Blum-Kulka Speech Acts

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The Study of Translation in View of New Developments in Discourse Analysis: The

Problem of Indirect Speech Acts

Shoshana Blum-Kulka

Poetics Today, Vol. 2, No. 4, Translation Theory and Intercultural Relations. (Summer - Autumn,1981), pp. 89-95.

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THE STUDY OF TRANSLATION

IN VIEW OF NEW

DEVELOPMENTS IN DISCOURSE ANALYSISThe Problem of Indirect Speech Acts*

SHOSHANA BLUM-KULKA

Com mun ication. Jerusalem

One way of looking at translation which has not been widely exploited is through

speech-act theory. This approach is not intended as an alternative to recent

theories such as those of Even-Zohar (1975) and Toury (1976), but is probably

complementary to them.

The theory of speech acts is based on a functional view of languages. I t

assumes that the use of language is an integral part of social interaction.

Speech-act theoreticians like Austin (1962) claim that by uttering sentences we

are performing acts and these acts may be successful or not . An adequate theory

of speech acts should be able to formulate the conditions stipulating which acts

are successful in which situations.

I would like to suggest that a speech-act theory of language use might be

applied both to the theory and study of translation. This approach assumes that

the act of translation itself can be viewed as an attempt at the successful

performance of speech acts. Any utterance -o r text, i f we extend Austin'sview(Austin, 1962)-performs simultaneously three acts: the locutionary act. which

is the act o t s a y i n g s o m e t h i n g i n t h e f u l l sense of 'say' (the propositional meaning);

an illocutionary act, which is an act performed by saying something (the

intentional meaning or function achieved, including the poetic one), and the

perlocutionary act , the one performed by the hearer as a result of the former two

acts. In trying to achieve sameness in meaning translation is thus an attempt to

re-perform locutionary and illocutionary acts that (hopefully but in fact rarely)

will have in the target language the same perlocutionary force (or effect) on the

P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t Synopsis I : T r a n s l a t i o n T h e o r y a n d I n t e r c u l tu r a l Re l a t io n s . h e ld a t t h e

Po r t e r I n s t i t u t e f o r Po e t i c s a n d Se m io t i c s i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i th t h e M . Ue r n s t e in Ch a i r o

T r a n s l a t i o n T h e o r y , T e l Av iv Un iv e r s i t y , 2 7 M a r c h Ap r i l 1 9 78 .

oetics Today Vo l :4 1981). 89-05



c n S H O S H A N A BLU M K U LK A

addressee as they had i n the source language. An adequate theory of translation

should try to formulate the conditions stipulating the successful (or not

successful) performance of such translation-acts.

What follows is a preliminary at tempt to apply such an approach to the case ofindirect speech acts. I will try to argue that by examining the various rules that

govern the successful performance i n any given language, we might be able to

make predictions about the possibility or impossibility of reconstructing the

same indirect act i n another language.

I t is well known that the same utterance in natural languages can serve

different illocutionary ends. The phrase I am hungry uttered by a beggar is a

request for food, but the same phrase, ut tered by a child at bed-time, may be a

way to delay going to bed. 'The phrase is interpreted on the basis of shared

assumptions between speaker and hearer over and above the linguistic content

of the sentence used. There is nothing in the phrase I am hungry that indicates

its various potential illocutionary forces. But as part of their linguistic

competence, all speakers seem to know that utterances can convey mess:rges

which do not hear any necessary relation to the propositional content of the

sentence used.

On the other hand, we also have systematic, linguistic ways for indicating

potential illocutionary force. I t has been claimed, for example (van Dijk.

1977: 202) that one function of German doch is to express the fact that the

speaker assumes that the hearer knows (or should know) already the proposition

asserted by the speaker. Since doch marks the existence of a presupposition, anutterance with doch can have the illocutionary force of either re-confirming the

presupposition, or of rejecting it, as in Und die Hibel hat doch Recht, a title

rendered in English by The Bible as History. '

All languages seem to provide their speakers with ways of achieving

communicative ends by indirect means. From the point of view of translation

theory the question is how universal are these ways. Speech-act theoreticians

speak about the felicity conditions that govern the successful performance of

speech acts in general. Limiting the discussion to indirect speech acts would

like to argue that an analysis of the nature of felicity conditions might provide us

with a tool for predicting ease of translatability of indirect speech acts.

The felicity conditions for the performance and interpretation of speech acts

might be based only on the speaker's ability to relate linguistic content to

pragmatic context, as in the case of I am hungry. Since thisability is part of the

speaker's 'pragmatic competence' (Kasher, 1977). t seems reasonable to assume

that j ai faim, or ani ra'eb, o r a m hungry all share the same potential

illocutionary force and are also potential full translation equivalents.

On the other hand, the happy performance and interpretation of speech acts

might require not only the speaker's general pragmatic competence but also his

language-specific semantic competence, as in the case o f doch. Since languagesother than German might lack a similar 'linguistic institution,' the quest for a

This 1s the title o f Werner Keller s b o o k (London: Hodder Stoughton. 1956).



T R A N S L A T I O N O I N D I R E C T S P E E C H A C T S

t r ans la t ion equiva lent tha t sh ares the sa m e potent ia l i l locut ionary force might

becom e a rea l p rob lem .

In longer s t re tches of d iscourse , the fe l ic i ty condi t ions for the successful

pe r fo rm an ce o f speech ac t s m igh t i nc lude the p rop e r app l i ca t ion of un ive r sa l

rules of soc ia l in te rac t ion. Such a rule for conversa t ions for example i s the

wi ll ingness co ndi t ion of commu nica t ive in te ra c t ion , what Gr ic e (1975) ca ll s the

'Maxim of Coo pe ra t ion . ' Gr i ce l is ts f our m axim s: peop le expec t con t r ibu t ions to

conve r sa tions to be app ropr i a t e in con ten t and m an ne r (Maxim s of Re la t ion an d

M a n n e r ) a n d t o i n cl u d e n o m o r e n o r l es s in f o r m a t i o n t h a n r e q u i r e d (M a x i m of

Quan t i ty) an d to be gen uine (Maxim of Qual ity) .

Viola t ion of any of the maxims resul t s in the ut te rance having an indi rec t

i ll ocu t iona ry fo r ce ove r an d bey ond i ts p ropos i ti ona l co n ten t .

In the fol lowing scene f romthello

(Act 111, i i i ) , lago manages to rouseOthe l lo ' s suspicions by de l ibera te ly violat ing the Maxim of R ela t io n. Not on ly

d o e s h e n ot a n s w e r O th e ll o 's q u e s ti o n s, b u t h e a l so a v o id s t h e m . H e d o e s s o

appa ren tly c lum s i ly , sugges ting to O th e l lo tha t h e i s conceal ing som e th ing :

Di d Mic h a e l Ca s sio , wh e n y o u w o o 'd my l a d y ,

K n o w o f y o u r l o v e ?

Oth e l lo : H e d i d. f r o m f ir st t o l a s t . . w h y d o st t h o u a s k ?

1 go : Bu t fo r a s a t is fa c t io n o f my th o u g h t .

N o f u r th e r h a r m .

Oth e l lo : Wh y of th y th o u g h t , I a g o ?

la g o : I d i d no t t h i n k h e h a d b e e n a c q u a i n t e d w i th h e rO t h e l l o : O y es . a n d w e n t b e t w e e n u s v e r y o f t e n .

Iago : I n d e e d ?

Oth e l lo : In d e e d ; In d e e d : d i s ce rn 's t t h o u a u g h t in th a t?

I s h e n o t h o n e s t?

l a g o : H o n e s t , m y l o r d ?Oth e l lo : Ho n e s t ' ? a y , h o n e s tl a g o : My lo rd . fo r a u g h t I k n o w.

Oth e l lo : Wh a t d o s t th o u th in k'

T h in k , my lo rd ?

As Co ult ha rd (1977) obs erves , Iago's f i rst answ er "but for th e sat isfaction of

my thought" is the poli test of possible evasions; t a l so a l lows I ago to d rop

a n o t h e r s t o n e i n t o t h e p o n d : " N o f u r t h e r h a r m . " H i s s e c o n d a n sw e r : "I d i d no t

think h e had b een acq uain ted wi th her" ma kes his f ir st ques t ion se em bizar re ,

an d sugges t s t ha t i t was no t m ean t a s a r equ es t f o r i n form a t ion . T h e

pe r locu tiona ry fo r ce o f t he whole exchang e is s t reng then ed by Iago 's " Indeed?"

an d reaches i ts peak wi th the twis t g iven to O the l lo ' s q ues t io n: " Is h e not

honest?" by Iago ' s reply: "H one st , my lord?"

Wil l the dram at ic force of th is scen e be los t in t rans la t ion? I want to a rgue tha t

as long as the l inguis tic conte nt is rend ere d in exac t ly the sam e que s t ion -

response sequence , the passage s tands a very good chance of re ta ining a l l i t s

dram at ic force . In th is text , the chan ge of on e que s t ion -ma rk in t rans la t ion

("Ho nest , my lord?") to a ful l-stop wil l b e much m or e signif icant than any



92 S H O S H A N A BLUM-KULKA

s ty li s tic va r ia t ions in the ta rge t l angu age . Th eore t ica l ly , th i s text' s h igh leve l of

t rans la tabi l i ty wil l be a ffec ted only if t rans la ted to a lang uage of a soc ie ty tha t

do e s no t s ha re t he sa m e bas ic ru l es of soc ia l i n t e ra c t i on .

S o fa r w e ha ve se e n tha t i nd ire c t spe e c h a c t s t ha t r ely fo r the i r i n t e rp re t a ti onon suc h c on te x tua l c lues a s I am hungry an d/ or on the v io la tion of ru les of

soc ia l in te rac t ion see m t o be h igh on th e sca le of t rans la tabil i ty potent ia l . T h e

theore t ica l c la im 1 a m t ry ing to ma ke i s t ha t t he more un ive rsa l t he ru l e s

gove rn ing the p e r fo r ma nc e o f a n y ind i re c t spe e c h a c t , t he e a s ie r t will be to

recon s t ruc t i t in a d i f fe rent langu age . It fol lows tha t the mo re lunguage bollnd

the ru les , the low er the de gre e of t rans la tabi li ty .

In o rde r t o e xa m ine the l a t t e r c la im le t u s l o o k a t th e language-spec i f ic wa ys

for pe rfo rmin g indi rec t speech ac :s . All l anguages seem to have

c onve n t iona l i z e d p a t t e rns f o r t h is pu rpose . In m a ny l a ngua ge s . fo re x i imple . it s

poss ib l e t o m a k e a re que st by que s t i on ing thc he a re r ' s a b il it y to p e r f o r m t h e

r e q u i re d a c t :

Could you (please) K o n n e n ie (bittc) ?ouve7-vou\(s'll vous plait 'P o d r ~ au\ted (porfavor), etc

Th e se u t t e ra nc e s ha ve bo th p r ima ry nd secon dary i l locut ionary f o r c e . I'heq'

c a n be use d -o r c hose ri t o be unde rs tood a s a n in fo rma t ion seekir~gcliiestili,~~

o r a s a r e q u e s t f o r a c t i o n .

If so m eo ne answ ers by Yes , could t o Cou ld you turn off th e radio,w i thou t c om ply ing to t he impl i e d re que s t , t he e f fe c t is o n e of impe r t i ne nc e .

In t he a bo ve e xa mple s , i t is t he dou b le func tion o f a pa t t e rn l ike could y o u t ha t

e nsu re s i ts be ing a po t e n t i a l t r ans l a ti on e qu iva l e n t . S inc e w e a re de a l ing he re

wi th sys tem at ic prop er t ies of la ngu age use , a fu ll cont ra s t ive ana lys i s of tw o

langu ages should inc lude an ana lys i s of con vent io na l d i rec t an d indi rec t

spe e c h-a c t pa t t e rns .

T h e fi rs t s te p in such an ana lys i s will b e to li st for eac h langu age the

c onve n t iona l pa t t e rn s use d in t h e pe r fo rm a nc e of i nd i re c t spe e c h a c t s . T h e

se c on d s t e p will b e t o t ry a nd d e t e rm ine w he the r t h e t r ans l a ti on o f e a c h of t he se

pa t t e rn s ha s a n e qu iva l e n t i nd i re ct i l loc u t iona ry po t e n t i a l i n t h e t a rge t l a ngu a ge .Ind i re c t spe e c h-a c t p a t t e rns a r e l i ngu is ti ca ll y ma r ke d , a nd suc h a n a nalysi s

w ill h a ve t o d e t e rm ine t he l e x ic a l o r syn t ac t ic a l r e s tr i ct i ons t ha t ope r a t e fo re a c h .

A n u t t e ra nc e l i ke A r e you a b l e t o pas s t he sa lt w ill be d i squal i fi e d , be c a use

thou gh pe r fec t ly g ra mm a t i c a l , it doe s no t c a r ry t h e dou b le spe e c h-a c t func t ion o f

Could you pass the sa lt . In li s ting the poss ib i li ti e s for Hu ng ar ia n , for ex am ple ,

it wil l hav e t o b e spec i fied tha t for th e para l le l indi rec t reques ts th e lexical choice

is a ve r b of k now ledge , n ot abi l i ty .

I n t ry ing to de t e rm ine e qu iva l e nc e in t e r ms of spe e c h-a c t po t e n t i a l , t is

imp or t a n t t o n o t e t ha t s t y li st ic va r i a t i ons in o n e la ngua ge m igh t me a n a

di f fe r enc e in i l locut ionary fo rce potent ia l in an oth er . I t i s poss ib le , for examp le ,b o t h in H e b r e w a n d in E n g l is h , t o m a k e a r e q u e s t by a s s er ti n g t h e s p e a k e r ' s w i s h

fo r a de s i re d a c t i on : I w a n t y ou t o g o n ow o r I w o u ld l ik e y ou t o g o XC Y . in



93R NSL TION O INDIRECT SPEECH CTS

Engl i sh , t h e d i f fe renc e be tw e e n the tw o is on e o f po li t ene s s , o r de gre e o f

ins is t enc e . T he fo rm a l e qu iva l e n t in H e b re w to "I w ou ld l i ke you to go" (ha y it i

roza ie te lek) might be in ten ded as a reques t , b ut will mo st l ike ly b e und ers t oo d as

the ex pression of a wish. Actual ly, in certa in s i tuat i ons eve n "I want you to"

might be cons idered too indi rec t by Is rae l i s in te res ted in ge t t ing immedia te

resul ts .

A n o th e r e xa mp le of n on-e qu iva l e nc e in i l loc u t iona ry fo rc e po t e n t i a l a r e Why

no t que s t i ons in Eng li sh a nd H e br e w . A que s t i on l ike "Why no t s t op he re " is

usua lly a sugges t ion . Trans la ted in to s tand ard H eb re w i t loses it s secon dary

i l locut ionary force an d ac tson ly a s a ques t ion . T h e in te res t ing p oint he re i s tha t a

sl ight s tyl is t ic varia t ion (using the sp ok en l a m a Selo why not) in H eb re w can

give the u t te ra nce b ack t he fu ll i l locut ionary force it had in En gl i sh , namely , a

suggge st ion t o s top .T he th ird s t e p in t he c on t ra s t i ve a nalys is o f c onve n t iona l spe e c h-a c t pa t t e rn s

will b e t o a rra ng e a ll th e poss ib i li ti e s on a com para t ive sca le of l inguis t ic and

social acceptabi l i ty.

A s Levens ton (1971) has no ted , speech-ac t pa t te rns th a t a r e perfec t ly

acceptab le soc ia l ly in H eb re w might no t b e acceptable a t a ll in Engl i sh , an dv ice

versa . Thu s , it i s accepted p roc edu re in Hebr ew , a t l eas t in informal s i tua t ions , to

disagre e by te ll ing t he o th er d i rec t ly tha t h e i s wro ng (a ta to'e , l it e ra l ly -you ' re

wrong) or by denying the fac ts ( lo nak on not t rue ), whi le Engl i sh spe ake rs

und e r t he sa m e c irc ums ta nc e s fe e l a ne e d t o so f t e n t he a c t by: " Y ou might ha ve

m a d e a m i s t a k e .. o r "I m a y b e w r o n g b u t . ., o r " A r e y ou s u r e . ? e t c .These Engl i sh indi rec t pa t te rns a re l inguis t ica l ly poss ib le in Hebrew but not

social ly acceptable .

A n o t h e r e x a m p l e i s J a p a n e s e s p e e ch - ac t n o r m s a s c o m p a r e d w i t h A m e r ic a n

o n e s . A m e r i ca n s d o n o t s e e m t o m i n d b e in g c o m m a n d e d t o d ri n k C o c a - C o l a

("Drink Co ca Cola " ) , be ing ins t ruc ted how to use the i r mone y ("Buy no w, Pay

la te r " ) o r wi th wh om to pray ("Pray To ge t her , S tay Toge ther " ) . A s Higa (1 970)

rema rks , such a f re e use of d i rec t imper a t ives in adv er t i seme nts is unthin kable in

a Ja pa n e se soc ia l c on te x t . A s tudy of J a pa ne se a nd A me r i c a n n e w spa pe rs a n d

ma ga z ine s (H iga , 1970) show e d tha t 70 pe rc e n t o f t he Ja pa ne se a dv e r t i s e me n t s

use d some k ind o f i nd i re c t pa t t e rn , w h i l e 6 pe rc e n t o f t he A me r i c a na dve r t i s e me n t s use d d i re c t imp e ra t i ve fo rms .

A compara t ive sca le of l inguis t ic and soc ia l acceptabi l i ty for indi rec t

spe e c h-a c t pa t t e rns be tw e e n tw o l a ngua ge s migh t r e vea l t ra ns la t ion -ga ps o n

e i the r e nd o f t he sc a l e . Thus , o f t e n t he mos t d i re c t pa t t e rn i n H e bre w (a

r e q u e st o r d i r e c t iv e o p e n e d b y t h e u n tr a n s la t a b le ' n u ' . .) a nd t he m os t i nd i re c t

in Engl i sh ("Would you b e so k ind as t o . . . ) ha ve no soc i a l l y a c c e p ta b l e

e qu iva l e n t s in t he o the r l a ngua ge . In suc h c ase s t he ga p be tw e e n fo rma l a nd

func t iona l t r a ns l a t i on e qu iva l e n t s s e e ms qu i t e sys t e ma t i c , a nd i t shou ld be

theore t ica l ly poss ib le t o spec i fy " ins t ruc tions for t rans la tors" for ways of moving

u p a n d d o w n t h e f o r m a li ty s c a le b e t w e e n t w o l a n g u a g e s in a n y g i ve n c o n t ex t a n dregister.

S ti ll , it seem s appar ent tha t the m or e language- an d cul ture -speci f ic th e ru les



94 SHOSHANA BLUM KULKA

govern in g t he per f orm anc e o f a g iven speech a c t , the mo re d if ficul t it will p rove

to r econs t ruc t i t in a no t he r l anguage .

In ana lyz ing these ru le s fo r d i f f e r en t l anguages o ne will ha ve t o cons ide r the

possib il ity th a t ea ch langua ge might possess unique cultural ly a nd l inguist icallyma rke d speech-ac t ind ica tors ' tha t m ak e it immensely d if ficu lt , if not impossible,

to r econs t ruc t the s am e speech ac t in a no the r language . Cons ide r the fol lowing

exa mp le , q uo te d by Su san Erv in-Tr ipp (1972) in h er soc io l inguis t ic s tudy of ru les

of add res s in Am er ican Engl ish :

Th e scene take s place on a public street i n contemporary U.S

What's your name. boy? the policeman asked.Dr. Pollssaint, I'm a physician.What's your first name, boy?

Alvin.

An ybo dy famil ia r wi th Am er ican addres s ru les wil l immedia te ly k now tha t

D r . Pou ssa in t i s b lack , and wi ll under s tan d why he fe l t 'p rofound humil ia t ion '

an d 'sel f ha te . ' T h e ind i rec t speech ac t per form ed by the po l iceman by way of

h is f i r s t quest ion i s a l ready a c lear insu l t . By addresung an adul t as boy t he

policem an uses. as T ri pp says (1972: 326), a social selector for race that

neu t ra l ize s iden t i ty , se t , rank an d even adul t s ta tus . If address ed to a whi te , boy

presumab ly wou ld be u sed on ly fo r a ch ild o r you th .

T he po l iceman is a sk ing fo r firs t nam e . T h e physici an ignores th i s r eques t . H e

respon ds t o the insu lt ( the ind i r ec t speech ac t ) by g i v~ ng is t i tl e , f ami ly na me ,

and the jus ti f ica t ion for t he t i t le . T h e of ficer insu l ts th e physic ian a sec ond t im e

by t r ea t ing h is answer a s a non -answer , and a th ird t ime by r epea t ing the t e rm

boy as i f n o n a m e h a s b ee n m e n t i o n e d.

By ignor ing the physic ian ' s answ er , the po l iceman is v io la t ing a genera l

conversa t ional ru le . By ca l l ing h im boy. he is de l ibera te ly misusing a

socio-cultural rule . Bot h violat ions play a p ar t in giving the ex cha nge i ts specif ic

i l locu tionary force , bu t whi le th e fir st v io la t ion i s rep eat ab le in an ot he r languag e ,

the second is not.

A s in the case of seman t ic cu l tu ra l vo ids , the best the t rans la to rca n hop e for i s

an app rox im at io n . A t ransla tor s t r iv ing for funct ional equ ivalence migh t , byvio la t ing socio-cu l tu ra l ru les o f th e ta rge t languag e , be ab le toex pres s the insu l t ,

bu t the chances are remote tha t he wi l l a lso be ab le to reconst ruc t i t s spec i f ic

qua l i ty .

T o s u m u p , I am sugges t ing tha t :

I . T h e possib il ity o f ach iev ing commu nica t ive end s by ind i rec t mea ns see ms to

be a un iversa l p roper ty of languages . Hence , theore t ica l ly , i t should be

possib le t o ' t ransla te ' ind i rec t speec h ac ts .

2 . The ac tua l pe r fo rmance and in te rp re ta t ion o f any ind i r ec t speech ac t

or example , as pointed out to me by Eddie Levenston. one l inguis t ical ly marked speech act

indicator unique to English is quite as confirmation since it always has the implication "but it's

nothing to ge t exc ited about "



9RANSLATION OF INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS

depends on a variety of conditions ranging from universal to culture and

language specific.

3 . The successful reconstruction of an indirect speech act in translation will

depend to a large extent on the nature of the conditions that govern its

performance and interpretation.

The main thesis I have presented here is that the translatability potential of

indirect speech acts can be predicted. I suggested that the highest on the scale of

translatability potential will be indirect speech actsgoverned by universal felicity

conditions and the lowest will be those indirect speech acts that are subject to

unique language and culture-specific conditions. In between the two extremes

are all the other mostly conventionalized ways for performing indirect speech

acts that future studies in the linguistics of translation will have to analyze and

describe.

R E F E R E N C E S

ALISTIX..L. , 1962. How to Do Things with W ord s(0x ford UP) .

C O U L ~ A R D . 1 97 7. A n I nt ro du ct ro n to D is co ur se A n a l y st s ( L o n d o n: L o n g m an ) .AL.<-OM.

ER VI N- TR IP P. 1972. "Sociol ingu~st ic Rules of Addre ss ," in: 1.B. Pride, ed .. SociolinguisticsI JSAN.

(Harmondsworth: Penguin) .

EV EN -ZO HA R. 1975. "Decis ions in Tr an s la t~ ng oetry." Ha-s t f rut21, 32-15 ( in He hre w).T A M A R .

G R I C E , A C J LH.. 1975. "Logic and Conver sa t ion , " in : Pe te r Cole and Jer ry M organ . eds . , Syntax and

Sem antics, Vol. 3 (New Yo rk: Acad emic Press). 41-59.HICIA,MASANORI ,971. "To war ds Co ntrastiv e Sociolinguistics." 711e PCC LL 'Pap ers.3 4 21 1-219.

KASHER.A S A .1977. "Wh at is a Theo ry of Use?" Jou rnal of Pragm atics 1 105-120.

LEVE.NSTON.E D W A R D .1071. "Som e Thou ghts on Contras tw e Analys is and Trans lation

Equivalence," The PCC LL'Pap ers 3 4 275-283.

TOIJRY.GID EO N,976. "Equivalence of Uni ts and Equivalen ce of Texts : Toward a Descr ipt ion of the

Relationships between Translation and Source," Ha-sifrut23. 42-49 (in Hehrew).

V A N D I J K ,T. 1977. Text an d Context: Explorations in the Seman tics a n d Prag matics of Discourse

(London: Longman) .

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