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- -UPWI 12 INTERVENTIONS IN

ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE

bjiectives

After going through this unit you will be able to understand

to dt:fine and explain the concept of intervention,

types of interventions and their use, and

to get acquainted with some interventions which are applied in organisations.

Structu~~e

12.11 Introduction

2 F'ocus on intervention

12.3 Intergroup Intervention

12.4 I ersonal, Interpersonal and Group Process Intervention

2 Comprehensive Interventions

12.6 Structural Intervention

12. 7 !;elf -Assessment Questions12.8 Further Readings

12 1 INTRODUCTION--Tht: term intervention refers to all the planned programmatic activities aimed atbringing changes in an organization. These changes are intended to ensureimprovement in the functioning of the organization - in its efficiency andeff(:ctiveness. The changes are brought through the employees in the organizationwhile consultants facilitate the change process. Any OD intervention, therefore,involves close interaction between the consultants and the client organization.

Intervention basically refers to an intended activity to bring change in the organizationancl the consequent activities within the organization. In a general sense, interventionrefkrs to activities that happen in the organization's life.

Who makes the interventions? The intervention can be brought by an external

cor~sultant who acts in consultation with the client members. A member within theorg,aniza.tion, acting as the in-house consultant can also make the intervention. Theorg,anization itself could plan the intervention without employing either an internal orexternal consultant. Where a consultant is employed, any intervention is acollaborative activity between the client and the consultant.

Wlhere does an intervention take place? An intervention can take place at the task,process, and system levels and their interface or at any hierarchy levels of anorg;aniza.tion.

For example, it can be at a task level as to how a decision is made or at the level of aseries of tasks to improve their interconnectivity, to identi@ an underlying problem or

at team level to create a better synergy at work. The intervention can also relate toths whole organization as to how to achieve better vertical integration/horizontalintegration among all the different levels.

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Orgailizations need to basically analyze where, how, when, what etc., to carry out an Interventions in

intervention to improve their p w m a n c e , which in other words, refers to rgrnisatiennl Change

'intervention strategy'.

lnterveiltions are carried to move an organization from its current position to a desiredposition and to achieve the desired change a number of techniques are used.

To quote, French Bell, Jr. (1994), " Interventions are sets of structured activities in

which selected organizational units (target groups or individuals) engage in a task or asequence of tasks where the task goals are related directly or indirectly toorganizatio~lal improvement. Interventions constitute the action thrust of organizationdevelopment; they " make things happen " and are " what's happening " .

,As suggested above a number of interventions can be carried out. They may beclassified as to their focus and purpose and the intensity or depth.

The focus of interve~~tion could be: Individual, interpersonal, group or team (intra andinter -group), system or subsystem, organization and the external environment.

The purpose of intervention could be to improve the process (for ex., processreengineering), Action (ex., performance), and provide feedback (ex., has the systemproduced the intended results)?

The depth of intervention could be less intensive (setting up of a task force) or moreintensive (dealing with individual self and emotions). .Specific reasons or intervention could be:

to provide feedback about task, individual, team and other aspects of 'orga~lizatioilal dynam ics .

:to provide awareness of changing nonns, to confront and deal with issuescor~structively

to develop positive attitudes, openness and improve interaction among people,

to educate employees, improve their knowledge and skills

to bring constructive and desirable changes to improve individual andorganizational performance

12.2 FOCUS ON INTERVENTION

Experience with Indian organizations indicates that the most frequently usedinterventions are: person focused, role focused, action research based, processfeedback based and training based.

Person Focused Intervention: These focus on individuals and can be classified indifferent ways:

Who does the intervention? - Individuals themselves, a group or organization, orfacilitators.

The form of intervention - self -introspection and reflection, self -study, or aconsulta~lt or facilitator who provides feedback, coaching or does mentoring.

What is the theoretical basis or school ofthought? Depending upon one'stheoretical approach interventions could have basis in any ofthe followingapproaches: - Psychoanalytical (Freud, Jung etc.) transactional analysis (EricBerne), Operant conditioning and behaviour modification, achievement

motivation (Skinner, Pavlov and McClelland), Sensitivity analysis or t -group(Bion s work), field forces and group dynamics (Lewin), socio -psychological andanthropological approach to role theory (Merton and Goffman)

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Diagnosisnd Intervention

Who takes the active role - person himself or the consultantlfacilitator? Pareek( 1998) classifies the intervention mechanismsltechniques.

Participant -active Interventions(Individual)

1. Encounter Groups2. Roll: Playing

3. Instrumentation4. Self -study and Reflection5. Awiueness Expansion

Facilitator -active Interventions(Behavioural Scientists)

1. Psy cho-dynamic Methods .2. Motivation Arousal

3. Training4. Feedback5. Coaching and Mentoring

OD Interventions are the techniques and methods designed to move an organizationfrorn 'here' to 'there' or from " where it is " to " where it wants to be " . Thein te~e i~ t ionsare aimed at improving individual and team activities and efforts so thatthey may better accomplish their targetsfgoals in accordance with the organization'senvisaged vision and strategy. The interventions also assist to change the culture of theorgimization.

In today's organizations nearly 90% of the work is accomplished directly or indirectlythrough groups or work-teams. Each employee performs not only as an individual butalso as a member of work -group. Some times, one may be a member of multipletearns. For example, one can be member of production planning group and alsomember of quality circle apart from one's own job as a tool designer. There is asignificant degree of interdependency between individual work and teamwork and sucha recipro1:ity is part of organizational architecture. Work teams exert influence onindividual work behavior. In turn, individuals also influence team behavior. Accordingto L,ikert. organizations are best conceptualized as systems of interlocking groups.

Work groups are connected by linking pins - individuals who occupy membership intwo groups (as a subordinate in one group and a boss in the other). Most of theorganiza1:ional work gets done though the interlocking groups. It is the recognition ofthe signilicance of the teamslwork groups for organizational efficiency andeffectiveness that forms the basis of the theory and practice of OD.

OD is concerned with the different types oftechniques or interventions that contributeto 'cteam-effectiveness .

Most important single group of interventions in OD are the team -buildingactivities, the goals of which are the improvement and increased effectiveness ofvarl~ous teams within the organization. The interventions focus on different types of

groups: those that are more enduring and rather permanent such as the role -set(superior-subordinates and colleagues), the others which are created for a specificpurpose imd hence are less enduring (such as specific task -teams constituted tofacilitate mergers, acquisitions, or organizational restructuring).The team -building interventions are typically directed towards four major substantiveareiis: diagnosis, task accomplishments, team relationships, and team and organizationprocesse:;.

The amily Group Diagnostic Meeting

The purpose is to examine the performance of the group and to take stock of thesituation - the what, and how? of its performance in the context of the goalsltargets tobe achieved. Such an examination will assist the group to identify its strengths andweaknesses and the problems it could be currently facing. The group could benefitfrom the suggestions of its members in addressing its problems and in planning itsfuture actions.

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a r i e i ~ e s earn -Building interventions Interventions inrganisational Change

Diagnostic meetingsTeam building focused on:- Task accomplishment,

including problem solving, decision making, roleclarification, goal setting, etc.

- Building and maintaining effectivelnterpersonal relationships, including

TEAM -BUILDING boss-subordinate relationships and peer relationshipsACTIVlTIES - Understanding and managing

Group processes and culture- Role analysis technique for role clarificationand definition

Special Groups - Role negotiation techniques(Start-up teams, diagnostic meetingSpecial project team building focusedTeams, e TaskProblems,accomplishment,role and goalespeciallyclarification,specialresource

Utilization, etc

- Relationships, especially interpersonal orinterunit conflict, and underutilization of eachother as resources- processes, especially communications,Decision -making and task allocations

- Role analysis technique for role \ Clarification and definition- Role negotiation

The Family Group Team -Building Meeting

The family group team -building meeting has the purpose of examining itsperformance, culture etE. to improve its performance and managing of the taskdemands, internal relationships and group processes. The meeting is aimed atdeveloping appropriate strategies to improve its operations while minimizing thedysfunctional behaviours.

Most often, a consultant may be employed with the knowledge and acceptance ofthegroup of the need for studying its activities and behaviour. The consultant talks to thegroup leader and the members of the group to gauze what their problems are, howthey think ofthe group functions, and what are the difficulties or hindrances affectingthe group's performance. The collected data is analyzed and presented to the group forfurther analysis. The group examines the information, prioritizes the problems, workson solutions and prepares an action plan for improving the group performance.

Role Focussed Interventions

These aim at bringinglimproving the compatibility between a job incumbent and therole demands and expectations associated with hidher job.

Role Analysis: Role analysis is a structured exercise to provide:Why the role exists? - the rationaleWhat the role is supposed to achieve?

How the role contributes to the achievement ofthe groupJdepartmentIunit goals?

How the goal is related to other roles in the department and in the organization?

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Di ~gnosisant Intervention

Role Analysis Technique (RAT) has been developed by Dayal(1969) for redefiningthe managerial roles in an organization. The technique has the following steps(Pareek, 199 8 .

Analysis of the role by the occupant as to the main functions of the role, itslocation in the organogram, why it should be there - or its relevance in the~rganiz~ation, and how does it contribute to organizational goals.

Discussion by the group as to what does the role occupant expect from the otherro les in their role set in order to arrive at a consensus.Building the consensus regarding the expectations of other roles in the role setfrom the role occupant.

Dr:veloping of a role profile by the role occupants of their roles, classifying whatare the 'prescribed' and 'discretionary' elements ofthe role, (b) the obligation ofone role to anothe; in the role set, and (c) the expectation of this role from theothers in its set.

The role anallysis process includes

1. Preparation: this involves (a) identifying the focal role which is being examined

and wlic~ is the role occupant b) identifying the other roles in the role set thathave expectations from the focal role such as: the boss, subordinates and peershaving fiequent interactions.

2. Mlission~ Statement of the Focal Role: developed through discussion by the roleset members

3. Expectrrtions of the Focal Role: Defined by the focal role occupant. Taking into ~ C C O U ~ ~how the role contributes towards the departmenta organizationalgoals.

4. Expectations of the role set members regarding the focal role as to thebeliavioural norms necessary for the role occupant's effectiveness and the critical

attributes for the focal role that the occupant should possess such as keycompetencies, experience, qualifications, etc.5 . o~nsoli~dationof Expectation: Is done through s y stematic documentation and

comprelhensive role analysis

Comprehensive role analysis (CRA) is a six -step model of role analysis that dealswith:

Contextual analysis (mission, goals and tasks of the organization)

Activity analysis (activities performed by the various roles, identified by the roleoccupants, role set members ar~doutside experts through interviews, diaries, logbooks, and questionnaires)

Competc:ncy analysis (knowledge, skills, abilities, orientation, and experienceneeded to perform a role effectively)

Pel-farmance analysis (indicators of process and outcome indicators of roleperformimce)

Functiordtask delineation (grouping activities into broad functions)

Discrepancy analysis (between activities reported by different resource persons,the importance given to and the time spent on activities, the existing and requiredcompetencies, etc.

Role ElEcac y Lab

Role efficacy refers to the psychological factor underlying role effectiveness and thepotential effectiveness of an individual occupying a particular role or the potentialeffectiveness of a role. Role Efficacy Lab (REL) used to develop work commitment.

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REL is a sllort process -oriented programme aimed at: Interventions inrganisational Change

a) Sharing of thoughts and of individual as well as group commitments with the topmanagement,

b) Get moral support and reinforcement from the top management, and

c) Providing an opportunity for the top management to examine why certainexpectations are unrealistic or unattainable, and suggest their own action plans

taking to account other suggestions.Role Efficacy Lab: A Suggested Design

Writing an essay on my role, completion of Role Efficacy Scale for

Subordinate roles and other instruments (1 hour)

Micro lab I hour)

About the R L (112 hour)

The concept of role efficacy, its aspects, and scoring method concept

Session with discussion and examples 1 and hours)

Scoring one's own essays (314 hour)

Exchange of essays in triads, and scoring (1 hour)

Plenary session, discussing some essays (314 hour)

Scoring of R S (112 hour)

Small group -work on own and subordinates' roles to identify areas for

Strengthening 112 hour)

2. Plenary session, reporting and integrating (314 hour)

3. Work on increasing one's role efficacy 1 hour),

4. Work on increasing efficacy of subordinate roles (314 hour)

5. Force field analysis for role efficacy in the organization (small group)

314 hour)

6. Plenary session (314 hour)

7. Work on expectations from the organization (in three or more of eight

to ten groups) 314 hour)

8. Plenary session (314 hour)

Day 3: 1 . Co~lsolidating recommendations and action suggestions (in three

Groups) (314 hour)2. Plenary sessio~l for finalization 1 hour)

3. Action planning for role efficacy (individual, then group work) (1 hour)

4. Review of action plans and collaborative plans (1 hour)

5. Preparation for dialogue with top management 1 hour)

6. Dialogue, evaluation, and closing (2 hours)

Role Negotiation Technique

This tech~lique is developed by Roger Harrison. The technique assists to improvework relatio~lsllips lnong members. One of the causesfor the ineffectiveness ofteamsis members' behaviour influenced by their unwillingness to lose power, authority andinfluence they wield or have to share it with others. Role negotiation intervenes

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Diagnosisrid Intervention

din:ctly in the relationships of power, authority, and influence of the members withinthe group. The technique does not deal with personal attitudes of likes and dislikesamong the members.

Harrison details the steps invol,ved in the technique:

Contract setting: Deals with setting up the ground rules and establishing the requiredclirnate, which is set by the consultant. What actually examined are work behaviours,not feelings about people. Each individual should be specific in stating what helshewarits others to do more of, do better, do less of or stop doing, or retain unchanged.These expectations and demands are clearly written down.

Dia~gnosis: Is concerned with how others' behaviour influences one's workeflkctiveness. Individuals specify how others need to change their work behaviours tocontribuxe to hislher own effectiveness. Each person fills out an Issue Diagnosis Formfor eveqr other person in the group. On this Form, the individual states what he or shewoluld like the other to do more of, do less of, or maintain unchanged. These messagesare then exchanged among all members, and the messages received by each person arewritten on a chalkboard or newsprint for all to see.

Influence Trade: or negotiation period, in which two individuals discuss the mostimportant behavior changes they want from the other and the changes they are wilingto nnake 1:hemselves. A quid pro quo is required in this step: each person must givesoniethirlg in order to get something. Often this step is demonstrated by twoindividuals with the rest of the group watching. Then the group breaks into negotiatingpairs. The negotiation process consists of parties making contingent offers to oneanother such as " if you do X, I will do Y. " The negotiation ends when all parties aresatisfied that they will receive a reasonable return for whatever they are agreeing togiv e. All agreements are written, with each party having a copy. The agreement maybe published for the group which the group may either see or may not see. Theinfli~enct: trading, is concluded when all the negotiated agreements have been made

and written down. It is best to have a follow -up meeting to determine whether thecontracts have been honored and to assess the influence of the contracts on roleeffkctiveness.

Foirce field analysis

Force field analysis is a management technique developed by Kurt Lewin fordiagnosing situations. It is useful when planning and implementing a changemanagenlent program and also in 'team building' efforts.

Any change implies movement - movement towards something or away fromsomething.

Force Ficld Analysis enables listing, discussing, and evaluating the various forces forand against a proposed change. The analysis includes identifying the dr iving forces-whi~ch ive change momentum, and restraining forces - which inhibit change. Forcefield a~ialysis helps us to look at the big picture by analyzing all of the forcesimpacting the cliange and weighing the pros and cons. By knowing the pros and cons,we can develop strategies to reduce the impact of the opposing forces and strengthentlie supporting forces.

Lewin a:,silmes that in any situation there are both driving and restraining forces thatinflueric~: any change that may occur. Driving Forces are those forces affecting asituation. They tend to initiate a change and keep it going. For example, pressure from

a supervisor, incentive earnings, and competition tend to be driving forces to improvegroup productivity.

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Restraining Forces Interventions inOrganisational Change

Restrailling forces are forces acting to restrain or decrease the driving forces. Apathy,hostility, and poor maintenance of equipment may be examples of restraining forcesagainst increased production.

Equilibrium: Refers to the balancing between the driving and restraining forces. Mostoften situations exist in a state of quasi-equilibrium. This equilibrium can be raised or

lowered by cllanges in the relationship between the driving and the restraining forces.A desired situationlcondition can only be achieved by dislodging the currentequilibrium by adding driving forces or by removing restraining forces.

Force Field Analysis assists to develop an action plan to implement a change, more so,to:

1. Determine if the proposed change can get needed support2. Identify obstacles to the intended change3 . Suggest actions to reduce lovercome obstacles

The Force Field Analysis involves the following steps:

Step 1 Identification and description of a problematic situation, which needs to beimproved

Step 2. The desired condition is carefully and completely described.

Step 3. Identification of the forces and factors (force field) operating in the currentsituation driving forces pushing towards the desired condition and restraining forcespushing away from the desired condition. This should be done thoroughly andexhaustively to get a clear picture ofthe situation

Step 4. Analysis the forces as to their relative strengths, weaknesses, extent ofsusceptibility to influence, amenable to control etc.

Step 5. Developing strategies for moving to the desired condition, which could be:increasing the intensity/strength of the driving forces; minimizing the strengthlintensityofthe restraining forces; or does both. As restraining forces are minimizedlremoved,the equilibrium shifts toward the desired condition. New driving forces may also beplanned and action plans developed to implement them.

Step 6.1 ~nplementing the action plan in order to achieve the desired condition.

Step 7. Description of those actions requires freezing the equilibrium at the desiredcondition and imple~nenting those actions.

12.3 INTERGROUP INTERVENTIONOften two or more independently working groups have to coordinate tasks, on either atemporary or permanent basis, to achieve the required organizational goals. This couldgive rises to disagreement and conflict among groups affecting group morale andproductivity. Where there is competition among groups, it may give rise to tension andconflict and each group may perceive the other as an " enemy " .

To resolve such intergroup conflicts many strategies are identified.

These include:

Increasing the interaction and communication among the groups (increased

interaction under favourable conditions enhances positive feelings andsentiments)

Identifying a " common enemy 7' (another group that both groups dislike, whichbrings the groups closer together);

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Dingnosisant Intervention

Finding a superordinate goal (a goal that both groups desire to achieve but thatneither can achieve w i t h o ~ ~ tmutual support);

Rotating the members of the groups; and instituting some forms of training.

To get success in these strategies a number of interventions are used.

Intergroup team -building Interventions

Till=focus of this team - building group is to improve intergroup relations. It is toincrease communication and interactions between work - related groups, reducedy:;functionalcompetition, and the need for interdependence of action to maximize thebest effc~rtsof both the groups. Organization development methods assist to enhancei~it~ergroupcooperation and communication.

The ~notleldeveloped Blake, Shepard and Mouton has a strong application to improverelation:; between groups that are strained or are overtly hostile. It has a number ofsteps:

tep 1. The leaders of the two groups (or the total membership) meet with theconsultant and are asked to express their opinions if they think the relations between

thr: two groups can be better and if they are willing to search for mechanisms orprocedures that may improve intergroup relations. Ifthey are positive in their ideas todo so, they are asked to commit themselves.

Step 2. The intergroup intervention commences with the two groups meeting inseparate rooms and building two lists. In one list they give how they think, perceiveand feel about the other group - as to what it is like, and what it does that gets in theirway, eti;. In the second list, the group tries to predict what the other group dislikeabout them how the other group perceives them, etc. The two lists are prepared byboth groups.

tep 3. The listed information is shared between the two groups.

ttep 4. Each of the two groups react to and discuss what they have learned aboutthemselves and the other group. This assists to sort, of the many areas of disagreementand friction between the groups that can be easily resolved through informationsharing: of the lists. Consequent to this discussion, the group is given a second task,which IS to make a list oftl le priority issues that still need to be resolved between thetwo groups.

Step 5.. The two groups share their lists with each other, and together discuss to listout issues and problems that should be resolved. Priorities are set to the items in thelist as to their importance and immediacy. Then jointly they prepare action plan forresolving the issues and assign responsibilities for the intended actions. Roles and

responsibilities are agreed upon for the most important items. That concludes theintervention.

Step 6. Finally, it is desirable to have a meeting of the two groups or their leadersto determine the effectiveness of the action plan. This ensures that the momentum oftlie intervention is not lost.

rgainization Mirror Interventions

The organization mirror refers to a set of activates in terms of which a given groupgets feedback from representatives of several other groups about how it is perceivedand regarded. Such mirroring assists to improve relationships between groups and

increases intergroup work effectiveness.In this process, an organizational unit that has working relationships with other unitscould get a feedback from key people of those other units as to how they see the host

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unit. The co~isultant often interviews the people attending the meeting before hand toget an awareness of the problems and their intensity. This enables the Consultant toprepare the participants, and to get the best out of the whole process.

Interventions i nrganiaational Change

Tlie discussio~is take place in a fish bowl kind of a setting. A fishbowl is a groupseating and talking configuration in which there is an inner circle for those who talkand an outside circle of observers and non -interactors. The invited participants talkabout tlie host unit in a natural, uninterrupted way while the host group members

listen and learn. In the host group members fishbowl turn, and talk about what theyhave heard, ask for any clarification, and generally seek to understand the informationthey have heard.

12.4 PERSONAL, INTERPERSONAL, AND GROUPPROCESS INTERVENTION

Tlie central theme of the interventions is learning through an examination ofunderlyi~ig processes. In process consultation, which is generic to OD interventions,the focus is exclusively on the diagnosis and management of personal, interpersonal,

and group processes. Third - partypeacemaking focuses on interpersonal conflict andthe dynamics of cooperation and competition among groups. Sensitivity trainingtypically yields learning's about self, interpersonal relations, and group dynamics.Transacrional analysis (TA) can be a form of psychotherapy, a framework foranalyzing i~iterpersonal relations and transactions. TA has also been used as atechnique for team building. Behaviour modeling is atraining technique designed toincrease effectiveness in problematic interpersonal situations. Life - andcareer plannii~ginterventions are less process oriented than the other interventionsand reflect more a systematic approach to a substantive area.

Process Consultation Intervention

Process Consultation (PC) is a method for intervening in an ongoing system. In thisapproach, a skilled third party (consultant) works with individuals and groups to helpthem learn about human and social processes and learn to solve problems that stemfrom process events. This is an often - used approach by many OD consultants andpractitioners.

he process consultant helps the organization to solve its own problems by making itaware of organizational processes, ofthe consequences of these processes, and of the~necha~iisnis by which they can be changed. It is to enable the organization to addressits problems by itself.

The consultant works with the organization,in

work teams, and helps them to developthe skills necessary to diagnose and solve the process problems that arise. Theorganizational processes that are important to be dealt with, include: communications,clarifying tlie roles and functions of group members, group problem solving anddecision making, group norms and group growth, leadership and authority, andintergroup cooperation and competition.

The process consultation follows the order - agenda setting, feedback of observationsor other data, counseling and coaching. Suggestions for structural modificationscould take place but most often they are least likely.

Third -party Peacemaking Interventions

Third -party i~iterventions ave the potential to control (contain) the conflict or resolveit. The two groups must be willing to deal with the conflict and appreciate that it has

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Tran sact iona l Analysis (TA)

It was developed primarily by Eric Berne. TA is a valuable tool both for disturbedpeople and for healthy individuals. It is use in OD mainly as an educationalintervention, ofcourse to deal with healthy normal people.

Tra~lsactional Analysis focuses on such areas as the structure of the personality(structural analysis), the way in which people interact (transactional analysis), or theway n which people structure their time (time structuring), and the roles that people

learn to play in life.In terlns of Structural analysis human personality is made up of three ego states: theparent, the adult, and the child. Individuals are always acting out of one ofthese threeego states. The parent ego state reflects the behaviors of superiority, authority, beingright, ji~dging others, and tlie like of that of a parental ego. The adult ego state reflectsmaturity, objectivity, problem solving, logic, and rationality and capacity for mature,wholesome cornlnerce with the world. The chiId ego state reflects one's behavior as achild when one is dependent, rebellious, and perhaps inadequate.

Analysis of the transactions or communications between peopIe is a major aspect ofTA. Transactions call be I ) complementary, (2) crossed, or (3) ulterior.

Complementary transactions are transactions across appropriate ego state whereresponse is natural and expected such as Adult -Adult, parent -child, parent -parent, andso forth. Crossed tra~lsactions involve messages from one ego state responded to withlnessages from an inappropriate or unexpected ego state. Crossed transactions makepeople feel angry, hurt, and put dofin. Ulterior transactions are those in which thelnessages are not directed by the real ego states.

When co~npleme~ltary transactions ale increased, and ulterior and cross transactionsminimized interpersonal relations and tlie communication process are vastly improved.

People are trained in seminars to identify dysfunctional life scripts, time structuring,games, and crossed and ulterior transactions in themselves and others so that they may

enjoy better relations with themselves and others. The assumption is made that thisknowledge will make them more effective in their organizational roles and personallives. Anecdotal evidence from the Inany organizations using this intervention suggeststhat it makes individuals more effective in theirjob -related interactions with others.

Behaviour ModelingBehaviour no el ling is a training technique designed to improve interpersonalcompetence. Firstly tlie most pressing problems/issues facing a target group, say,first -line si~pervisors are identified. These could be issues such as counseling the poorperformel-, correcting i~nsafe work behaviour, etc. Training modules for each of about10 problems are developed, with videotapes showing a person (model) correctlyhandling the situation. Weekly training sessions of four hours each are scheduled foreach module for groups of approximately 10 participants.

At tlie training sessions the problem situatio~i is announced and briefly discussed.Participants then observe avideotape in which the model (who looks similar to them)successfi~l y solves the problem by enacting specific behavioural skills. The traineesdiscuss the behavioural skills and then role -plays the situation, receiving feedbackfrom the group and the trainer on their performances. Role -playing continues untileach participanr successfully masters all the specific skills. Participants then committo practicing the new skills on the job in the coming week. At the beginning ofthe nextsession participants report on how their new skills worked on the job. If necessary,

additional practicc is held to ensure mastery of the skills. Then a new problem isaddressed, the model is observed on videotape, and role playing and feedbackoccuri~ntilall part~cipants learn how to solve the new problem. Behaviour modeling teachesthe ski1 Is and behaviours needed to deal with interpersonal problems.

Interventions inrganisational Change

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iagl~osisand Intervention

Life and Career - planning Interventions

Managingagainst a set of objectives is important for individual and organizationaleffectivenl=ss.A series of interventions are planned that focus on the life goals and thecareer goals of employees so that they may better exert control over their owndestinies. 'The interventions have a time focus i.e. past, present, and future. The tasksare cornp1t:ted by individuals and then discussed in small groups.

I . An assessment of life and career paths as up to the present, noting highlights,important events, clioicepoints, strengths, and deficiencies

2. A formulation of goals and objectives regarding the desired life style and careerpath --which are future -oriented goals

3. A realistic plan for achievil~gthe goals. The goals are specified, action stepsneeded to reach the goals are determined, and schedule of target dates isestablished for measuring progress.

12.5 COMPREHENSIVE INTERVENTIONS- -The Confi-ontationMeeting

'The confrontation meeting,'developed by Richard Beckhard, is one -day meeting d t h eentirl- managem entof an organization to take a stock of the organizational health. In aseries of activities,the management identifies the organization's major problems,analyzes the underlying causes, develops action plans to correct the problems, and setsa schedule for the remedial work. The confrontation meeting is a quick, simple, andreliable w ily in which to generate data about an organization and to set action plansfor o~rganii ationalimprovement.

The steps nvolved in the confrontation meeting are as follows.

Step 1. Climate Setting (45 to 60 minutes). Is done by the top manager and theConsultant goals for the meeting are stated citing the necessity for free and opensdiscussiol~of issues and problems, and tlie importance ofcommunication within theorganizations, and the desirability of addressing and solving organizational problems.

Step 2. In formation Collecting (1 hour ) Small heterogeneous groups of seven oreight members are formed with people from different functional areas and workingsituations for each team. However, bosses and subordinates not be put together on thesame tean-I.The top management group rrieetsas a separate group during this time.

Several issuesare examined by the groups like:

Wliatare the"

demotivators,"

inadequate procedures or policies, unclear goals, orpoor attitudes etc. Also examined are the different conditions, that would make theorganization more effective and life in the organization the better?

Step 3. Information Shar ing (lhour) : Each group makes a presentation of thegroup's cc~mpletefindings to the total group and these are also exhibited for thegroups' reference. The list of items is categorized into a few major categories that maybe based an type of problem (e.g.,communications problems), type of relationship(e.g., troubles with top management), or type of area (e.g., problems with theaccountii~;;department), etc.

Step 4. Priority Setting and G r o u p Action Planning (1 hour and 15 minutes). In a

15-minute: general session, the meeting leader goes through the list of items and puts acategory assignment on each one every member has his or her own copy of thecategorize:ditems. The participants then form into functional, natural work teams

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reflecting the way they are organized in the organization. Each group is headed by the ntervent~onstop manager in the group. The group's are asked to do three tasks: Orgasirational Change

First, they are to identify and discuss the issues and problems, decide on thepriorities of these problems, and determine early action steps to remedy theproblems that they are prepared to c-mit themselves (in the total group) towork on.

Second, they are asked to identify the problems which they think should be given

top priority.Third, how they will communicate the results of the confrontation meeting totheir subordinates. This completes the confrontation meeting for all the managersexcept for the top management group.

Step 5. Immediate Follow - up by Top Team (1 to 3 hours). The top -managementteam meets after the rest of the participants have left to plan first follow -up actionsteps and to determine what actions should be taken on the basis of what they havelearned during tlie day.

Step 6. Progress Review (2 hours). A follow -up meeting with the total managementgroup is held four to six weeks later to report progress and to review the actionsresulting from the confrontation meeting.Confrontation riieeting provides a quick and accurate means for diagnosingorganizational health promotes constructive problem identification and problemsolving, enhances up -ward communication within the organization, and increasesinvolvement and commitment to action on the part ofthe entire managerial group.

Strategic Management Activities

Strategic Management refers to the development and implementation oftheorganization's " grand design " or overall strategy in relation to its current and futureenvil-onmental demands. According to Schendel and Hofer six major tasksco~nprise the strategic management process: (1) goal formulation (2) environmentalanalysis; (3) strategy formulation; (4) strategy evaluation; (5) strategyimplementation; and (6) strategic control. " These six components oftheprocess are related to each other.

~ e v e l o ~ i ~ i ~organizational goals is the first step, followed by an assessment oftheconstraints and opportunities afforded by the environment - both the presentenvironment and the future environment. Environmental analysis includes monitoringthe present environment and seeing the constraints and opportunities with respect tothe future environment. Strategic plans, derived from goals and environmentalanalysis, are then developed, implemented, and monitored for results.

A strategic planning technique developed by Thomas Rogers uses a series oftwo -daymeeting with tlie top policy makers. The group discuses to examine issues such aswhat business are we in? What is the organization's mission? followed by themission statement, the various " domains " or environmental segments that makedemands on tlie organization. For example, the suppliers, consumers, competitors,and reg~~lators . he domains are (1) analyzed with respect to how theorganization is responding to demands made by the domain (2) What are the likelydomain demands in future and how the organization needs to respond, and(3) What will be ideal or desired domain demands alongwith the ideal responses.Next an action plan along with its implementation is designed to act on theenvironment to bring about desired conditions. Subsequently, the actionplan is initiated and implemented.

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Diagnosisand Intervention

Figure 1: Schendel and Hofer strategic management process

The surv~:y feed back method refers to the systematic collection of data about thesys1:em and feeding back the data to individuals and groups at all levels of theorganizal ion to analyze, interpret the meaning of, and then design corrective actionsteps. Thms it includes major components; the use of an attitude survey and the use of

feecl back workshops.S u r ~ e y eedback steps as follows:

tep 1. Organization members at the top of the hierarchy are involved in thepreliminary planning.

tep 2. Data are collected from all organizational members.

tep 3. Data are fed back to the top executive team and then down the hiefarchy to thefunctional teams.

Step 4. E ach superior presides at a meeting with his or her subordinates (a) thesubordinates assist in interpreting the data, (b) plans are made for making constructivechanges, and (c) plans are made for the introduction of the data at the next lower level.

Step 5. Most of the feedback meetings include a consultant who has helped thesupe:rior to prepare for the meeting while he also serves as a resource person.

The Survey Feedback technique is essentially a procedure for giving objective dataabout the system's functioning to the system members so that they can change orimprove selected aspects of the system.--

2 ~ 6 STRUCTURAL INTERVENTION

This refers to interventions or. change efforts aimed at improving organizationeffectiveness through changes n the task and structural and technologicai sub -systems. This class of interventions includes changes in the division of overall work of

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the organization into units, reporting relationships, work flow and procedures, and Interventions in

role definitions, methods of control, and spatial arrangements of equipment and rgan i~ t iona lChange

people, etc.

Structural Interventions

Job Design

Job design refers to the way that set of tasks, or an entire job, is organized. Jobdesign helps to determine:

What are the tasks done, how they are done and what is the order in which they aredone, etc.

It takes into account all factors, which affect the work, and organizes the content andtasks so th t the wllole job is less likely to be a risk to the employee. Job designinvolves administrative areas such as:

job rotation,

job enlargement,

t sklm chine pacing,work breaks, and

Working hours.

A well designedjob takes into account the basic principles of ergonomics that will.encourage a variety of 'good' body positions, have reasonable strength requirementsand reasonable amount of mental activity. A well designed job also contributes tofeelings ofachievement and self -esteem.

Job design principles can address problems such as:

work overload,

work under load,repetitiveness,Iim ited control over work,

isolation,

shiftwork,

delays in filling vacant positions,excessive working hours, and

Limited understanding of the whole job process.

Job design also assists in minimizing job stress.

Difference between Job Design and Work place design:

Job design and workplace design are often used interchangeably because bothcontribute to keep the physical requirements of a job reasonable.

Job design refers to administrative changes that can help improve working conditions.

In comparison, workplace design concentrates on dealing with the workstation, thetools, and the body position that all influence the way a person does his or her work.Good workplace design reduces static positions, repetitive motions and awkward bodypositions.

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iagnos~sand Intervention

Fe;aturt s of Good Job Design:

Good jot) design accommodates employees' mental and physical characteristics bypaying attention to:

Muscular energy such as .workirest schedules or pace of work, and

Mental energy such as boring versus extremely difficult tasks.

Good J ob Design:

Allows for employee input i s the option to vary activities according to personalneeds, work habits, and the circumstances in the workplace.

Gives employees a sense of accomplishment.

Includes training so that employees know what tasks to do and how to do themproperly.

Provides good worklrest schedules.

Allows for an adjustment period for physically demanding jobs.

Provides feedback to the employees about their performance.

Minimizes energy expenditure and force requirements.Ba1 ances static and dynamic work.

Job design is an ongoing process. 'The goal is to make adjustments as conditions ortasks change within the workplace.

Actiieving good job design iilvolves administrative practices that determine what theemployel: does, for how long, where, and when as well as giving the employees choicewhere ever possible. In job design you may choose to examine the various tasks of anind ividui~l job or the design of a group ofjobs.

Cornmoi-I approaches to job design include:

Job Enls~rgement: It is to include more andlor different tasks to provide job variety.It adds interest to the work but rnay or may not give employees more responsibility.

Job Rotsltion: It is to move employees from one task to another. It distributes thegroup tasks among a number of'employees.

Job Enrichment: It is to provide employees more of responsibility, accountability,and independence in d ~ i n gthe job. If satisfied higher order needs by allowing forgreater participation aid ~tew opportunities.

Work Dtsign (Job engineering): Work design allows employees to see how the workmethods, layout and handling procedures link together as well as the interaction

between ;people and machines.Go:als of Job Design: Goals can be in many difference areas and include:

To alleviate boredom, a goo job deign avoids both excessive static body positions andrepetitive movements. Jobs must be designed in order to have a variety of tasks thatrequire changes in body position, muscles used, and mental activities.

Two methods used for a good job design are job enlargement and job rotation. Forexample, if an employee normally assembles parts, the job may be enlarged to includenevr task:; such as work planning, inspection quality control, or maintenance.Altt:rnatively ihe tasks may include working in the same department, but changingtasks every hour as it provides for a change in physical or mental expenditure.

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Work Breaks Rest Breaks Interventions inrganisational Change

Rest breaks help alleviate the problems of unavoidable repetitive movements or s w i cbody positions. More frequent but shorter breaks are sometimes preferable to fewerlong breaks.

During rest breaks, employees must be encouraged to change body position and toexercise. It is important that employees stretch and use different muscle groups. If theemployee has been very active, a rest break should include a stationary activity orstretching.

Allowance for an Adjustment Period

When work demands physical effort it is necessary to have an adjustment period fornew employees and for all employees after holidays, layoffs, or illnesses. Employeesmust be given some time to become accustomed to the physical demands of work to

" get in shape. "

Provide Training

Training in correct work procedures and equipment operation must be provided so thatemployees understand what is expected ofthem and how to work safely. Trainingshould be organized, consistent and ongoing. It may be either a classroom training oron the job training.

Vary Mental Activities

Tasks should be coordinated so that they are balanced during the day for theindividual employee as well as balanced among a group of employees. Employeemust be allowed some degree of choice as to what types of mental tasks they want todo and when. This choice allows the employees to do tasks best suited to their'alertness' patterns during the day. Some people may prefer routine tasks in themorning (such as checklists or filling in forms) and save tasks such as problemsolving until the afternoon, or vice versa.

Job design can be used for teams also. In some cases, teams can be created that havean overall responsibility for larger task or set of tasks. The tem will make decision asto who will do what and when and how the job will be accomplished. In most cases,team members will be multi -skilled which allow them to change jobs from time totime. As with job design for individuals, additional opportunities such as inspection1quality control, maintenance, and related tasks such as ordering supplies are oftenassigned to the team in addition to their regular tasks.

Quality Circles (or) Quality Control CircleQuality Circles have been extensively used in Japan since the introduction of qualitycontrol techniques. Quality Circles usually include a group of 7 to 10 employees froma unit (or across units) who volunteer to meet together. The group regularly analyzesand make proposals about product quality and related problems. Recommendationsare forwarded to a coordinating or steering committee once a week for an hour or so,on company time. An employee elected from the group chairs the meeting. A highdegree of participation is created within the group.

Prior to the formation of quality circles, the group (the supervisors and members) istrained by quality control experts and facilitators in all matters of quality control

concepts including statistical tools, participative group discussions, group dynamicsand co~nmunic tion skills. The facilitators also help each circle in its linking withother groups and with the overall coordinating committee. Groups are also encouraged

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1 iagnosis to use: experts within the organization where their specialties are relevant. The QC arend Intervention authorized by management to make changes without prior approval whenever feasible.

MBO

MBO is es sentially based on a very simple fact - wherever people work in anorganization together there will be a wide variety of objectives. Each individual hashis 01 her ow personal goals (e.g. better working conditions, better training, better

pay); each department has its own business targets (higher output, better equipment,more funding), and the top management, too, has its own strategic aims(organizational success, corporate identity, corporate image). MBO is the art ofgetting all these varied interests to correspond to one common goal. Talks can also beconducted collectively with the departmental teams. The main object of MI30 is tomake individual goals voluntarily coincide with the goals of the organization. MBOonly works when management and staff agree to support mutual goals in anatmosphere of confidence and trust, commitment and motivation. The concept is basedon the asslimption that employees are, by nature, willing to perforni. MBO succeedswhere there is a dialogue on objectives between the employee and the managementfounded on fairness and clarity.

Socio -technical Systems and Work Restructuring

The term aocio -technical system is largely associated with experiments of theTavistock Institute in Britain and have stemmed from the Tavistock approach. Theapproach is to achieve a better " fit " among the technology, the structure, and thesocial interaction of a particular production unit in the organization.

One of the earliest studies was in British coal industry. The consultant researchersfound that by reintroducing a team approach to mining coal, broadening job scope,and lsrovitiing team pay incentives a number of benefits accrued, including improvedproductivity, safety, and morale.

Corr~mon characters in socio-technical systems are use of semi-autonomous workteams, participative decision making, and considerable team autonemy in planningand ,controlling production and in screening new team members, and pay geared multiskills an employee is capable of.

Quality of Work Life Projects

Quality of worklife is a " attempt to restructure multiple dimensions of theorganization " and to " institute a mechanism which introduces and sustains changesover time. " Aspects of the change mechanism are usually an increase in participationby employees in shop floor decisions and an increase in problem -solving between theunion andl management.

QPJL rojects include some of the following features:

Voluntary involvement ofthe employees

Union agreement with the process and participation in it

Assurance of no loss ofjobs

Training of employees in team problem solving

The use of quality circles where employees discuss problems affecting thepedormance ofthe plant and the work environment

Team participation in forecasting, work planning, and team leader and teammember selection

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Regular plant and team meetings to discuss such matters as quality, safety,customer orders, and schedules

Encouragement of skill development and job rotation within work teams

Skills training and Responsiveness to employee concerns

Interventions inOrganisational Change

12.7 SELF -ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

I ) What is intervention and what are the reasons for intervention to be used in anorganization?

2) Examine as to when Person -focussed intervention could be used.3) What is the rationality for using Team -based intervention?4) 1 llustrate with regard to Mole -focussed intervention.5 ) When do you use Survey Feedback?

6 ) Examine some of the structural interventions and how could they be used.

12.8 FURTHER READINGSOrganization Development (Behavioural Science Interventions for OrganizationImprovemient ,(Wendell L. French, Cecil H. Bell, Jr.) (Eastern Economy Edition).

(A Human Resource Strategy Approach) Managing Change (Adrian Thornhill, PhilLewis, Mike Mi Ilmore, and Mark Saunders), (Financial Times - earson Education).Managing Corporate Change (Klaus Doppler, Christoph Lauterburd

Diagnostic Organizations (Methods, Models, and Processes) - Second Edition(Michael I. Harrison) (Sage Publications)