Index

Unit I Topic Page no

(A) Gathering of material Recorded and written 1

(B) Stages of radio programme production 2

(C) Radio Programme formats 3-4

(D) Studio session 5

Unit II

(A) Microphones & Speakers 6-8

(B) Mixers 9

(C) Tape Recorders 10

Unit III

(A) Principles of editing 11-12

(B) Mechanical Editing 13

(C) Computer Editing 14

Unit IV

(A) The structure of bulletins 15-16

(B) Types of News Stories 17

(C) Compiling Bulletin 18-19

(D) Writing for Radio as different from print 20-21

Unit V

(A)Prasar Bharati 22-23

(B) Three Tier Broadcasting 24

(C) All India Radio Services 25-26

(D) AIR Code 27 -28

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Unit I

(A)Gathering of material Recorded and written

Radio is a medium which you have to hear , television has both to be heared and seen and the

printed medium only to be read.In the newscasts of the visual medium , the words spoken by the

news presenter as much as the visuals, the captions , and the personality of the presenter,to an

extent ,from part of the total newscast.

Words , however, have a significant ,if not a major , role to play. Thus, both in radio andtv , the

spoken word is of great consequence , the news is brought to you in the spoken word in its

entirely by a faceless news reader in one case and by a presenter, appearing on the screen, in his

or her words , aided by visuals , in the other.

The spoken word idiom is basically different from the one employed by the printed medium. A

newspaper is taken in by the eye, most often in driblets , in small doses. Only a small number of

readers go through their daily paper at one go. Most of us scan the front page headlines , the

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sports or commercial page , according to our taste , glance through thr\e other pages and read

some other news stories , a column and an editorial at leisure.

For a considerable section of readers however the paper is done with for the day after day have

gone through the other pages and read some news stories, a column and an editorial at leisure.

What you write for the radio has to be heared by the audience. When you write news for the

rqadio the most essential point to borne in mind is that you are not writing to be read, taken in by

the eyeas in the case of print medium, but to be heared. This calls for the use of words, language

and sentence which we employ in conversation, in day to day circumstances, in our interpersonal

contacts. When the listener or viewer hears your bulletin it should be easy on his ears. It should

be easily intelligible to him by virtue of the familiar words and conversational style used. .

The Radio editor has to learn the technique of leaving out many points of a story, just as in life

you have to practice the art of saying no both in your day to day interaction and at work in the

office or in your business. Details are for the print medium , jot for us in the broadcast media ,

Radio stories have to be measured in units of ten-50 words , 100 words,150 words not of

hundreds as in the print medium. The interested listener gathers more details and fills the gaps in

his information by picking them up from next days paper.The print medium is also the medium

ofrecord.for us brevity is the soulof news, as much as of wit.

(B) Stages of radio programme production

Radio productions are planned in three stages.

Pre-Production

This is the planning and development stage. This begins with the generation of a

script. Unless a script is developed it is difficult and there will be confusion on

what type of programme you are producing. The script contains instructions and

guidelines for the production of the programme.

Production

The second stage is production. All the material for the programme

is recorded or organized at this stage. Selecting and positioning of the

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microphones, the type of tapes to be used, and selection of various sources of

sound through the mixer are all part of this stage.

Post Production : This stage generally includes editing. Sounds recorded during

production and dubbing if required, are the principal focus of postproduction.

Putting together the previously recorded sound and selection of sound are

important. The purpose of editing can be summarized as:

o To arrange recorded material into a more logical sequence.

o To remove the uninteresting, repetitive, or technically acceptable portion.

o To compress the material in time.

o For creative effect to produce new juxtaposition of speech, music, sound and

even silence.

( C ) Radio programme formats

Radio programmes may be classified into two broad groups :

(1) Spoken word programmes, which include news bulletins, talks, discussions, interviews, educational programmes for schools and colleges , specific audience programmes

directed at women , children, rural and urban listeners , drama , radio features and

documentaries.

(2) Music Programmes which include disc jockey programmes, musical performances of all types and variety programmes (Called Magazine Programmes )

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It is obvious that a good number of programmes like Drama, features and documetaries need

both the spoken word and music . this is true in particular of programmes broadcast on

vividh Bharati.

News Bulletin

News Bulletins are put by AIR almost every hour of the day in English and the various

regional lanaguages . the major bulletins are of 15 minutes duration while others are of only

five minutes duration. The present summaries of news stories in order of importance and

interest value. National and International happenings get pride of place , while regional and

local news is read out if time permits. Human interest stories and sports news generally round

off the major bulletins. AIRs news bulletins are much formal in language , structure and

presentation.

News Reel

Newsreels , generally of 15 minutes duration , present spot reports, comments, interviews

and extracts from speeches. A much morecomplex and expensive format than the news

bulletin , it called for skilled tape editing and well written link narrations.

Documentaries

Documentaries are usually factual , informational in character and sometimes educational in

intent. They bring together the techniques of talks and drama to tell the story of events , past

or present or those likely to happen in the future. They may sketch the bio-graphy of a great

leader , or merely offer an interpretation of the world around us , or teach us about people

and cultural unfamiliar to us , or even inquire into social, political economic or cultural

problems. Indeed , any subject of interest is grist to the mill of a documentary writer.

Radio Plays

Radio Drama is a story told through sound alone. The sound is of course that of dialogue and

voices of people , background or mood effects, musical effects, atmospheric effects and the

like . Radio drama has a beginning , middle and end. Movement and progress, generally to a

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crisis or climax ,must be sufficiently, distinguishable, one from the other ,lest the listener gets

confused. They must sound natural, speak true to character and above all, be interesting.

Talk

Radio talks are not public speeches ; rather they are chats with a friend who does not seeyou ,

but is nevertheless close and attentive to you. Radio talks should give the impression to a

listener that the speaker is addressing him or her alone in an informal manner.

The words of radio talk need to be kept simple and familiar, yet descriptive and powerful ,

and the sentences short and without dependent clauses and awkward inversions.

Music Programmes

Music Programmes enjoy much greater popularity than talk shows, as is evident from the

popularity of vividh bharati programmes. We enjoy music for its rhythms, melodies and

harmonies and above all for the relaxation it provides. Like any talk show , a music

programme must have unity and form.

(D) Studio session

A recording studio is a facility for sound recording and mixing. Ideally both the recording and

monitoring spaces are specially designed by an acoustician to achieve optimum acoustic

properties (acoustic isolation or diffusion or absorption of reflected sound that could otherwise

interfere with the sound heard by the listener).

Recording studios may be used to record musicians, voice-over artists for advertisements or

dialogue replacement in film, television or animation, foley, or to record their accompanying

musical soundtracks. The typical recording studio consists of a room called the "studio" or "live

room", where instrumentalists and vocalists perform; and the "control room", where sound

engineers sometimes with producer(s) as well operate either professional audio mixing consoles

or computers (post 1980s) with specialized software suites to manipulate and route the sound for

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analogue or digital recording. Often, there will be smaller rooms called "isolation booths" present

to accommodate loud instruments such as drums or electric guitar, to keep these sounds from

being audible to the microphones that are capturing the sounds from other instruments, or to

provide "drier" rooms for recording vocals or quieter acoustic instruments.

Recording studios generally consist of three rooms: the studio itself, where the sound for the

recording is created (often referred to as the "live room"), the control room, where the sound

from the studio is recorded and manipulated, and the machine room, where noisier equipment

that may interfere with the recording process is kept. Recording studios are carefully designed

around the principles of room acoustics to create a set of spaces with the acoustical properties

required for recording sound with precision and accuracy. This will consist of both room

treatment (through the use of absorption and diffusion materials on the surfaces of the room, and

also consideration of the physical dimensions of the room itself in order to make the room

respond to sound in a desired way) and soundproofing (also to provide sonic isolation between

the rooms) to prevent sound from leaving the property. A recording studio may include

additional rooms, such as a vocal booth - a small room designed for voice recording, as well as

one or more extra control rooms.

Equipment found in a recording studio commonly includes:

Mixing console

Multitrack recorder

Microphones

Reference monitors, which are loudspeakers with a flat frequency response

Keyboard

Acoustic drum kit

Unit II

(A) Microphones & Speakers

A major deterrent to extended use of cassettes in broadcasting is the absence of control room

hardware to accommodate cassettes on a professional scale a role currently being filled by the

cartridge tape. The gap is narrowing. Some cassettes tape recorders are presently designed to

handle three different cue tones in accordance with the standards established which sets up

specifications for all kinds of tapes and tape recording equipment.

The Studio Microphones

Microphones have come a long way from the time when they were often wrapped in asbestos or

cooled with water so as not to single the lips of performers who got too close.

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At small stations the console operator is frequently expected to set up equipment for studio

interviews, discussions, and taping sessions. He must therefore be familiar with microphone

types, capabilities and pattern as well as fundamental studio acoustics. A Properly equipped

radio station will have several types of microphones ,each with its advantages and disadvantages

. Basic microphone pick up patterns and their configurations are as follows:

Pattern configuration Best Use

Uni Directional Announcing, Narration, light instrumental

and vocal pickup

Bi Directional Across the table interview, two facing

music sources

Omni Directional Remotes, News Sports, hands held,

interviews, large music groups

Shotgun Picking up sound from the long distance

There are many variations and combinations of the preceding fundamental patterns as well as

different degrees of microphone response. Microphones are classified within their types as to

how and where they are to be used : for music or speech ,for close or distant pickups , wired or

wireless, stand mounted ,held in the hand ,worn around the neck. Broadcast quality microphones

are classified too, according to the type of internal construction which affects their response to

particular kinds of sound.

Dynamic Microphones The most rugged and most used is the dynamic microphone, which

operates on sound pressure and is noted for its bright ,articulate quality. In response to sound

pressure the motion of the diaphragm in the dynamic microphone causes a small coil to move

back and forth in the field created by the magnet surrounding the diaphragm, Open to free air

pressure on only one side the diaphragm is moved by the difference in internal pressure between

the front and rear of the microphone.

These microphones are constructed with one or a combination of all pick up patterns. The

shotgun microphone used to select sound from distant sources , is a class of dynamic microphone

with a super cardiod pattern and a more limited directional pattern than the usual cardioid.

Condenser Microphones A Condenser microphone is a type of dynamic microphone because it

is activated by pressure but it contains a different and more sensitive type of device. Condesor

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microphones are manufactured with anyone of the possible directional characteristics or may

have four switchable patterns built into one : omni- directional, bi directional, cardioid .

These microphones are most frequently used for high quality studio and recording work. In the

past they were confined to studio usage because they needed a bulky power supply box and cable

to supply the high voltage power needed to polarize the diaphragm.

Velocity Microphones Performers who wish their voices to sound richer or lower choose the

velocity microphone.

Wireless Microphones- Wireless microphones , designed for use where presence of cords or

lack of electricity would impede production, are cardioid type mics.

Speakers

Monitor speakers are hooked up ,o ne of each of the two channels os a stereo board, to allow

you to hear material being broadcast. If the programme channels are patched to the transmitter,

You can listen to the programming on the programme monitor speakers. The audition monitor

speakers can be used to audition material being recorded for possible future use or to listen to

material being recorded for later broadcast . The amplifiers for the monitor speakers must be of

higher power than the programme amplifiers to boost the signal to the level needed to drive the

loudspeakers. Each set of speakers has its own monitor pot, which raises and lowers the volume

of sound in the control room. A monitor select or delegation switch allows you to selectively

monitor programme and audition output. .

Cue Speakers allow you to cue or audition recorded material . These speakers are mounted a

distance away from the monitor speakers to prevent possible confusion. Finally , a headphone

jack allows you to listen to either programme or audition without having sound emanate from the

monitor or cue speakers; both speakers automatically cut off when any mic in the room is

opened. This feature allows you to talk over music on the air orto listen to the balance between

voice and music without using the monitor speaker , which of course , would create feedback.

You also use headphones to cue records when working combo.

program amplifiers to boost the signal to the level needed to drive the loudspeakers . Each set of

speakers has its own monitor pot, which raises and lowers the volume

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(B) Mixers

Sound mixers or consoles The audio console or the audio board is the mixing board. It is the

mixing link in audio production, which is the central nervous system of the audio facility.

Various sound signals are input, selected, controlled, mixed, combined, and eliminated by the

audio console.

To input a sound source is the first function of the audio console which usually

consists of an even number of sliding bars called inputs. Common are eight, ten, twelve,

twenty-four, and thirty-two input boards. Some inputs correspond to one and only one sound

device. Others use select switches and patch-bays to allow for a single input to control as many

as four or five different sound signals. A rotating dial controls each input. This dial is called a pot

(short for potentiometer). A more commonly used control on an audio console is a sliding bar

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called a fader. More elaborate boards allow for equalization and special effects. Boards also

allow for echo source to be measured and for the output of various signals to be amplified.

(C )Tape recorders

Cassette Recorders

Cassettes are plastic cases with a length of narrow recording tape , ready for loading into a

cassette recorder. Should you use cassettes, the standard Low noise C60 type is to be preferred?

C 120 cassettes tend to turn tape into spaghetti, inside your cassette recorder. Cassette recorders

for reportage work are cheap and handy. There are major problems, however, with reality and

sound quality. Cassette recorders are vulnerable to wear and tear. In humid climates, cassettes

give screaming on play back, which is caused by mechanical imperfections and by tape friction.

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Use of automatic control is sometimes necessary to avoid excessive tape hiss, but it should not

reallybe used in professional recording. For editing, cassettes are dubbed on inches tape.

Tape recorders are reliable and rugged. some of the recorders commonly used for reportage and

those of Uher report series , the stellavox.

Cartridge Machines

Cartridge are plastic cases containing endless loops of inch tape on a single reel.In a cartridge

machine, the tape moves across the open end of the case, being drawn from the hub of the reel,

and at the same time winding up on the reels outside. Only half of the width of the tape is

recorded with the sound signal. The other half is recorded independently with a brief pulse or

pip automatically applied to the tape when the sound recording is begun. . the machine will

hear their pip when the tape loop has been completely through to where it began , and will then

stop immediately. The tape is thus cued up ready to play again at the correct point. Cartridges

contain pre determined lengths of tape, designed to run for a certain length of time, and are

chosen to match the duration of the material they contain.

Unit III

(A ) Principles of editing

Bulletin editing is the process of selecting news, improving the writing of reports and news

agency copy , and putting the different news items in order. The news desk-sub-or duty-

editor(the specific title doesnt matter-we will use the term Bulletin editor is directly involved

in the actual production of a news bulletin .

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A bulletin editor is never forget that any story entrusted to him becomes his story and his alone,

from the moment. He is responsible for what goes on air: it is no longer the story of a news

agency, or of a reporter or of a correspondent. However he should respect the work of the

originator of the story and ensure its accuracy is maintained.

A read in period before taking over the desk is of prime importance for a bulletin editor at the

start of his shift. His responsibility starts then. Its up to him for instance to update or correct

anything written by his predecessor for the coming bulletin. If this becomes desirable.

Reporters copy

As soon as a bulletin editor gets a reporters story he begins applying a series of tests:

-Does the story make sense to your audience? is it news ?

- How does the introduction flow?

-Does it establish the situation clearly?

Does the story ry to convey too much?

Are the facts and ideas in logical sequence?

Do any phrases stand out as obviously redundant?

Is the phrasing such that the newscaster will easily get the right inflection?

Does the copy need rewriting? (Remember its important to rewrite from the original source

rather than subbed material) Do not change unless it is necessary.

In case of voice report , the bulletin editor must listen to the tape and organize a lead in to the

voice report, if it is suitable. He also decides on the use of actuality audio inserts in the news

bulletin.

News agency copy

The other basic source of news is the news agency copy, both national and international. Most

wire services write in print media style. This is because thats their main market. Too often in

asian and pacific newsrooms there is no attempt to rewrite this ino radio style. In many cases this

copy is only updated and identified geographically, with no attempt to rewrite it for radio or to

relate it to the local scene or audience. The problem is that this copy is prepared for a local

relevance. One of he ways to overcome this is to find out about the local impact or reaction to an

international story.

The wire sub editor must also realize that the western world agencies (AP,UPI, Reuters)will offer

a lot to foreign news material that is not relevant for developing countries. This is because the

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main market of these news agencies in north America and western Europe. if this is not taken

into consideration , there will be too great a proportion of irrelevant foreign news. Its an easy

way of filling bulletins.

What to do?

Discard all stories you would not want to use. Select the newsworthy stories .

Pile the wire copy; arrange it on your desk.

You may end up with 5 or 6 or more piles.

Label your stories. write these labels in capital letters so that they stand out.

Make a list of your stories, and put them in a tentative order of importance. Group together the

stories that are related

Stat thinking about the presentation technique. : do you want a straight voice report ,an interview

or a telephone correspondence? Its better to organize this in advance, if at all possible. Thats

what editorial conferences are for.

Read the wire copies all the way through. Underline what is important.

Learn to read it critically . Does it make sense. ? Is it complete?

Call the national news agency if you are in doubt.

You may have noticed through experience the many of the national news agency stories are not

always correct. Check with other sources if possible. Top say afterwards! Well, the news agency

had is not a good excuse.

Be resourceful. Turn reporter yourself. Use the telephone.

(B) Mechanical editing

In a sound-on-film process, a microphone captures sound and converts it into a signal that can be

photographed on film. Since the recording is imposed linearly on the medium, and the medium is

easily cut and glued, sounds recorded can be easily re-sequenced and separated onto separate

tracks, allowing more control in mixing. Options expanded further when optical sound recording

processes were replaced with magnetic recording in the 1950s. Magnetic recording offered a

better signal-to-noise ratio, allowing more tracks to be played simultaneously without increasing

noise on the full mix.

The greater number of options available to the editors led to more complex and creative sound

tracks, and it was in this period that a set of standard practices became established which

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continued until the digital era, and many of the notional concepts are still at the core of sound

design, computerized or not:

Sounds are assembled together onto tracks. Many tracks are mixed together (or "dubbed

together") to create a final film.

A track will generally contain only one "type" or group of sound. A track that contains

dialogue only contains dialogue, a track that contains music should only contain music.

Many tracks may carry all the sound for one group.

Tracks may be mixed a group at a time, in a process called predubbing. All of the tracks

containing dialogue may be mixed at one time, and all of the tracks containing foley may

be mixed at another time. In the process of predubbing, many tracks can be mixed into

one.

Predubs are mixed together to create a final dub. On the occasion of the final dub, final

decisions about the balance between different groups of sounds are made.

Dubbing Editing

Historically the Dubbing Mixer (UK) or Re-Recording Mixer (US) was the specialist who

mixed all the audio tracks supplied by the Dubbing Editor (with the addition of 'live sounds' such

as Foley) in a special Dubbing Suite. As well as mixing, he would introduce equalization,

compression and filtered sound effects, etc. while seated at a large console. Often two or three

mixers would sit alongside, each controlling sections of audio, e.g., dialogue, music, effects.

In the era of optical sound tracks, it was difficult to mix more than eight tracks at once without

accumulating excessive noise. At the height of magnetic recording, 200 tracks or more could be

mixed together, aided by Dolby reduction. In the digital era there is no limit. For example, a

single predub can exceed a hundred tracks, and the final dub can be the sum of a thousand tracks.

( c ) Computer Editing

A sound editor is a creative professional responsible for selecting and assembling sound

recordings in preparation for the final sound mixing or mastering of a television program, motion

picture, video game, or any production involving recorded or synthetic sound. Sound editing

developed out of the need to fix the incomplete, un dramatic, or technically inferior sound

recordings of early talkies, and over the decades has become a respected filmmaking craft, with

sound editors implementing the aesthetic goals of motion picture sound design.

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There are primarily 3 divisions of sound that are combined to create a final mix, these being

dialogue, effects, and music. In larger markets such as New York and Los Angeles, sound editors

often specialize in only one of these areas, thus a show will have separate dialogue, effects, and

music editors. In smaller markets, sound editors are expected to know how to handle it all, often

crossing over into the mixing realm as well. Editing effects is likened to creating the sonic world

from scratch, while dialogue editing is likened to taking the existing sonic world and fixing it.

Dialogue editing is more accurately thought of as "production sound editing", where the editor

takes the original sound recorded on the set, and using a variety of techniques, makes the

dialogue more understandable, as well as smoother, so the listener doesn't hear the transitions

from shot to shot (often the background sounds underneath the words change dramatically from

take to take). Among the challenges that effects editors face are creatively adding together

various elements to create believable sounds for everything you see on screen, as well as

memorizing their sound effects library.

The essential piece of equipment used in modern sound editing is the digital audio workstation,

or DAW. A DAW allows sounds, stored as computer files on a host computer, to be placed in

timed synchronization with a motion picture, mixed, manipulated, and documented. The standard

DAW system in use by the American film industry, as of 2012, is Avid's Pro Tools, with the

majority running on Macs. Another system in use presently is Yamaha owned Steinberg's cross

platform DAW Nuendo running on Macs using operating system Mac OS X but also on

Windows XP. Other systems historically used for sound editing were:

WaveFrame, manufactured by WaveFrame of emeyvilla

Several DAWs have been manufactured by Fairlight

SonicSolutions

AMS-Neve Audiofile

AudioVision manufactured by Avid

The WaveFrame, Fairlights, and Audiofile were of the "integrated" variety of DAW, and

required the purchase of expensive proprietary hardware and specialized computers (not standard

PCs or Macs). Of the two surviving systems, Pro Tools still requires some proprietary hardware

(either a low cost portable device such as the "Mbox" or the more expensive multichannel

A/D,D/A converters for more professional high end applications), while Nuendo (a successor to

Cubase) is of the "host based" variety.

Unit IV

(A) The Structure of Bulletins

A Number of news item put together makes a news bulletin. But a bulletin is not just a string of

individual news items broadcast as the scheduled time.the bulletin is more than a sum total of no

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of stories. The bulletin is collective form in which the separate news items are brought into a

coherent order and some relationship.

Every news broadcast is part of the days broadcasting schedule and there are usually several

bulletins in a days broadcasting output. A newspaper appears only once a day. Although it may

have several editions ,early city ,late city,and so on the reader gets only one edition. The Radio is

often on aIr bringing you the latest news every time.

Even in certain programmes of limited duration there is generally a news bulletin . Such

programmes are beamed to foreign audiences, in the additional networks external or overseas

services , with a duration of one hour or sometimes shorter than that. There are also programmes

meant for what are called in radio parlance minority audiences at home, like the youth and

women,or farmers and the armed forces, tribal communities and so on .

No Radio programmes can be conceived without its component ofa news bulletin of general or

special interest. Likewise, there cannot be a bulletin for its own sake. You cannot broadcast a

bulletin and then go off the air bulletin , except in grave national emergencies. Even then some

kind of music or other programmes would still be broadcast along with the news. AIR has

hourly bulletins round the clock in the two languages.

Each bulletin has its target audience . The editor has to bear in mind the requirements,interests

and preferences of the various regions and audience while preparing the bulletin.

A Radio Bulletin is generally divided into four parts

1. Lead The lead for a radio news story is like the headline for a newspaper story. It should

grab interest. It should give audience members an idea of what the story is going to be about .

It should set the tone for the story. It should not be written in the newspaper Headlines

style . It should be written in a clear, concise and conversational manner.

Example (Poor) : Midcity man drowns in bathtub

Example (Better): A Midcity man drowned in his bathtub this morning. 2. Body of the story

Once you have written the lead, the rest of the story usually flows in a natural and logical

manner. One way to organize a story is to think of its series of main points and supporting

evidence. You identify the main points of each story , prioritize them from most important to

least important and then list the supporting evidence for each of the points. Supporting

evidence would include such things as quotes, comparisons and statistics.

3. The Break which occurs midway ,roughly after the first half or bunch of the bulletin. This

enable the newspaper to identify the broadcasting satation which is a requirement since

several stations are on the air on frequencies close to one another . This is All India Radio

and you are listening News.

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4. Endings The Headlines being repeated at the end of the bulletin after which comes the closing

announcement. The announcer of the station then tells you. Youhave been listening to a

bulletin relayed from delhi. Ending a story can be almost as difficult as starting one.

Most of the time, you simply finish with the last bit of supporting evidence for your final

main point.

(B)Types of news stories

A great many stories can be concluded by providing apiece of background information

about someone or something in the story. You can end your story with information about

what is going to happen or what is likely to happen in the future.

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This arrangement of news is called for when there is a major story to be handled. Even

Otherwise ,related items should be brought into some in kind of linkage. However while

integrating stories care should be taken not to play up stories which may have some loose

connection with the major item but by themselves they may not be significant.

Sports items which must form an important part of your bulletin, any bulletin for that matter

,should be demarcated from the other stories with word like Now Sport or Cricket or Hockey.

As the case may be.

Sports , like weather ,is taken at the end of the bulletin but care must be taken not to crowd

out the sports stories , that is end the bulletin without broadcasting the stories. In the

technical language of broadcasting stories which you have included in your bulletin with the

intention of broadcasting them but which you had to leave out for want of time are called

crowded out items. For record and for the guidance of the succeeding editors in the series, the

CO stories must be clearly indicated. You should however note that while you can take some

solace that you had intended to cover them the listner has not got the story. It is thus as good

as a story not covered. If a Sports story has been headlined you must make sure that it ios

broadcast. It is unexcusable to leave out a headline story.

(C)Compiling Bulletin

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Compiling Bulletin means to arrange the news in a bulletin. Either you have a pool to present

you with broadcast able stories on a platter , as in AIR , or you to have compile the bulletin from

the sources of news direct. In either case there is plenty of material at your disposal. This

requires that you begin your work of writing or drafting stories fairly early so that you know aat

the start what is already there and what you can anticipate.

For a ten minute bulletin the editor must begin this work atleast 2 hours before the time of

broadcast. If you are doing one of the fifteen minutes bulletin the work must begin 31/2 prior

broadcast.

This time must be further advanced by an hour if you are doing the bulletin direct from the

sources. For a five minute bulletin done from the pool items the time must be an hour before the

scheduled time of going on the air and another half an hour if the editor is relying on the sources.

But before he sets out to write the stories for broadcast the editor must spend an hour studying

the material that is already available. The previous pools, Day pool I and II and both the morning

pools, along wit the previous bulletins of the cycle ,would constitute the material. In the other

case , the editor has to study not only the previous bulletins of the series but also the agency copy

, reporters copy and monitoring reports received since the last bulletin went on air.

The related copy material must be pinned together under different broad headings, like

Ayodhya Parliament or sports .some pool items so that they can easily locate the stories

while rewriting the items .

The material thus studied naturally constitutes the sheet anchor of the stories to be put together

into the bulletin. But the editor has also to cope with the incoming copy as he gets down to

drafting his stories. This is the most difficult part of his job as the flow of source material may go

on increasing in intensity while you are concentrating on the task of drafting. Particularly the

pressure of home stories mounts in the evening hour as almost all the main home stories land

during these hours or some time before.

The bulletin is, therefore, compiled piecemeal, not in the order in which it is broadcast . The

similarity with the shooting of a feature film or documentary is thus striking. A film is never shot

in the order in which it is viewed by the audience in a cinema or at home on the video. The shots

and rushes are brought into a coherent order by the film editor under his directors instructions.

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But the film director has atleast a script to go by and while the hero or heroine as often happens

in hindi movies , may force him to alter some parts to grab the juicy breaks he at least knows

what is being shot according to his script. The bulletin editor , on the other hand, does not have a

script at his disposal.

Interaction between the compiling editor and the news units in different languages would,on the

other hand ,is expected and , on the other , the translating units will also get into the spirit of the

bulletin making process, rather than remain passive translators.

The need to impose the least possible strain on the translators and on ones colleagues will be

well taken care of if the bulletin editor follows a certain drill. He must first take up for drafting

stories which aremore or less final.

The lead of your bulletin and the headlines should be decided while you are drafting the early

stories and after the incoming stories scrutinized. While the lead story is left over to be handled

towards the end, possible headlines can and should be drafted on a separate notesheet. Two or

three more than the number prescribed should be joted down and polished as you are getting

different stories ready.

Such preparations help you to approach the important task of dictating the headlines in an

unhurried manner. The notepad can be used for noting down the stories you may consider as

possible usable items and also for noting down the items which would go into the two or three

bunches into which your bulletin is divided. As Important News breaks the notes can also be

altered but if you dont have anything to fall back upon and depend on your mental notes you

would cause unnecessary problems for yourself in the final hour which is crucial.

A bulletin is never finished until the end is announced . the radio being an instant medium can

bring to you news as it happens and several bits can be added as the broadcast is on air. So

everyone has to be ready-the editor ,his supporting staff, the newsletter-to incorporate into the

bulletin any important story or aspects of a story which materially alter or add to the one have

you have done.

(D) Writing for radio as different from print

The difference between the two media is that the TV news presenter is right there in

front of you while the radio news reader has only to be heard. But because he or she is

there and is speaking to you the rules of the spoken word medium apply to TV as well as

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to the radio bulletins. Of course, The TV medium is a visual medium and the bulletin can

be made really interesting by adding film , with or without sound ,stills , captions,

drawings and charts to spoken word. Not only adding to the dry stories as stories without

visuals are known to the tv editors , but presenting the news in the visual idiom, as to say.

The visuals are to be taken in by the eye , unlike spoken word which is absorbed by the

ear. Even the eye is not strained much, as in reading a book or a newspaper, because the

visuals are generally in pictures . even among pictures, the moving one is more

acceptable because that is more attractive and causes the least strain to the eye,

The picture also has more impact. Chinese saying : A picture is worth ten thousand

words.)Thus TV News has a distinct advantage over the radio counterpart. But it is

basically spoken word news and often when the news breaks close to a telecast the story

has to be taken dry , just as in the radio. Yet another area both have much similarity is the

brevity of their stories. Most TV newscasts are of 20-30 minutes duration and if you take

out the visuals the wordage will be found to be almost the same as in radio bulletin of ten

to fifteen minutes duration. No matter how much the visual content the TV Newscast

cannot go on and on.

You can have other current affairs programmes to be compressed within a timeframe of

fifteen to twenty minutes , the half hour newscast being really a ten minute visual show

plus the word content. But the visuals have to be relevant to the audience to be of real

interest to them. All news has to have relevance and interest for the audience because of

the proximity of the event, the consequence or importance it holds for the viewer and

other factors which we have dealt with. News has to be both new and interesting

information. Foreign visuals which dominate the TV newscasts in India cannot have

much audience appeal. Simply because they are visuals they dont mean much to an

audience which is of high school or even a lower level of education even to the more

educated audiences which watch the English newscasts the foreign visuals have limited

appeal. In recent months, there has been an excessive coverage, by the way of visuals.

The presence of these visuals becomes all the more glaring and less and less relevant

when there are no interesting visuals from within the country. There are a few stock

scenes of VIPs arriving and being received by the president and prime minister and the

same line of VIPs being introduced to them, the various seminars and conferences in the

capital Inaugurated by the Prime minister or lesser lights of the central government ,

book releases and releases of commemorative stamps.

If there is a train accident there are no visuals, until after two days when a minister

may visit the scene, an air accident story is not accompanied by any visuals. That is also

the fate of major fire accidents outside Delhi, communal disturbances and natural

disasters. Things have been carried to absurd proportions. If there are three different

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stories in the same bulletin on the TV about a certain dignitary and they are taken one

after the other the person is referred to by both name and designation on all the three

occasions. The viewer is left wondering whether you are talking of the same individual.

But the doubt is dispelled because, as often happens with delhi stories, there are visuals

showing the dignitary opening his mouth but not able to utter a word.

Unit V

(A) Prasar Bharati

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Prasar Bharati (Hindi: ); is India's largest public broadcaster. It is an autonomous body set up by an Act of Parliament and comprises Doordarshan television network and All

India Radio which were earlier media units of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.

Prasar Bharati was established following a demand that government owned broadcasters in India

should be given autonomy like those in many other countries. The Parliament of India passed an

Act to grant this autonomy in 1990, but it was not enacted until September 15, 1997.

Functions and Objectives

The primary duty of the Corporation is to organise and conduct public broadcasting services to

inform, educate and entertain the public and to ensure a balanced development of broadcasting

on radio and television.

The Corporation shall, in the discharge of its functions, be guided by the following objectives,

namely:

Upholding the unity and integrity of the country and the values enshrined in the

Constitution.

Safeguarding the citizens right to be informed freely, truthfully and objectively on all matters of public interest, national or international, and presenting a fair and balanced

flow of information including contrasting views without advocating any opinion or

ideology of its own.

Paying special attention to the fields of education and spread of literacy, agriculture, rural

development, environment, health and family welfare and science and technology.

Providing adequate coverage to the diverse cultures and languages of the various regions

of the country by broadcasting appropriate programmes.

Providing adequate coverage to sports and games so as to encourage healthy competition

and the spirit of sportsmanship.

Providing appropriate programmes keeping in view the special needs of the youth.

Informing and stimulating the national consciousness in regard to the status and problems

of women and paying special attention to the upliftment of women.

Promoting social justice and combating exploitation, inequality and such evils as

untouchability and advancing the welfare of the weaker sections of the society.

Safeguarding the rights of the working classes and advancing their welfare.

Serving the rural and weaker sections of the people and those residing in border regions,

backward or remote areas.

Providing suitable programmes keeping in view the special needs of the minorities and

tribal communities.

Taking special steps to protect the interests of children, the blind, the aged, the

handicapped and other vulnerable sections of the people.

Promoting national integration by broadcasting in a manner that facilitates

communication in the languages in India; and facilitating the distribution of regional

broadcasting services in every State in the languages of that State.

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Providing comprehensive broadcast coverage through the choice of appropriate

technology and the best utilisation of the broadcast frequencies available and ensuring

high quality reception.

Promoting research and development activities in order to ensure that radio broadcast and

television broadcast technology are constantly updated.

(B)Three-tier Broadcasting System

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Radio broadcasting is a one-way wireless transmission over radio waves intended to reach a

wide audience. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast a common radio format,

either in broadcast syndication or simulcast or both. Audio broadcasting also can be done via

cable radio, local wire television networks, satellite radio, and internet radio via streaming media

on the Internet.

As Indias National Broadcaster and also the premier Public Service Broadcaster, All India

Radio (AIR) has been serving to inform, educate and entertain the masses since it's inception,

truly living up to its motto Bahujan Hitaya : Bahujan Sukhaya. One of the largest

broadcasting organisations in the world in terms of the number of languages of broadcast, the

spectrum of socio-economic and cultural diversity it serves, AIRs home service comprises 406

stations today located across the country, reaching nearly 92% of the countrys area and 99.19 %

of the total population. AIR originates programming in 23 languages and 146 dialects.

AIR has a three-tier system of broadcasting, namely, National, Regional and Local.

National channel of All India Radio started functioning on May 18, 1988. It caters to the

information, education and entertainment needs of the people, through its transmitters at Nagpur,

Mogra and Delhi beaming from dusk to dawn. It transmits centrally originated news bulletins in

Hindi and English, plays, sports, music, newsreel, spoken word and other topical programmes, to

nearly 76% of the country's population fully reflecting the broad spectrum of national life.

The Regional Stations in different States form the middle tier of the broadcasting. Including

North-Eastern Service at Shillong disseminates the vibrant and radiant cultural heritage of the

North-Eastern region of the country.

Local Radio is comparatively a new concept of broadcasting in India. Each of the station serving

a small area provides utility services and reaches right into the heart of the community, which

uses the microphone to reflect and enrich its life.

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(C)All India Radio Services

The National services

The origin of the centrally planned national service goes back to the World War II when news

bulletines were broadcast from delhi. The news services Divisions plans and presents the news ,

news reels and current affair programmes . But the national programme of music, plays,features

nad talks are planned by ditrector general and produced at regional centres. To boost the

commercial revenue of AIR , commercials were allowed on the primary channel from April,

1982, and on over 55 selected stations from January 28 , 1985.

The Regional Services

The Regional services cater to major linguistic and cultural groups. Each state and Union

territory serves the group living in the areas covered by it. Except for news and national

programmes of each regional station directed at different groups such as farmers,

workers,children, women , youth are produced at the regional stations. The national service

programmes are broadcast over short wave transmitters which makesit possible for regional

centres to relay them. In March 1995,AIR had 105 regional stations , with an average of four to

five stations in each state. While Madhya Pradesh had as many as 11 stations, Uttarpradesh had

10 stations, Andhra Pradesh , rajasthan , Karnataka and maharashtra had eight. The seven states

of the north east were well served with four stations in arunachal Pradesh, three stations in

Assam, two each in Meghalya and Mizoram, and one each in nagaland , Manipur and Tripura.

The Local Services

An interesting development in recent years has been the setting uo of local radio stations in

different regions of the country. The Verghese Committie (1978) recommended a franchise

system for promoting local radio for education and development. The need for local/community

radio,using FM radio technology,was discussed and accepted during the seventh plan period. It

was proposed that 73 districts out of a total of morethan 500 launch local broadcast stations by

1992. Each local station was to have a reach of around 100 kilometers and the thrust of the

programmes was to be on indegenous folk formats and the participation of the local people. The

proposal appears to have been hijacked by the takeover of the FM channels by commercial

broadcasters.

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Several NGO;s use local radio to further their development activities. Chetana (Calcutta) and

Ravi Bharati, for instance , record their programmes on adult education, in the field and using

local talents.

The Vividh Bharati service

The vividh bharati was started on 2nd

October 1957,as a service of light entertainment to

compete with Radio Ceylon, which had begun directing a commercial service to India on

powerful short wave transmitters . earlier AIR had banned film songs on its

programmes.Commercials were introduced on this service in 1967, and sponsored programmes

in may 1970. upto 1986, the revenue from commercials was almost Rs 200 million per annum ;

in 1989 this revenue rose to Rs 360million.

External Services

Broadcasting today is regarded as part of the normal apparatus of diplomacy. Short wave and

long wave broadcasting have made it possible to beam programmes across frontiers to different

parts of the world. From 1939, when AIR inaugurated its external services division, with a

broadcast in Pushtu, India too joined in the game of diplomacy on the air. Today the division

broadcasts programmes to 155countries in 25 languages, 17 of them foreign, the rest Indian.

News Bulletines are beamed round the clock to sensitive areas where we believe our point of

view will be heeded, and where people of Indian origin have made their homes.

(D) AIR Code

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1. Criticism of friendly countries 2. Attack on religions communities 3. Anything obscene or defamatory 4. Incitement of violence or anything against maintenance of law and order 5. Anything Accounting to contempt of court 6. Aspersions against the integrity of the president ,Governors and judiciary 7. Attack on political party by name 8. Hostile criticism of any state or the center 9. Anything showing disrespect to the constitution or advocating change in the

constitution by violence ; but advocating changes in a constitutional way should not be

debarred

10. Appeal for funds except for the prime ministers national relief fund ,at a time of external emergency or if the country is faced with a natural calamity such a floods,

earthquake or cyclone.

11. Trade names in broadcast which amount to ad directly (except in commercial services)

Code of Conduct for Radio during election

The election commission recognizes the significance of radio in the coverage of election.

Their reach is widespread and impact substantial. On the one hand , electronic media can be

misused to favour one party or another. But on the other hand ,The EC recognizes that

electronic media can ,if used : properly be an important source of information for voters

across the country. It can provide the widest first hand education for voters in political parties

, their symbols ,various leaders and different issues in the election. This is why electronic

media all over the world is the single biggest source of information of voters in terms of

debates , campaign, coverage etc.

It is an essential therefore that a model code of conduct is established for electronic media

both to ensure that. It be used in the best interest of democracy and the voter .

Listed below are the dos and donts for election coverage on electronic media

1. There should be no coverage of any election speeches or other material that incites violence against the religion ,against the language ,against the one group etc

2. In any constituency only one candidate should not be projected while it is not necessary to cover single candidate (as some constituencies may have several candidates ) : atleast

the more important candidates should be covered in any reports from a constituency.

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