Birch Brook Nordic Ski Club, Labrador:

Physical and chemical characteristics of its chalet’s drinking water

from a private well

Prepared by:

Dr. Merline Fonkwe, P.Geo., Research Scientist

Program Manager – Mineral Deposits and Environmental Geochemistry

Labrador Institute of Memorial University of Newfoundland

219 Hamilton River Road, P.O. Box 490, Station B,

Happy Valley-Goose Bay, NL, A0P 1E0, Canada

Submitted to the board of directors

Birch Brook Nordic Ski Club

North West River Road, P.O. Box 386 Station C,

Happy Valley-Goose Bay, NL, A0P 1C0, Canada

September 28, 2016

Disclaimer:

The information in this report is provided for informational purposes only. Although, I provide

interpretation of the quality of drinking water based on the data we have collected during the

sampling period, this subject involves complex hydrochemical and physical processes, and a

detailed discussion is not attempted here. Therefore, readers should not rely solely upon the results

herein for either general or specific purposes.

To cite this report:

Fonkwe M.L.D. (2016): Birch Brook Nordic Ski Club, Labrador: Physical and chemical

characteristics of its chalet’s drinking water from a private well. Birch Brook Nordic Ski Club,

Happy Valley-Goose Bay, NL, Canada, vi + 18 pp.

Address correspondence to:

Dr. Merline Fonkwe

Labrador Institute of Memorial University of Newfoundland Phone: 709 896-8589; Fax: 709 896-2970

Email: merline.fonkwe@mun.ca

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF FIGURES ...........................................................................................................................................ii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................... iv

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... v

1. INTRODUCTION: RATIONAL AND OBJECTIVES .......................................................................... 1

2. SAMPLE COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND ANALYSES ....................................................... 2

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................... 3

3.1. Physical parameters ...................................................................................................................... 6

3.1.1. Temperature ...................................................................................................................... 6

3.1.2. pH ....................................................................................................................................... 6

3.1.3. Electrical conductivity...................................................................................................... 6

3.1.4. Total dissolved solids ....................................................................................................... 6

3.1.5. Oxidation-reduction potential ........................................................................................ 7

3.2. Chemical parameters .................................................................................................................... 7

3.2.1. Anions and nutrients........................................................................................................ 8

3.2.1.1. Alkalinity .............................................................................................................. 8

3.2.1.2. Chloride ................................................................................................................. 9

3.2.1.3. Fluoride ............................................................................................................... 10

3.2.1.4. Sulfate .................................................................................................................. 10

3.2.2. Total hardness ................................................................................................................... 8

3.2.3. Major and trace elements ............................................................................................... 11

3.2.3.1. Naturally-occurring elements .......................................................................... 11

3.2.3.2. Plumbing corrosion-induced metals ............................................................... 13

4. CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................................................... 13

5. RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 15

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 16

ii

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1: Map (from Google Earth) showing the location of Birch Brook Ski Club near the Town of

Happy Valley-Goose Bay, on highway 520 .................................................................................. 1

Figure 2: Research assistant, Danielle Spearing in action at the Chalet’s kitchen on July 27, 2015. (A)

She collects water sample in plastic bottles from the cold-water faucet for the

determination of the chemical parameters. (B) She measures the physical parameters of

water in a plastic laboratory beaker .............................................................................................. 3

Figure 3: Seasonal levels of total dissolved solids in “flushed” samples (labelled 1) during the

sampling period ............................................................................................................................... 7

Figure 4: Seasonal concentrations of chloride, fluoride and sulfate in “first-drawn” samples (those

labelled 0) and “flushed” samples (those labelled 1) during the sampling period ................ 9

Figure 5: Seasonal levels of total hardness in “first-drawn” samples (those labelled 0) and “flushed”

samples (those labelled 1) during the sampling period. The classification of the hardness in

drinking water is shown ............................................................................................................... 11

Figure 6: Seasonal concentrations of barium, boron, calcium, magnesium, silicon, sodium and

strontium in “first-drawn” samples (those labelled 0) and “flushed” samples (those

labelled 1) during the sampling period ...................................................................................... 12

Figure 7: Seasonal concentrations of copper and zinc in “first-drawn” samples (those labelled 0)

and “flushed” samples (those labelled 1) during the sampling period ................................. 14

iii

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1: Physical and chemical analytical results of drinking water from untreated groundwater

well at the Birch Brook chalet ......................................................................................................... 4

iv

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the Harris Centre of Memorial University through an RBC Water

Research and Outreach Fund, Atlantic Canada Opportunities Agencies (ACOA), and the

Department of Business, Tourism, Culture, and Rural Development, Newfoundland and Labrador

(BTCRD NL). Special thanks are extended to Betty-Anne Fequet, Graham Moorhouse and John

Bookalam for access to the Birch Brook Ski chalet, and the research assistants Daniel Frawley and

Danielle Spearing, for their assistance during water sampling. The research assistant, Danielle

Spearing participated in this project thanks to the generous support of the Women in Science and

Engineering Student Summer Employment Program (WISE SSEP 2015); WISE NL is gratefully

acknowledged.

v

Executive summary

This report presents the results of physical and chemical analyses of drinking water at the chalet,

belonging to Birch Brook Ski Club. This club is located at about 21 km from the town of Happy

Valley-Goose Bay in Labrador, on highway 520 (also called North West River Road). Birch Brook

chalet uses drinking water, supplied by untreated groundwater from a private well. Some club

members have indicated that they drink the Birch Brook chalet’s tap water as an alternative to

municipally supplied water in Happy Valley-Goose Bay. Therefore, drinking water from the Birch

Brook chalet was part of the research project focusing on various physical and chemical parameters

of drinking water quality in town of Happy Valley-Goose Bay.

Water from the kitchen cold-water faucet was sampled and analyzed in winter, spring, summer

and fall 2015. At each visit at the chalet, two sample types (“first draw” and “flushed”) were

collected to ensure that seasonal and in-chalet changes could be adequately described. Physical

parameters (temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids and oxidation-

reduction potential) were measured for “flushed” samples only. On the other hand, anions and

nutrients (alkalinity, bromide, chloride, fluoride, nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, orthophosphate-

phosphorus and sulfate), and major and trace elements (aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium,

beryllium, bismuth, boron, cadmium, calcium, cesium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead,

lithium, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus, potassium, rubidium,

selenium, silicon, silver, sodium, strontium, sulfur, tellurium, thallium, thorium, tin, titanium,

tungsten, uranium, vanadium, zinc and zirconium) were determined for both “first draw” and

“flushed” samples.

The obtained physical and chemical parameters were all within health- and aesthetic- based

guidelines set by Health Canada and the NL provincial government. In general, their seasonal

variations were insignificant. Drinking water classified as fresh, soft (low content of dissolved

minerals) and alkaline, and reflected oxidizing groundwater conditions (i.e. positive oxidation-

reduction potential). Although naturally-occurring in groundwater supply well, the levels of

fluoride in drinking water was still lower than optimal for the promotion of dental health.

Amongst the major and trace elements detected, barium, boron, calcium, magnesium, silicon,

sodium and strontium showed relative constant variation between “first-draw” samples and

“flushed” samples. This suggests that they are most likely from natural sources. Moreover, sodium

displayed concentrations higher in summer and fall than in winter and spring, whereas

concentrations of barium, boron, calcium, magnesium, silicon and strontium varied slightly

between the seasons. On the other hand, concentrations of copper and zinc varied considerably

vi

between “first-draw” samples and “flushed” samples. This indicates that plumbing materials that

are in contact with drinking water contributed to a minor extent to copper and zinc concentrations

in drinking water. However, flushing the plumbing system lowered the amounts of copper and

zinc in drinking water.

In addition to the reported physical and chemical parameters, other aspects of drinking water

quality (e.g. microbiological characteristics, etc.) should also be investigated, in order to assess the

overall water quality at the chalet of Birch Brook Ski Club. Ideally, testing should be done on a

regular basis to track changes (if any) in groundwater quality over time. Because of the intermittent

use of the chalet and therefore its tap water, there is a potential for the presence of elevated levels

of copper and zinc in the water. For this reason, when water has not been used for an extended

period of time, the plumbing system should be flushed before using the water for drinking.

1

1. Introduction: rational and objectives

A research project on various physical and chemical qualities of municipally-supplied drinking

water in town of Happy Valley-Goose Bay was conducted at the Labrador Institute of Memorial

University (see Fonkwe, 2016; Fonkwe and Schiff, 2016). As part of this project, drinking water of

the chalet belonging to the Birch Brook Nordic Ski Club was also analyzed, because some club

members have indicated that they drink the chalet’s tap water as an alternative to municipally

supplied water in Happy Valley-Goose Bay.

Birch Brook Nordic Ski Club is located at about 21 km from the town of Happy Valley-Goose Bay,

on highway 520 or North West River Road (Fig. 1). Its chalet gets its drinking water directly from

untreated groundwater through a private well, which is 370 feet deep (G. Moorhouse pers. comm.,

July 27, 2015).

Figure 1: Map (from Google Earth) showing the location of Birch Brook Ski Club near the Town of Happy

Valley-Goose Bay, on highway 520. Note: (Top) An inset picture of the Birch Brook Chalet. (Right) An inset

map shows the position of the town of Happy Valley-Goose Bay in Labrador and in Canada.

2

The objectives of this study were to: (i) determine various physical and chemical characteristics of

drinking water at the Birch Brook chalet, and whether there were seasonal and in-chalet variations;

and (ii) compare each parameter with the standard value set by Heath Canada and provincial

drinking water quality guidelines.

2. Water sample collection, preservation and analyses

Drinking water was sampled and analyzed in March, June, July and October 2015 during each of

the four seasons, as divided under the Drinking Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting for

Public Water Supplies in Labrador by the NL Department of Environment and Climate Change.

The collection of the water samples was done by Dr. Merline Fonkwe and her research assistants

Daniel Frawley and Danielle Spearing. Water samples were collected from the kitchen cold-water

faucet, because this is where water is mainly drawn for drinking. The focus was on the

determination of physical parameters, and chemical parameters, including 8 anions and nutrients

and 39 major and trace metals (see Table 1).

During each visit at the chalet, four tasks were completed:

1. Collection of two “first-draw” samples (one for anions and nutrients, and the other one for

major and trace elements) in plastic bottles. “First-draw” sample represented water, which

has been sitting in the plumbing system for extended period of time (approximately six

hours or more). This sample was analyzed to evaluate whether the quality of tap water

was affected by materials of the plumbing system.

2. Running the cold water faucet for 30 minutes to flush out the stagnant water in contact

with the pipes and other plumbing fixtures.

3. Collection of two “flushed” samples (one for anions and nutrients, and the other one

major and trace elements) in plastic bottles. “Flushed” sample represented water freshly

drawn from the well. This sample was analyzed to determine the “actual” chemical

composition of the groundwater (i.e. without the influence of plumping materials) (see Fig

1A).

4. Measurement of physical parameters (pH, temperature (T˚C), electrical conductivity (EC),

total dissolved solids (TDS) and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP)) immediately after

the collection of “flushed” samples, because they are unstable and change during storage

and transport. A Hanna Instruments (HI) multiprobe HI 98129 meter was used for pH,

T˚C and TDS, whereas an HI 98120 meter was used for ORP (see Fig. 1B; Table 1).

3

As soon as sampling was completed, the sample bottles were placed in an iced cooler container and

transported to the Labrador Institute Research Station Laboratory in North West River for re-icing,

packing, and shipping for analysis to ALS Environmental laboratory (Mississauga, Canada).

Figure 2: Research assistant, Danielle Spearing in action at the Chalet’s kitchen on July 27, 2015. (A) She

collects water sample in plastic bottles from the cold-water faucet for the determination of the chemical

parameters. (B) She measures the physical parameters of water in a plastic laboratory beaker.

Water samples for anions and nutrients were collected in 250 mL High Density Polyethylene

(HDPE) plastic bottles. Analysis of anions was done by ion chromatography following the United

State Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) method 300.0 (Pfaff, 1993), except that

orthophosphate content was determined by a colorimetric technique, following the American

Public Health Association (APHA) Method 4500-P B.E. (APHA, 1999). Water alkalinity (as CaCO3)

was determined by autoanalyzer following the U.S. EPA method 310.2 (U.S. EPA, 1974). The

obtained concentrations for anions and nutrients are reported in milligrams per liter (mg/L) (see

Table 1).

Water samples for major and trace elements were collected in 125 mL HDPE plastic bottles

containing 1.5mL of 18% nitric acid (HNO3) for immediate adjustment of the sample pH to less

than 2, in order to preserve trace metals and reduce precipitation, microbial activity and sorption

losses to sampling container walls. Analysis was done by inductively coupled plasma mass

spectroscopy (ICP-MS), following the U.S. EPA method 200.8 (U.S. EPA, 1994). The obtained

concentrations of total metals are in mg/L (see Table 1).

3. Results and discussion

Physical and chemical parameters of the chalet’s drinking water were determined on a seasonal

basis to assess their physical properties and the concentrations of chemical constituents, and their

4

Table 1: Physical and chemical analytical results of drinking water from untreated groundwater well at the Birch Brook chalet (continue

on next page). “*” Guidelines for aesthetic (taste, smell or appearance) or health-risk levels (Health Canada, 2014; 2015).

“≤”: Less than or equal to; “–“: Not applicable; ˚C: degree Celsius; µs/cm: microsiemens per centimeter; ppm: part per million; mV: millivolt;”< with a value”: indicates that

that element was analyzed, but that its level is below the detection limit of the instrumental method.

Health

Canada

and NL

guidelines*

WINTER SPRING SUMMER FALL

First

draw

sample

Flushed

sample

First

draw

sample

Flushed

sample

First

draw

sample

Flushed

sample

First

draw

sample

Flushed

sample

PHYSICAL PARAMETERS

Temperature (T) in ˚C ≤15°C – 10.7 – 10.4 – 12.9 – 15.9

pH 7 – 10.5 – 8.9 – 8.8 – 8.9 – 9.5

Electrical conductivity (EC) in µs/cm – 132 – 150 – 321 – 863

Total dissolved solids (TDS) in ppm ≤500 – 65 – 79 – 103 – 395

Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) in mV – 216 – 248 – 240 – 40

ANIONS AND NUTRIENTS (concentrations in mg/L)

Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 75 71 64 71 83 87 93 95

Bromide (Br–) <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10

Chloride (Cl–) ≤250 0.95 0.89 0.92 0.98 1.16 1.26 1.27 1.24

Fluoride (F) 1.5 0.239 0.195 0.233 0.249 0.332 0.403 0.431 0.439

Nitrate (as N) 10 <0.020 <0.020 <0.020 <0.020 <0.020 <0.020 <0.020 <0.020

Nitrite (as N) 1 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010

Phosphate-P (ortho) <0.0030 0.0039 <0.0030 <0.0030 <0.0030 <0.0030 <0.0030 0.0048

Sulphate (SO4–) ≤500 9.34 8.41 8.91 9.12 11.9 13.8 14.5 14.1

Total Hardness (as CaCO3, calculated) None 23 24 21 21 20 17 17 22

TOTAL MAJOR AND METALS (concentrations in mg/L)

Aluminum (Al) None <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 0.013 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010

Antimony (Sb) 0.006 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00010 <0.00010

Arsenic (As) 0.010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.00010 <0.00010

Barium (Ba) 1.0 0.0400 0.0473 0.0494 0.0425 0.0344 0.0310 0.0272 0.0225

Beryllium (Be) <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00010 <0.00010

Bismuth (Bi) <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.000050 <0.000050

Boron (B) 5 0.039 0.033 0.032 0.035 0.071 0.057 0.079 0.117

Cadmium (Cd) 0.005 <0.000090 <0.000090 <0.000090 <0.000090 <0.000090 <0.000090 0.000027 <0.000010

Calcium (Ca) None 6.34 6.89 5.94 5.95 5.23 4.84 4.35 4.56

Cesium (Cs) <0.000010 <0.000010 <0.000010 <0.000010 <0.000010 <0.000010 <0.000010 <0.000010

Chromium (Cr) 0.05 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 0.00060 0.00053 <0.00050 <0.00050

Cobalt (Co) <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00050 <0.00010 <0.00010

5

Copper (Cu) ≤1.0 0.0521 0.0115 0.0706 0.0139 0.0627 0.0063 0.0655 0.0328

Iron (Fe) ≤0.3 <0.050 <0.050 <0.050 <0.050 <0.050 <0.050 <0.050 <0.050

Lead (Pb) 0.010 0.00062 <0.00050 0.00169 0.00052 0.00197 <0.00050 0.00270 0.00124

Lithium (Li) <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 0.0057 0.0189

Magnesium (Mg) None 1.78 1.57 1.46 1.38 1.69 1.08 1.53 2.65

Manganese (Mn) ≤0.05 <0.0010 <0.0010 0.0014 0.0011 <0.0010 <0.0010 0.00053 <0.00050

Molybdenum (Mo) 0.00056 0.00056 0.00053 0.00054 0.00064 0.00072 0.000749 0.000717

Nickel (Ni) <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 0.00113 <0.00050

Phosphorus (P) <0.050 <0.050 <0.050 <0.050 <0.050 <0.050 <0.050 <0.050

Potassium (K) 1.0 1.1 <1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.01 1.00

Rubidium (Rb) <0.00020 <0.00020 <0.00020 <0.00020 <0.00020 <0.00020 0.00027 0.00029

Selenium (Se) 0.05 <0.00040 <0.00040 <0.00040 <0.00040 <0.00040 <0.00040 <0.000050 <0.000050

Silicon (Si) 8.1 8.8 7.9 8.3 7.5 7.4 7.29 6.92

Silver (Ag) None <0.00010 <0.00010 <0.00010 <0.00010 <0.00010 <0.00010 <0.000050 <0.000050

Sodium (Na) ≤200 27.8 27.0 24.0 25.7 37.3 39.1 41.1 38.6

Strontium (Sr) 0.0899 0.101 0.0947 0.0917 0.0822 0.0776 0.0691 0.0708

Sulfur (S) <5.0 <5.0 <5.0 <5.0 <5.0 <5.0 <5.0 <5.0

Tellurium (Te) <0.00020 <0.00020 <0.00020 <0.00020 <0.00020 <0.00020 <0.00020 <0.00020

Thallium (Tl) <0.00030 <0.00030 <0.00030 <0.00030 <0.00030 <0.00030 <0.000010 <0.000010

Thorium (Th) <0.00010 <0.00010 <0.00010 <0.00010 <0.00010 <0.00010 <0.00010 <0.00010

Tin (Sn) <0.0010 <0.0010 0.0089 <0.0010 0.0149 <0.0010 0.0464 0.00138

Titanium (Ti) <0.0020 <0.0020 <0.0020 <0.0020 <0.0020 <0.0020 0.00030 0.00041

Tungsten (W) <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 0.00023 0.00025

Uranium (U) 0.02 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 <0.0010 0.000374 0.000507

Vanadium (V) 0.00064 0.00079 <0.00050 0.00103 <0.00050 0.00058 <0.00050 0.00057

Zinc (Zn) ≤5.0 0.0061 0.0036 0.0611 0.0042 0.0194 <0.0030 0.0912 0.0038

Zirconium (Zr) <0.0040 <0.0040 <0.0040 <0.0040 <0.0040 <0.0040 <0.00030 <0.00030

6

seasonal and in-chalet variations. The analytical results for the measured parameters of drinking

water samples are presented in Table 1, together with the health- and aesthetic-based drinking

water quality guidelines set by Health Canada and NL provincial government (Health Canada,

2014: 2015).

3.1. Physical parameters

3.1.1 Temperature

Temperature of drinking water across the seasons varied between 10.7˚C and 15.9 ˚C (Table 1). The

highest value obtained in fall, probably also due the fact that the period of water stagnancy in the

plumbing system was longer than during the other seasons. The Health Canadia and provincial

aesthetic-based guideline value of drinking water temperature is less than or equal to 15°C (Health

Canada, 2014). Although the water temperature does not have direct health effects, it remains

nonetheless an important determinant of water quality because of its influence on chemical and

biological proprieties of drinking water (Health Canada, 2014; Liu et al., 2013).

3.1.2. pH

Water pH varied slightly between the seasons and ranged between 8.8 and 9.5 (Table 1). This

clearly indicates the alkaline nature of the groundwater. Thus, the pH of the groundwater does not

contribute to high concentrations of metals, which affect the quality of drinking water. All the

samples fall within the desirable pH range of 7 – 10.5 for drinking water (Health Canada, 2015).

3.1.3. Electrical Conductivity

Electrical conductivity (EC) is commonly used as a good indicator of the relative amount of salts in

water. The EC values varied between 132 and 863 µS/cm, with the highest values observed in fall

and summer (Table 1). Rao et al. (2012) have classified EC as Type I, if the enrichments of salts are

low (EC<1500 µS/cm); Type II, if the enrichment of salts are medium (EC between 1500 and 3000

µS/cm); and Type III, if the enrichments of salts are high (EC>3000 µS/cm). Based on the above

classification, all the samples fall within Type I – low enrichment of salts.

3.1.4. Total Dissolved Solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS) includes inorganic constituents (salts) and organic matter. Based on

Health Canada and provincial standards, TDS value up to 500 ppm is the highest desirable level in

drinking water. The obtained TDS values varied between a minimum of 65 ppm in winter and a

maximum of 395 ppm in fall (Fig. 3; Table 1). This indicates that all the samples lies within the

7

maximum permissible limit for drinking purpose. Based on TDS classification of Freeze and Cherry

(1979), the drinking water at the Birch brook classified as freshwater.

Figure 3: Seasonal levels of total dissolved solids in “flushed” samples (labelled 1) during the sampling

period.

3.1.5. Oxidation-Reduction Potential

Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) or redox potential measures the capacity of water to either

lose (oxidation) or gain (reduction) electrons from chemical (redox) reactions. It indicates the

oxidizing (aerobic) or reducing (anaerobic) tendency of water; positive values indicate oxidizing

conditions, while negative values occur when the water is more reducing. Redox potential of

groundwater controls important processes, such as mobilization and immobilization of metals (or

contaminants) from both natural and anthropogenic sources (e.g. McMahon and Chapelle, 2008).

The ORP level of the drinking water was found to be low in fall with a level of 40 mV, whereas the

values in winter, spring and summer were high, ranging between 216 and 248 mV. Positive ORP

values observed in all the seasons suggest relative oxidizing environment of groundwater and low

organic matter content.

8

3.2. Chemical parameters

The chemical parameters of water determined consist of: (i) anions and nutrients, including

alkalinity, bromide, chloride, fluoride, nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, orthophosphate-

phosphorus and sulphate; and (ii) major and trace elements, including aluminum, antimony,

arsenic, barium, beryllium, bismuth, boron, cadmium, calcium, cesium, chromium, cobalt, copper,

iron, lead, lithium, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus, potassium,

rubidium, selenium, silicon, silver, sodium, strontium, sulfur, tellurium, thallium, thorium, tin,

titanium, tungsten, uranium, vanadium, zinc and zirconium (Table 1). In addition, total hardness of

drinking water was calculated and the values are also given in Table 1.

3.2.1. Anions and nutrients

Bromide, nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, orthophosphate-phosphorus were not present in

detectable levels (i.e. obtained concentrations were below their lower limits of detection) or were

present only at very low concentrations in all samples (Table 1). Their levels in drinking water were

considered to be negligible. Therefore, only the results of alkalinity, chloride, fluoride and sulfate

given in Table 1 are discussed here.

3.2.1.1. Alkalinity

Alkalinity (as CaCO3) measures water’s capacity to resist to pH changes. Adequate alkalinity,

typically above 100 mg/L, will protect pH from fluctuation and therefore, will keep it stable.

Alkalinity is primarily a function of the presence of naturally-occurring carbonates, bicarbonates

and to a lesser degree, hydroxides and phosphates (e.g. Briggs and Ficke, 1977). It is influenced by

local geology and by the percolation of rain and surface water along with the dissolved carbon

dioxide of the atmosphere. Alkalinity is a commonly used indicator in the interpretation and

control of water processes.

Alkalinity (as CaCO3) values of drinking water varied slightly between the seasons, ranging

between 64 and 79 mg/L (Table 1). Lower alkalinity was observed in spring and winter, whereas

higher values occurred in summer and fall. “First-draw” and “flushed” samples showed narrow

variation ranges.

3.2.1.2. Chloride

Chloride varied slight between the seasons, and between “first-draw” and “flushed” samples.

Concentrations of chloride ranged between 0.89 and 1.27 mg/L (Fig. 4; Table 1). The chloride levels

in drinking water were very well below the Health Canada (2014) aesthetic-based guideline of 250

9

mg/L, established due to the salty taste concern above that limit. This indicates lower concentration

of salts in groundwater.

3.2.1.3. Fluoride

Fluoride occurs naturally in groundwater due to leaching from many types of sedimentary and

igneous rocks. The recommended concentration for fluoride in drinking water is 1.5 mg/L (Heath

Canada, 2014). Fluoride in drinking water at level of 0.7 mg/L help promote dental health in both

children and adults. (e.g. Griffin et al., 2007; Loskill et al., 2013; Rabb-Waytowich, 2009; Yeung,

2007; World Health Organization, 2004).

All the samples contained naturally-occurred fluoride at levels from 0.19 to 0.44 mg/L (Fig. 4; Table

1). Although the concentrations of fluoride in drinking water were well below the aesthetic-based

desirable limit, they still too low for optimal promotion of dental health.

Figure 4: Seasonal concentrations of chloride, fluoride and sulfate in “first-drawn” samples (those labelled 0)

and “flushed” samples (those labelled 1) during the sampling period.

3.2.1.4. Sulfate

Sulfate occurs naturally in groundwater and from the dissolution and/or oxidation of sulfate

minerals in mineral deposits, soils and rocks (e.g. shales), from seawater intrusion, or due to

10

human activities, such as power plants and industrial wastes (e.g., Krouse and Mayer, 1999; Seller

and Canter, 1980).

Seasonal levels of sulfate in drinking water ranged between 8.41 and 14.5 mg/L (Fig. 4; Table 1).

“First-draw” and “flushed” samples showed moderate variation ranges. Sulfate levels are within

the recommended limit of 500 mg/L, set in order to avoid possible adverse effects on the taste of

drinking water (Health Canada, 2014).

3.2.2. Total hardness

Water hardness is caused primarily by the presence of dissolved calcium- and magnesium salts,

bicarbonates and hydroxides (namely carbonate hardness) and dissolved noncarbonated salts,

calcium- and magnesium- chlorides and sulphates (namely non-carbonate hardness) with to some

extent, several other dissolved metals forming divalent or multivalent cations, such as aluminum,

barium, strontium, iron, zinc, and manganese in water. Carbonate hardness is equivalent to total

alkalinity and any excess of hardness above total alkalinity is considered to be non-carbonate

hardness (e.g. Rice et al., 2012). Total hardness (as CaCO3) of drinking water was calculated using

the formula below:

Total hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L) = 2.497 [Ca, mg/L] + 4.118 [Mg, mg/L]

Total hardness of drinking water showed a moderate variation range of 17 to 24 mg/L between the

seasons, with the highest value recorded in winter (Fig. 5; Table 1). According to Durfor and Becker

(1964) and Health Canada (1979) classification of total hardness, all the samples fall within soft

water type (see Fig. 5). This indicates lower concentration of salts in groundwater.

There is no health related guideline value for total hardness. To minimise undesirable build-up of

off-white chalky scale in plumbing system and water use appliance, total hardness in drinking

water should not exceed 100mg/L (Health Canada, 2014).

3.2.3. Major and trace metals

The following elements were either not detected (obtained concentrations were below their limits

of detection) or were present only in trace quantities (concentrations were close to their limits of

detection) in drinking water samples: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, beryllium, bismuth, cadmium,

cesium, chromium, cobalt, iron, lead, lithium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus,

potassium, rubidium, selenium, silver, sulfur, tellurium, thallium, thorium, tin, titanium, tungsten,

uranium, vanadium, and zirconium (Table 1). Therefore, their levels in drinking water were

considered to be insignificant.

11

Figure 5: Seasonal levels of total hardness in “first-drawn” samples (those labelled 0) and “flushed” samples

(those labelled 1) during the sampling period. The classification of the hardness in drinking water is shown.

Elements actually detected in the analyzed water samples have been divided into two groups,

based on their origins: (i) naturally-occurring elements, including barium, boron, calcium,

magnesium, silicon, sodium, strontium; and (ii) plumbing corrosion-induced metals, including

copper and zinc.

3.2.3.1. Naturally-occurring elements

The variations of barium, boron, calcium, magnesium, silicon, sodium and strontium in

groundwater samples are presented in Figure 6. The concentrations of barium (0.0225 – 0.0494

mg/L), boron (0.032 – 0.117 mg/L), calcium (4.35 – 6.89 mg/L), magnesium (1.08 – 2.65 mg/L), silicon

(6.92 – 8.8 mg/L) and strontium (0.0691 – 0.101 mg/L) varied slightly between the seasons. In

contrast, seasonal variation of sodium in drinking water was more pronounced. Sodium levels in

winter and spring were lower (24.0 and 27.8 mg/L, respectively) that in summer and fall (37.3 and

41.1 mg/L, respectively). The relative constant concentrations of barium, boron, calcium,

magnesium, silicon, sodium and strontium in “first-draw” and “flushed” samples suggest that they

are most likely from natural sources.

12

Figure 6: Seasonal concentrations of barium, boron, calcium, magnesium, silicon, sodium and strontium in

“first-drawn” samples (those labelled 0) and “flushed” samples (those labelled 1) during the sampling period.

Note: (Top) An inset graph shows the details of the low concentration range.

13

There are no documented adverse health effects due to the presence of calcium, magnesium, silicon

and strontium in drinking water and, therefore, no guidelines values have been issued for these

elements (Health Canada, 2014). An aesthetic-based guideline level has been established at 200

mg/L for sodium (Health Canada, 1992: 2014), because of possible noticeable salty taste at higher

concentrations. On the other hand, health- based guideline or maximum acceptable limit has been

issued for barium (1.0 mg/L), because of increases in blood pressure and cardiovascular disease.

(Health Canada, 2014). Similarly, health- based guideline is set for boron (5 mg/L), because of

reproductive effects (Health Canada, 2014). The obtained levels of sodium, barium and boron in

drinking water at the Birch Brook chalet were well below the aesthetic- or health- based guidelines.

3.2.3.2. Plumbing corrosion-induced metals

Copper and zinc were found at low concentrations, between 0.0115 – 0.0705 mg/L and <0.0030 –

0.0912 mg/L, respectively (Fig. 7). The levels of copper and zinc in “first-draw” samples were

higher than in “flushed” samples. This indicates that they are more likely released from plumbing

materials due to the stagnation of water in the plumbing system for an extended period of time.

Nevertheless, their concentrations were still below the aesthetic-based guideline value of 1.0 mg/L

for copper and 5.0 mg/L for zinc (Health Canada, 2014). At levels at or above the guideline, copper

can give a bitter, metallic taste to tap water. On the other hand, zinc can cause potential problems

associated with taste, milky appearance (opalescence), and the formation of greasy films at water

surface upon boiling. Flushing the plumbing system reduced copper and zinc levels in drinking

water.

4. Conclusions

The following conclusions can be drawn from these results:

The physical and chemical parameters of drinking water varied slightly between the

seasons.

Drinking water classified as fresh, soft (low content of dissolved minerals) and alkaline,

and reflected oxidizing groundwater conditions (i.e. positive ORP).

Although naturally-occurring in groundwater, the levels of fluoride in drinking water was

still lower than optimal for the promotion of dental health.

The elements with the relative constant variation between “first-draw” samples and

“flushed” samples in drinking water were barium, boron, calcium, magnesium, silicon,

sodium and strontium, all most probably originating from natural sources. Except for

14

sodium with concentrations higher in summer and fall than in winter and spring, the

levels of the other elements varied slightly between the seasons.

Figure 7: Seasonal concentrations of copper and zinc in “first-drawn” samples (those labelled 0) and

“flushed” samples (those labelled 1) during the sampling period.

Copper and zinc showed considerable variations, especially between “first-draw” samples

and “flushed” samples, indicating that they were released from plumbing materials due to

long periods of water stagnation in the plumbing system; their variations between the

seasons were insignificant.

Flushing the stagnant water in the plumbing system lower the levels of copper, and also

zinc in drinking water.

The obtained physical and chemical parameters were all within health- and aesthetic-

based guidelines, which have been set by Health Canada and NL provincial government.

15

5. Recommendations

The following recommendations for better ensuring the safety of drinking water are offered, based

these results:

Other aspects of drinking water quality (e.g. microbiological characteristics, etc.) should

also be investigated.

Testing should be done on a regular basis to assess whether the quality of groundwater

changes over time.

The plumbing system should be flushed before use for drinking anytime water has not

been used for an extended period of time.

16

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