; whilst only Fe, Mn and

Ni in tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) was found to be higher in Jugra. Concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cr,

Fe, Mn and Ni were found to be higher in Jugra whereas those of Pb and Cd were higher in Bandar

for tilapia fish (Oreochromis spp.). Concentrations of heavy metals studied were found to be lower

(Table 5.3) than the recommended maximum levels allowed in food. However, though the

concentrations of heavy metals were below the permissible limits, these locations should be given

greater attention since the concentration of heavy metal is highly likely to increase in the future.

Continuous monitoring, of these areas in particular, was recommended. The present data on metals

in the coastal waters are important as baseline information that can be used in monitoring any future

changes of these levels.

Table 5.3: Concentration of Heavy Metals in Cultured Fishes, Langat River Estuary


48

Metal Tiger Prawn Penaeus monodon

(µg/g)

Tilapia fish Oreochromis spp.

(µg/g)

WHO (1989)

FAO max. limits for

fisha

FAO max limits for prawnb

Bandar Jugra Bandar Jugra (µg/g) Pb nd* nd* 0.418

± 0.090 0.395

± 0.024 2 0.5 - 6.0 -

Cd 0.254 ± 0.070

0.254 ± 0.125

0.015 ± 0.002

0.006 ± 0.002

1 0.05 - 5.50 0.2

Ni 0.026 ± 0.000

0.122 ± 0.000

0.053 ± 0.015

0.113 ± 0.021

0.5 - 1.0 - -

Cu 3.567 ± 0.208

2.213 ± 0.103

0.313 ± 0.0408

0.323 ± 0.022

30 10 -100 10

Fe 5.170 ± 0.297

7.210 ± 0.297

2.880 ± 0.085

5.075 ± 0.167

100 - -

Cr nd*

nd*

0.712 ± 0.083

0.813 ± 0.071

50 1 -

Mn 0.177 ± 0.001

0.193 ± 0.008

0.108 ± 0.010

0.203 ± 0.040

1 - -

Zn 13.030 ± 0.608

11.270 ± 0.099

1.915 ± 0.061

2.364 ± 0.074

100 3 -100 1000

nd*= Not Detected, a – Nauen,1998 , b - Pourang et al., 2005

Source: Mokhtar et al., 2009

The concentration of several toxic substances or POPs in marine matrices and shellfish has been

detected and their quantities evaluated by several scientists (Law and Ravinthar (1989); Wood et al.

(1999); Moradi et al.(1999); Zakaria et al., (2002); Law and Yeong (1989)) and reviewed by Somchit

et al. (2009). The compounds include PAHs, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxine

and furan. The results are summarized in Table 5.4 adapted from Somchit et al. (2009). This shows

that the main hydrocarbons detected in Malaysia waters are mainly polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

(PAHs). The results show there is higher concentration of PAHs in the urbanization and

industrialization locations indicating land-based oil pollution sources. For marine-based sources, Law

(1994) stated that the single largest contributor of oil spill from transportation activities has been

identified to be from tanker operation associated with ballasting the tanks for the return voyage from

ports of discharge.

Studies by Zakaria et al., (2002) on the distribution of PAHs in sediments from rivers and estuaries in

in the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia and the Strait of Malacca found concentration of PAHs (3-7

rings) ranging between 4 to 924 ng/g. The study also identified two major routes of petrogenic PAH

pollution input into the aquatic environment. The first is through spillage and dumping of waste

crankcase oil and secondly through leakage of crankcase oils from vehicles onto road surface which

are subsequently washed out by street runoff. They concluded that petrogenic input (from used

crankcase oil and input from street dust and traffic sources) was a major control on the PAHs

contamination and that the Malaysian aquatic environments have been more heavily impacted by

petrogenic input than have those of the industrialized countries. The concentrations of hydrocarbons


49

are wide ranging from urban rivers to open ocean. The concentrations of hydrocarbons in

environmental samples (sediment, water and mussel) collected near major townships were generally

higher than those from rural samples. One may conclude that the hydrocarbon concentration - mainly

PAHs - in Malaysian waters is still low to moderate compared with other developed countries (Zakaria

et al., 2002).

Table 5.4: Hydrocarbons in Malaysian waters

Matrix (unit) Location Hydrocarbon Concentration Source in

Somchit et al., 2009

Water (mg/L)

Strait of Malacca coastal waters, off Penang 10 - 120 Phang et al., 1980

Strait of Malacca, near shore off Port Dickson 2.52 - 73.34 Law and Veelu, 1989

Strait of Malacca nearshore waters off Port Dickson 14.69 - 150.28 Law and Yeong, 1989

Sediments (mg/kg)

Rivers leading to the Strait of Malacca 20 - 924 (PAHs)

Zakaria et al., 2002 Klang River estuary 19 - 431 (PAHs)

Klang coast (inshore) 9 - 39 (PAHs)

Strait of Malacca (offshore) 4 - 73 (PAHs)

Estuarine zone for the whole Strait of Malacca

150.61 (oil and grease)

Wood et al., 1999

0.81 (total aliphatic hydrocarbons)

3.14 (PAHs)

2.5 (PCB)

Island zone for the whole Strait of Malacca

73.92 (oil and grease)

0.44 (total aliphatic hydrocarbons)

1.84 (PAHs)

0.83 (PCB)

Strait of Malacca nearshore waters, off Port Dickson 2.1 -70.4 (dry wt.) Law and Veelu, 1989

Strait of Malacca, coastal waters, off Port Dickson 21.73- 77.06 dry wt. Law and Yeong, 1989

Mussel (mg/kg)

Fish cages, Langkawi 8.46 (PAHs)

Moradi et al., 1999

Kuala Perlis 48.08 (PAHs)

Tanjung Dawai, Kedah 5.43 (PAHs)

Penang 17.74 (PAHs)

Bagan Lalang, Selangor 8.94 (PAHs)

Lukut, Negeri Sembilan 8.36 (PAHs)

Pasir Panjang 8.36 (PAHs)

Adapted from Somchit et al., 2009


50

Table 5.5: Pesticides in West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, 1999

Matrix Site Pesticide

Source Aldrin DDT Dieldrin Endosulfan Endrin HCH /

Lindane Hepta-chlor

Blood Cockles (Anadara granosa)

CO 0.02 - 2.5

0.04 – 1.24

0.01 – 0.7 0.10 – 3.25 nd –

3.25 0.74 – 10.23

0.27 - 3.54

Hossain, 2001 in Sangara-lingam, 2005

Green Mussel (Perna viridis) CO 0.02 –

15.7 nd – 7.8 nd – 0.9 nd – 2.6 nd –

9.1 0.32 – 11.28

0.1-14.6

Shrimp (Metapenaeus monoceros)

CO 0.2-26.5

0 (sic) – 4.1 nd – 0.6 nd – 0.6 nd –

2.7 3.3 – 35.8

3.5 – 36.1

Cat fish (Arius sp.) CO 0.2 –

2.5 0.1 – 3.2

0.02 – 0.5 0.3 – 0.8 0.1-

5.4 0.9 – 5.9 0.3 – 8.2

Mullet (Valamugil sp.)

CO nd – 2.2

0.01 – 4.9

0.02 - 0.8 0.5 – 1.8 nd –

13.0 0.3 – 8.3 0.1 – 5.2

Seabass (Lates calcarifer)

CO 0.5 – 8.0

0.0 (sic) –

0.5 nd – 1.0 0.01 – 3.4 nd –

9.1 1.7 – 5.1 0.7 – 21.7

Sediment EZ 0.87 2.2 0.66 1.38 0.53 0.39 1.26

Wood et al., 1999, in Somchit et al., 2009 IZ 0.48 0.45 - <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 0.7

nd: not detected

From Sangaralingam, 2005, and Somchit et al., 2009

Studies from the late 1990s showed that various concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and their

metabolites have been found in various marine environmental and biological samples (Somchit,

2009). Sangaralingam (2005) also reviewed the status of POPs in Malaysia and referred to Hossain’s

2001 thesis research on POPs in marine biota in the Strait of Malacca (Table 5.4). Hossain (2001)

collected samples in offshore or coastal areas in the Strait of Malacca. Most of the results are

comparable with other studies in this region as well as other parts of the world. Total DDT was

relatively low relatively low (0 to 2.2 ng/g) and was expected to be decreasing as DDT use was

restricted since 1997. Concentrations of heptachlor were relatively low in comparison to overseas

data ranging from <0.7 to 1.26 ng/g (Wood et al., 1999). Cockles and mussels contained higher levels

of aldrin, lindane and heptachlor, probably because of agricides runoff into rivers and inland waters.

The differences in pesticides levels in some environmental samples collected from several locations

along coastal waters of Malaysia suggest that agricultural chemicals (Somchit et al., 2009) In spite of

restrictions on selected POPs from the mid 1990s (Sangaralingam, 2005), they are still evident in the

environment suggesting some continued usage illegally or unknowingly. In addition the persistent


51

organochlorine pesticide, DDT, although restricted in 1997, is still remaining in the aquatic

environment.

The DOE introduced a voluntary Enironmentally Hazardous Substances Notification and Registration

Scheme in January 2009. The DOE is moving toward a Malaysian Chemicals Register and making

the scheme mandatory. The voluntary period for registration is an opportunity for industry to prepare

itself for the mandatory reporting. However, so far only 320 out of a total of 1134 identified potential

companies have registered for the scheme, indicating lack of industry awareness or preparedness.

PCBs can enter into the marine environment through waste disposal. PCB is listed as a scheduled

material and its disposal is controlled unter the EQA 1974. Sangaralingam (2005) had reviewed the

sources of PCBs and reported that the hazardous waste treatment operator, Kualiti Alam, had

received and incinerated a total of 40.21 mt of PCB wastes from 15 waste generators, between 1998

and 2003. Prior to this PCB wastes had been exported for treatment. However, PCBs could also enter

into the environment through equipment and material disposal to dumpsites. Based on analysis of the

typical solid waste composition in dumpsites, it was estimated that between 20% and 40% could be

potentially PCB-containing equipment and materials. Countrywide there are more than 170 closed

and open dumpsites that could pose potential PCB contamination sources.

There is no complete inventory of dioxins or sources and environmental levels of dioxins and furans in

Malaysia although some estimates and measurements have been made. Sangaralingam (2005)

noted that despite some of the reservations on the application of the UNEP Dioxin Toolkit for

Malaysia, it was used by Dr. Md. Sani Ibrahim, Universiti Sains Malaysia, to estimated the total

amount of dioxins and furans released in Malaysia in 2001. For waste incineration processes the

amount of dioxins and furans released was estimated to be 15.14 g TEQ, while the release estimated

for seven major cement production activities was 2.11 g TEQ/year. The amount released by transport

was estimated at 19.20 g TEQ/year.

In 2002, the Japanese Offspring Fund, in collaboration with the Consumers Association of Penang

(CAP), detected dioxin-related compunds from all soil samples collected from municipal wastes

dumping sites of (Sangaralingam, 2005). High levels of coplanar PCBs were found in more urban

areas such as Kuala Lumpur and Penang. Relatively high TEQs (2,3,7,8-TCDD toxic equivalents),

exceeding the Japanese standard, were found in soils from a dumping site in Selangor with levels at

3,100 pg/g and 50 pg/g on a dry weight basis. TEQs in soils from Kedah were 7.8 – 48 pg/g (dry

weight); Penang were 10-16 pg/g; with the lowest TEQs being found in soils from a controlled

dumping site in Kuala Lumpur. The mass formation of dioxin-related compounds was related to waste

combustion in the sites.


52

5.6 Harmful Algal Blooms

Harmful algal blooms are the result of the rapid population growth of a few dozen phytoplankton and

cyanobacteria that create potent toxins given the right conditions. These toxins can result in harm to

other organisms including illness and mortality in humans through consumption of the affected

organisms. In Malaysia only paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) has been recorded as a harmful algal

bloom (HAB) related shellfish poisoning. Reports of HAB have started since the mid 1970s but the

incidences had been confined to Sabah. The first report of PSP in the Strait of Malacca was in 1991,

when three people were poisoned after consuming mussels from Sebatu, Malacca. It was only in

1997 that the most likely toxin producer causing these fatalities was identified as a dinoflagellate,

Alexandrium tamiyavanchii (Usup et al., 2002). Dinoflagellates constitute only a small fraction of the

total phytoplankton population (Anton et al., 1995).

In a coastal survey at Sebatu and Sungai Rambai Malacca, Mohammad Noor (1998) identified 35

species of dinoflagellates, 10 of which could be potential HAB species. In a recent presentation at the

Kelantan Health Conference 2011, in June, Professor Gires Usup of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,

identified three areas along the Strait where potential HAB species had been found (Usup, 2011)

(Table 5.6).

It has been speculated that a possible cause of algal bloom in the Strait is the introduction of harmful

toxic species through ship deballasting (Chua et al., 2000; Usup et al., 2002). With the increasing

organic and nutrient wastes discharged in to the slow moving Strait of Malacca, environmental

conditions may be suitable for algal blooms to occur in enclosed water bodies.


53

Table 5.6: Location of potential HAB species in the Strait of Malacca

Species Pyrodinium bahamense Plate var. compressum

Bohm (Steidinger, Tester et Taylor)

Alexandrium tamiyavanichii Balech

Coolia malayensis

Activity Producer of toxins that cause paralytic shellfish

poisoning (PSP)

Producer of toxins that cause paralytic shellfish

poisoning (PSP)

Undefined “ciguatera fish poisoning” toxicity; found in

seaweed beds surveyed

Location Found

Source: Usup, 2011

The findings of potential HAB species occuring along the Strait of Malacca points to the need for

monitoring of fishies toxicity, especially those captured or cultured in the areas where HAB species

have been found. The absence of reports on algal blooms and shellfish poisoning until recently may

be due to a number of factors outlined by Usup et al. (2002). These factors were, unreported or

misdiagnosed incidences; blooms of low densities or visibility, especially for the Alexandrium spp.;

and finally the pattern of shellfish resource utilization, where the favoured local species is the mud-

dwelling blood cockle Anadara granosa, rather than the suspended mussel. Mussel farming is still on

a small scale in Malaysia with much of the mussel served in more expansive restaurants being

imported. The bigger mussel farms located in Sebatu and in the Johore Strait, to the south, mainly

export their produce.


54

6 Gaps and Challenges

6.1 Governance Infrastructure

The formation of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment might have been expected to

enhance the likelihood of integration, as previously many of the agencies were under different

ministries. An important development was the formation of the MMEA which is intended to align the

powers and enforcement. The MMEA is intended to be the only authority on law enforcement at sea

(MMEA, 2010). The handover process took some time, however, due to the nature of readjustment

needed in terms of the legal and administrative structures to be put in place, not to mention

manpower development. The institutional infrastructure model needed to be improved for effective

enforcement.

Kasmin (2010) had identified five main factors which would have to be be considered for effective

enforcement. The first was the scope of responsibility and availability of assets, both human and

physical, given to the DOE in enforcement of the EQA at sea. There was a mismatch between

responsibility and assets, so the DOE had to rely on other agencies which were then delegated to

enforce the EQA 1974 at sea.

The second factor was the need for alignment and consolidation of the many different laws in the

maritime areas and the different agencies given responsibility to enforce them. For example, the

Fishery Department enforces the Fisheries Act 1985; the Royal Customs and Excise Department

enforces the Custom Act 1967; the Marine Department enforces the Merchant Shipping Ordinance

1952; the Royal Malaysian Navy is delegated to enforce the Fisheries Act 1985, the Exclusive

Economic Zone Act 1984 and the Environmental Quality Act 1986. The Marine Operation Force of the

Royal Malaysian Police has the power to enforce 19 Acts. The various agencies delegated with the

power to enforce at sea still have their own tasks to perform. Most of them have insufficient

manpower and assets to perform even their own tasks. Hence, enforcement of the EQA was not a

priority task to them, and would only be performed on an opportunity basis. The MMEA had the power

to enforce all law and order under any federal law, however, as the other agencies were still

conducting their own enforcement activities, the MMEA was perceived as being simply another law

enforcement agency. It was only in September 2011, that all the agencies finally delegated their

powers to the MMEA. All physical assets, such as ships, equipment, and bases, were also transferred

and staff were given the option to transfer to the MMEA.

The importance of this move cannot be underestimated. Previously, in terms of asset allocation, for

example, the MMEA had only about 14 vessels to monitor the Strait of Malacca, an area of about

26,534 square nautical miles. Assuming normal ship maintenance procedures, a maritime agency

would have only about 50 percent of its assets available to carry out operations at sea at any one time


55

of the year. Hence, the MMEA may only have been able to have available about 7 vessels, to perform

law enforcement in the Strait of Malacca. Considering the total area to be monitored, it was unlikely

that it would have been able perform its task effectively.

The third factor relates to pollution detection at sea. In terms of oil slick detection, it is only the aircraft

acquired by the MMEA which has the capability to do so during day and night; and to land on the

water to collect the oil samples. However, the aircraft can only land on the water safely under good

weather conditions, and it cannot stop the suspected source ship. It still has to rely on the availability

of other ships to take this action.

The fourth factor is the long and cumbersome process involved in prosecuting and apprehending

vessels. If a vessel is suspected of polluting sea water with oily discharge, a sample must be taken

immediately and the suspected vessel has to be apprehended and brought to the nearest port for

investigation. Oil samples also have to be taken from the various parts of the ship. All the samples

have to be taken immediately for analysis. Any delay could make the samples worthless. The analysis

must be by the Department of Chemistry. The process is convoluted because of the many different

steps which need to be taken. As detection of suspected illegal discharge is made by surveillance

aircraft in most cases, the pilot would first make a report on return to base. The DOE would then make

arrangements for investigating officers to go to the scene to take samples. If there is no ship

immediately available to take the officers to the scene of discharge, there could be further delay, and

this may allow the suspected ship to move away from the scene. Even if a ship is available, it may

face difficulties to apprehend the suspected ship. The worst case scenario would be that the available

ship has no trained personnel, no proper sampling facilities onboard, or could only arrive at the scene

after daylight hours.

The fifth factor is time. Time and space are the critical constraints for ships and tankers. Even a day’s

delay means additional costs. Even if the ship was apprehended, it may take days to take the

necessary oil samples and this can be unacceptable, especially if the ship is subsequently not been

proven to have violated the law. Thus, law enforcement officers can be reluctant to detain a ship

unless other corroborating evidence are available.

With all these factors in play, it really requires a focused and concerted effort, and provision of strong

leadership, to implement the measures in the time scale which might be required to affect the change

needed. As it is, there are many heads and many stakeholders, each putting forth for their respective

viewpoints. But, that is the nature of the coast - many resources, many users, and, many times,

conflict.


56

6.2 Knowledge and Human Resources Management

Currently, although there is a ready network of monitoring water quality and river discharge, as well as

of tide levels, there is still lack of data integration. Each agency has its own network of stations and

often these are not consistent with the station locations of other agencies. This is not unexpected as

each agency carries out monitoring for specific purposes related to its function. Thus, data about

water quality status in the Strait of Malacca and the processes and factors affecting them are

dispersed among these agencies, as well as among the government research institutes, university

researchers, and non-governmental bodies. There is a knowledge integration gap as there are

different agencies interested in different aspects of the coastal and marine environment. This creates

a challenge for effective planning and management of Malaysia’s ocean resources.

There had been discussion of forming a central repository of marine data since the early 1990s. The

National Oceanographic Directorate had officially proposed the establishment of a National Institute of

Oceanography under the 10th Malaysia Plan (2011-2015). As part of the early steps toward data

integration the Directorate had established the Malaysian National Oceanography Data Centre

(MyNODC) (http://sdi.mynodc.gov.my) in July 2010. The development model of the Institute is in the

planning stage is expected to form part of the national agenda on ocean research. This institute is

expected to link together the university marine research centres of excellence with international ocean

data agencies.

The issue of knowledge management is related with human resources development. In his New Year

ministerial address, 2012, the Malaysian Minister of Higher Education lamented the declining interest

among high school students for science and mathematics, which continued into university. This could

hamper the government’s Science and Technology Human Capital Direction Plan 2020 target for at

least 60% of high school student participation in science. Malaysia's position in R&D compared to

Australia and Hong Kong for example is not encouraging (Figure 6.1). Malaysia has lagged behind

neighbouring countries in this area in recent years. This affects the outlook for capacity development

for marine resources management.


57

Figure 6.1: Malaysian Research and Development Expenditure

a) Research and Development expenditure as percentage of GDP

b) Researchers in Research and Development per million people

(Data source: World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators

accessed 20 Feb 2012.)

One of the factors may be the incentive environment. In the government sector, there is virtually no

difference between the salaries received by arts or science graduates. The only difference is for the

professional degrees, such as accountancy, engineering and medicine. Students also consider their

commitment to repay the student loan given for degree studies. Students who achieve a good grade

can expect a reduction in their repayment amount. Science and technical programmes are regarded

as being more difficulty to achieve a good grade in. Existing science graduates also may move into a

field of employment which do not fully utilise their science background.

6.3 The Way Forward

The recent changes in the governance infrastructure which ensures that the MMEA functions as the

sole enforcement agency at sea is an inportant one and needs to be followed by alignment of

adequate resource allocation and streamlining of the regulatory procedures and processes. At

present although power has been delegated, and physical assets have been transferred, to the

MMEA, the legal provisions are still under the responsibility of the various government agencies. It

may take some time to evaluate whether delegations of powers is sufficient to enable the MMEA to

Hong KongAustraliaMalaysia

Hong KongAustraliaMalaysia


58

take over the task which had been undertaken by the five or more agencies previously. There need to

be sufficient training given to the MMEA officers as well as not all the staff from the various agencies

have transferred across. This training is fundamental in order to provide the support for the

responsibilities given to the MMEA.

In terms of knowledge management, in order to improve the management of water quality and reduce

marine pollution both from land and sea-based sources, there must be mapping of existing and

missing knowledge. The relevant agencies or bodies who have the best potential to fill in the

knowledge gaps also should be identified. There needs to be awareness of the differentiation

between the type or scope of authority of the body, for example, for policy formulation and

coordination, enforcement, resource management, project implementation, technical expertise,

advisory, or research and knowledge generation. Training programmes need to implemented to

provide understanding not only for the general public, but also at intra-agency and inter-agency levels

on the roles and responsibilities by the different sectors related to the marine environment.

The Ministries of Education and Higher Education are taking action in order to improve the ratio of

students taking science and technical subjects as part of realising the Science and Technology

Human Capital Direction Plan 2020. In addition to this, however, there needs to be inclusion of

education modules on the coastal and marine environment, comprising topics such as maritime

geography, current circulations, the role of the oceans in the transport of materials, marine food and

pharmaceutical resources, within the education curriculum. This is because, although Peninsular

Malaysia and Sabah and Sarawak are almost surrounded by seas, the marine environment has been

taken for granted, and there is little realisation of the impact of development on the coastal and

marine resources. The general public see marine resources as being associated with low income

artisanl fisheries, recreational areas, rural villages, and undervalue their worth. The effect is felt only

indirectly to them as fish prices increase, fish size decreases and supply becomes erratic.

The NOD is moving in the right direction in trying to develop an integrated data centre. This requires

buy-in from the many stakeholders in the country. A data centre is only one step required to unleash

the potential for research and development. At present although the sector of ”Sea to Space” is

recognised as a fundable component, there are few large scale integrative projects funded. The NOD

is developing the national blueprint on ocean affairs soon and this is something that researchers and

agencies will forward to in order to provide the framework for future action.

The challenges faced by Malaysia are possibly also faced by other countries in the BOBLME region is

varying degrees. For each country is is important to ensure that different agencies working on the

marine environment have a common understanding of the terms and regulations governing national

and international interactions. This common understanding should not be of the governance

infrastructure but also of the marine ecosystem parameters and pollution indicators of common

interests. An example where regional groups have cooperated is the Association of Southeast Asian


59

Nations (ASEAN) Working Group on Coastal and Marine Environment which overseas technical and

implementation issues approved by the ASEAN Ministries concerned. This working group oversaw the

development of the Marine Water Quality Criteria for the ASEAN Region, the ASEAN Criteria for

National Marine Protected Areas, and the ASEAN Criteria for Marine Heritage Areas, which were

adopted by the ASEAN environment ministers. Probably the most important success factor for the

working group is the strong commitment of senior ministerial officials to the development of common

standards and guidelines.

The development of common terms and methodology is also a foundation to developing a common

understanding of the processes at work in the Bay of Bengal which affects all the countries in

BOBLME. For Malaysia, there is a perceived disconnect between the Strait of Malacca and the Bay of

Bengal area which is located beyond the Andaman Sea. However, the Bay of Bengal influence into

the Strait is felt through the transport of water and materials by current movements (Wyrtki, 1961).

More recently, the dramatic effect of the 2004 Acheh earthquake and the tsunami which emanated

from the Andaman Sea has awoken public awareness of the seas beyond the island of Langkawi in

Kedah. In addition there is increasing interest in river water quality and pollutant loading in to the

coastal seas. For Malaysia and Indonesia who share the Malacca Strait this issue is expected to be

increasingly a concern with rising population and increasing economic activity. It is this awareness

that will generate interest and eagerness to understand the transboundary issues among senior

officials. It is this type of interest that is so important in order to obtain strong and committed support

for regional discourse. Recommendations for action among the littoral states need to be based on

knowledge of the processes and forecasted conditions, thus the BOBLME countries need to work

together in order to pool resources and integrate knowledge the impacts of human activities on the

coastal zone.


60

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