biotech reviewer.pdf

8/11/2019 biotech reviewer.pdf

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Biotechnology Reviewer

SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY

Microbiology - a specialized area of biology that deals with living things ordinarily toosmall to be seen without magnification.

Some prominent areas that are heavily based on applications in microbiology are as

follows:

Immunology - studies the system of body defenses that protects against infection.

Public Health Microbiology and Epidemiology - aim to monitor and control the spreadof diseases in communities. Most of them work in government institutions.

Food Microbiology and Aquatic Microbiology - examine the ecological and practicalroles of microbes in food and water.

Agricultural Microbiology - is concerned with the relationships between microbes andcrops, with an emphasis on improving yields and combating plant diseases.

Biotechnology - includes any process in which humans use the metabolism of livingthings to arrive at a desired product, ranging from bread making to gene therapy.

OVERVIEW OF MACROMOLECULES

Monomers - are the simple building blocks that, when polymerized, yield amacromolecule.

Macromolecule - typically defined as a large and complex molecule with biologicalfunction.

The structure of biological macromolecules is hierarchical, with distinct levels ofstructure:

Primary Structure - (abbreviated as 1) is the linear arrangement (or sequence) ofresidues in the covalently linked polymer.

Secondary Structure - (abbreviated as 2) is the local regular structure of amacromolecule or specific regions of the molecule. These are the helical structures.

Tertiary Structure - (abbreviated as 3) describes the global 3D fold or topology of themolecule, relating the positions of each atom and residue in 3D space. Formacromolecules with a single subunit, the functional tertiary structure is its nativestructure.

Quaternary Structure - (abbreviated as 4) is the spatial arrangement of multiple distinctpolymers (or subunits) that form a functional complex.


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The arrangement of atoms or groups of atoms in a molecule is described by the termsconfiguration and conformation. These terms are not identical.

Configuration - defines the position of groups around one or more nonrotating bonds oraround chiral centers, defined as an atom having no plane or center of symmetry.

Conformation - describes the spatial arrangement of groups about one or more freelyrotating bonds.

PROTEINS, CARBOHYDRATES AND AMINO ACIDS

Proteins

The most abundant organic molecules in animals, playing important roles in allaspects of cell structure and function.

Proteins are biopolymers of acids, so named because the amino group is bonded tothe carbon atom, next to the carbonyl group.

The physical and chemical properties of a protein are determined by its constituentamino acids.

Amino Acid

A type of organic acid that contains an acid functional group and an aminefunctional group on adjacent carbon atoms.

Amino acids are considered to be the building blocks of proteins.


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Carbohydrates

Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissuesand including sugars, starch, and cellulose.

They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically

can be broken down to release energy in the animal body.


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MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF LIVING MATTER

I. Monosaccharides - have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of 2 .Glucose ( 6 12 6) is the most common monosaccharide. Monosaccharides serve as amajor fuel for cells and as raw material for building molecules. All monosaccharides canbe grouped into two general classes as:1. Aldoses : contain a functional aldehyde grouping (-CHO), or2. Ketoses : contain a functional ketone grouping (>CO)

Common monosaccharides are:

a. Glucose (or dextrose) - one of aldohexoses which has two isometric forms: D-glucoseand L-glucose. It is the most common and most important hexose and is found in mostsweet fruits and in blood sugar.

b. Fructose - a keto sugar and is found in fruits and honey. Fructose sweeter than othernatural sugar. If we take the relative sweetness of cane sugar as one, glucose ismeasured to be 0.7 whereas fructose is 1.7.

II. Disaccharides - formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides. Thecovalent bond in disaccharides is called a glycosidic linkage. Common disaccharides are:

a. Sucrose - known as table sugar, is comprised of -D- glucose and -D fructose.Sucrose is the only nonreducing sugar among the four disaccharides.

b. Lactose - sugar present in milk, is a dimer of -D-galactose bonded with D-glucose. The aldehyde group of the left ring of lactose is used for linkage. However, the rightring of the lactose can be opened to react because its aldehyde group is not used forlinkage. As a result, lactose is a reducing sugar.

c. Maltose - repeating units of starch and can be obtained by the hydrolysis of starchusing the diastase enzyme. Further hydrolysis of maltose yields two molecules ofglucose.

d. Cellobiose - a stereoisomer of maltose, is obtained by the partial hydrolysis ofcellulose. Maltose and cellobiose are both reducing sugars, since the right rings mayopen to react, as reducing agents.

III. Polysaccharides - the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles. Thestructure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by its sugar monomers andthe positions of glycosidic linkages. Common polysaccharides are:

a) Starch - a storage polysaccharide of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers.Plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts and other plastids. Thetwo types of starch are:


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Glycogen form stored in animals for energy, coiled, mainly 1 -4 glycosidiclinkage. It is branched therefore also has 1-6 glycosidic linkage, easy to digest.Found in animals: stored mainly in liver and muscle.

Chitin - found in the exoskeleton of arthropods. Chitin also provides structuralsupport for the cellwalls of many fungi.

Glycoproteins carbohydrate and protein on outer surface of cell membranes.b) Dextrins - products of the partial hydrolysis of starch, are polysaccharides of lower

molecular weight than starch. They are used in infant food because they are easier todigest than starches. Dextrins are sticky when wet and are used as mucilage onpostage stamps and envelopes.

c) Cellulose - one of the three major structural components of all plant cell walls withtwo other components, hemicellulose and lignin. Cellulose is the most abundantorganic compound of natural origin on the face of the earth. Complete hydrolysis ofcellulose gives glucose.

LIPIDS, FATS AND STEROIDS

Lipids - are the one class of large biological molecules that does not include true polymers,and they are generally not big enough to be considered macromolecules.

Important Types of Lipids

a. Fats - constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. Therest of the skeleton consists of a hydrocarbon chain.

Glycerol - is an alcohol; each of its three carbons bears a hydroxyl group.

Fatty Acid - has a long carbon skeleton, usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length. The carbon at one end of the skeleton is part of a carboxyl group, the functionalgroup that gives these molecules the name fatty acid.

The types of fatty acids are:

Saturated Fatty Acid - if there are no double bonds between carbon atomscomposing a chain, then as many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to thecarbon skeleton. Such a structure is said to be saturated with hydrogen.

Unsaturated Fatty Acid has one or more double bonds, with one fewer hydrogenatom on each double-bonded carbon. Nearly all double bonds in naturally

occurring fatty acids are cis double bonds, which cause a kink in the hydrocarbonchain wherever they occur.

b. Phospholipids - are essential for cells because they make up cell membranes. Theirstructure provides a classic example of how form fits function at the molecular level. Aphospholipid is similar to a fat molecule but has only two fatty acids attached to glycerolrather than three.


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c. Steroids - are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.Different steroids, such as cholesterol and the vertebrate sex hormones, are distinguishedby the particular chemical groups attached to this ensemble of rings.

d. Cholesterols - is a crucial molecule in animals. It is a common component of animalcell membranes and is also the precursor from which other steroids are synthesized.

NUCLEIC ACIDS, DNA, RNA

Nucleic Acid

-Nucleic acids are polymeric macromolecules, or large biological molecules, essential forall known forms of life

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)-DNA contains four different amine bases, two substituted purines (adenine and guanine)

and two substituted pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine)

-A molecule that encodes the genetic instructions used in the development andfunctioning of all known living organisms and many virus

Genes-are made of DNA, a nucleic acid-are made of monomers called nucleotides.

Nucleotides- are building blocks of DNA and RNA.-major components are pentose sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous base

(purine or pyrimidines)

Ribonucleic Acid- Plays a central role in protein synthesis.- Perform multiple vital roles in the coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes.- Contains guanine, adenine, cytosine and uracil as bases


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Adenosine Triphosphate- ATP is a nucleotide that contains a large amount of chemicalenergy stored in its high-energy phosphate bonds. It releases energy when it is brokendown (hydrolyzed) into ADP (or Adenosine Diphosphate).

Transcription is the first step of gene expression , in which a particular segment of DNA iscopied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase

Translation is the second part of protein biosynthesis (the making of proteins)

ANATOMY OF CELLS

Biological Actvities of Cells1. Reproduction: Bearing Offspring2. Metabolism: Chemical and Physical Life Processes3. Irritability or Motility4. Protection and Storage5. Transport: Movement of Nutrients and Wastes

Animal cell

-Animal cells are eukaryotic cells. They are bound together by intercellular material toform tissue. Tissue is customarily divided into four categories:

Epithelial tissue -forms the covering or lining of all free body surfaces, bothexternal and internal.

Connective tissue -the cells are always embedded in an extensive intercellularmatrix, which may be liquid, semisolid, or solid.

Muscle cells - are usually elongate and bound together into sheets or bundles byconnective tissue.

Nerve cells - are composed of a cell body, containing the nucleus, and one or morelong thin extensions called fibers

Animal Organelles and Functions

1. cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell.

2. centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body locatednear the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating tubules

3. cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles arelocated.

4. Golgi body - (also called the Golgi apparatus or golgi complex). It packages proteinsand carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.

5. lysosome - (also called cell vesicles) round organelles surrounded by a membrane andcontaining digestive enzymes. This is where the digestion of cell nutrients takes place.


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6. mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. Themitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate)for the cell.

7. nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.

8. nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced.Some cells have more than one nucleolus.

9. nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. Thenucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) andcontains DNA (in chromosomes).

10. ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that aresites of protein synthesis.

11. rough endoplasmic reticulum - transports materials through the cell and producesproteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi body, or inserted into thecell membrane).

12. smooth endoplasmic reticulum - transports materials through the cell. It containsenzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane protein.

13. vacuole - fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fillswith food being digested and waste material that is on its way out of the cell.

Plant Cell Organelles and Functions

- Plant cells have distinctive features such as a rigid wall, a large vacuole, and thepresence of chloroplasts.

1. amyloplast - an organelle in some plant cells that stores starch.

2. ATP - adenosine triphosphate; it is a high-energy molecule used for energy storage byorganisms. ATP is produced in the cristae of mitochondria and chloroplasts.

3. Cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell, but is insidethe cell wall. The cell membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances to passinto the cell and blocking others.

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Cell wall - a thick, rigid membrane that surrounds a plant cell. This layer of cellulosefiber gives the cell most of its support and structure.

5. Centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body locatednear the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating tubules.

6. Chlorophyll - chlorophyll is a molecule that can use light energy from sunlight to turnwater and carbon dioxide gas into sugar and oxygen (this process iscalled photosynthesis).


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7. Chloroplast - an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing chlorophyll.

8. Christae - (singular crista) the multiply-folded inner membrane of acell's mitochondrion that are finger-like projections.

9. Cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles arelocated.

10. Golgi body - (also called the golgi apparatus or golgi complex).The golgi bodypackages proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" fromthe cell.

11. Granum - (plural grana) A stack of thylakoid disks within the chloroplast is calleda granum.

12. Mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. Themitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate)for the cell.

13. Nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.

14. Nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA isproduced.

15. Nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. Thenucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) andcontains DNA (in chromosomes).

16. Ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that aresites of protein synthesis.

17. Rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected,membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (theER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane

18. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected,membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (theER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane).. Smooth ER transport materialsthrough the cell. It contains enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) andmembrane proteins.

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Stroma - part of the chloroplasts in plant cells, located within the inner membraneof chloroplasts, between the grana.

20. Thylakoid disk - thylakoid disks are disk-shaped membrane structuresin chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll.

21. Vacuole - a large, membrane-bound space within a plant cell that is filled withfluid.


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CLASSES OF ORGANISMS

1. Prokaryotes - prokaryote meaning before nuclei. These cells lack membranebound organelles. Prokaryotic cells are unicellular organisms, which reproducethrough binary fission.

2. Eukaryotes- eukaryote means true nucleus. Eukaryotes are more complexorganisms and can be multicellular or single-celled.

BACTERIA

- Bacteria are unicellular microscopic organisms. Bacteria occur in a variety ofshapes such as: cocci: spherical or ovoid bacilli : cylindrical or rod shaped spirilla : helically coiled

All biological systems, from microorganisms to man, share a set of nutritionalrequirements, which are:

1. Sources of energy

a. phototrophs : organisms which are capable of employing radiant energy.

b. chemotrophs : organisms which obtain the energy for their activities and self-synthesis from chemical reactions that can occur in the dark.

2. Sources of carbon

a. autotrophs : organisms which can thrive on an entirely inorganic d:et, usingCO2 or carbonates as a sole source of carbon.


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Ciliates - have cilia that are similar to but shorter than flagella. The cilia arearranged in precise rows on the cell

SIX KINGDOMS OF LIFE

I. Archaebacteria

Organisms: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermophiles, Psychrophiles Cell Type: Prokaryotic Metabolism: Depending on species - oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, sulfur,

sulfide may be needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Depending on species - nutrition intake may by absorption,

non-photosynthetic photophosphorylation, or chemosynthesis. Reproduction: Asexual reproduction by binary fission, budding, or fragmentation.

II. Eubacteria Organisms: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria(blue-green algae), Actinobacteria Cell Type: Prokaryotic Metabolism: Depending on species - oxygen may be toxic, tolerated, or needed for

metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Depending on species - nutrition intake may by absorption,

photosynthesis, or chemosynthesis. Reproduction: Asexual reproduction

III. Protista

Organisms: Amoebae, green algae, brown algae, diatoms, euglena, slime molds Cell Type: Eukaryotic Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Depending on species - nutrition intake may be by

absorption, photosynthesis, or ingestion. Reproduction: Mostly asexual reproduction. Meiosis occurs in some species.

IV. Fungi

Organisms: Mushrooms, yeast, molds Cell Type: Eukaryotic Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Absorption Reproduction: Asexual or sexual reproduction occur.

V. Plantae

Organisms: Mosses, angiosperms (flowering plants), gymnosperms, liverworts,ferns


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Cell Type: Eukaryotic Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism.

Nutrition Acquisition: Photosynthesis Reproduction: Some species reproduce asexually by mitosis. Other species exhibit

sexual reproduction.

VI. Animalia

Organisms: Mammals, amphibians, sponges, insects, worms Cell Type: Eukaryotic Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Ingestion Reproduction: Sexual reproduction

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MICROBES

1. Temperature Psychrophile is a microorganism that has an optimum temperature below 15 oC

and is capable of growth at 0 oC Mesophile is a microorganism that grows at intermediate temperatures having

the optimum growth temperature ranges from 20 oC to 40 oC Thermophile is a microbe that grows optimally at temperatures from 45 oC to

80 oC.

2. Gas Requirements Aerobic organisms -organisms that require gaseous oxygen. Anaerobic organisms -organisms that do not require gaseous oxygen or live

in oxygen-poor environments: ocean bottoms, sulfur-rich puddles inmarshes and in sedimentation tanks of sewage-treatment plants.


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Different bacteria behave differently when grown in liquid culture:

a) Obligate aerobic bacteria gather at the top of the test tube in order to absorbmaximal amount of oxygen.

b) Obligate anaerobic bacteria gather at the bottom to avoid oxygen.

c) Facultative bacteria gather mostly at the top, since aerobic respiration isadvantageous (ie, energetically favorable); but as lack of oxygen does not hurtthem, they can be found all along the test tube.

d) Microaerophiles gather at the upper part of the test tube but not at the top. They require oxygen, but at a lower concentration.

e) Aerotolerant bacteria are not affected at all by oxygen, and they are evenlyspread along the test tube.

Although all microbes require some carbon dioxide in their metabolism,capnophiles grow best at higher CO 2 tensions than are the normally present inthe atmosphere.

3. Moisture

4. Effect of pH Neutrophiles are organisms that thrive in neutral (pH 7) environments. Alkaliphiles are microbes that thrive in alkaline (pH 9-11) environments. Acidophiles are those that thrive under highly acidic conditions (usually at pH

2.0 or below)5. Salt / Sugar Concentrations

Halophiles - organisms capable of growth in very salty environments Osmophiles - Organisms capable to live in environments high in sugar those

able concentration. Xerophiles - grow in very dry environments (made dry by lack of water)
https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/aerobic-respiration/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/organisms/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/microbes/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/acidophilic/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/acidophilic/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/acidophilic/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/microbes/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/organisms/https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/aerobic-respiration/


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CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRIENT MEDIUM

1 Synthetic Medium a medium consisting only of chemically defined nutrients.

2 . Complex Medium one that contains ingredients of unknown chemical composition.Usually contains yeast extract, beef extract and peptone.

ISOLATION METHODS

1 . Pour Plate suspension of cell is mixed with the melted agar and poured into a petridish. When agar solidifies, cells are immobilized in the agar and grow into colonies.2 . Streak Plate the sterile, melted and cooled medium is first poured into a sterile petridish and allowed to harden thoroughly; then the surface of the hardened agar isinoculated by streaking the needle of swab across it.

STERILIZATION METHOD1. Chemical2. Mechanical3. Thermal4. Radiation

INHIBITORY AND INORGANIC CHEMICALS

1 . Inhibitory Substances - prevent growth of particular microorganism in culture media.2 . Antibiotic substances produced by microorganisms that inhibit or kill other

microorganisms; inhibit the growth of pathogenic microorganisms3 . Microstatic Agents Inhibit growth but do not kill the organism; when the agent isremoved, growth is resumed.4. Disinfectants kill or prevent the growth of pathogenic diseases.

REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH

Growth means an increase in the total number of cells due to reproduction ofindividual microorganism in the culture.

1. Sexual Reproduction - offspring are producedthrough the union of sex cells, called gametes, fromtwo parents. The fusion of gametes is calledfertilization and resulting cell is called zygote whichcontains a mixture of the two gametes through mitoticdivision.


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2. Asexual Reproduction - offspring originate through the division of a single parent cellinto two daughter cells. Individual cells divide in a process called binary fission.

Binary fission is the method by which prokaryotes produce new individuals that are

genetically identical to the parent organism.

The following steps proceed during binary fission:

Binary fission begins with the single DNA molecule replicating and both copiesattaching to the cell membrane.

Next, the cell membrane begins to grow between the two DNA molecules. Once thebacterium just about doubles its original size, the cell membrane begins to pinchinward.

A cell wall then forms between the two DNA molecules dividing the original cell into

two identical daughter cells.
http://biology.about.com/library/glossary/bldefdaughtercell.htmhttp://biology.about.com/library/glossary/bldefdaughtercell.htm


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Others are divided in a process of budding.

A small bud (or daughter cell) is formed on the surface of a mature cell. The budgrows and is filled with nuclear and cytoplasmic material from the parent cell. When the

bud is as large as the parent, nuclear apparatus in both cells is reoriented and the cellsare separated. The daughter cell may cling to the parent cell, often even after the cells aredivided.

MICROBIAL GROWTH PATTERN

A. Batch CultureIn nature, the growth curve of bacteria consists of four phases, namely; the lag

phase, the log phase, the stationary phase, and lastly the death phase :

1 . Lag Phase physiological adjustment of the organism to the environment to theenvironment following organism to the environment following inoculation. No celldivision takes place but there is an increase in cell mass.


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2 . Logarithmic Phase cells divide at a constant rate. The rate of cellular increasecan be expressed in a natural exponential function.3 . Stationary Phase visible amount of the organisms become constant; rate ofbirth is equal to rate of death. This is due to any combination of the following:

a . exhaustion of nutrients

b . accumulation of metabolic by-productsc . change in pH

4 . Death Phase - cause by bacterial lysis and cell destruction.

B. Continuous Culture

Continuous culture demands continuous flow of nutrients andcorresponding flow of products. If the vessel is perfectly mixed, the numberof cells in the vessel is influenced by the growth rate and dilution rate.

If the dilution rate is greater than the maximum growth rate, there is acontinuous decrease of cells in the reactor until all are washed out. Whenthe dilution rate is less than the maximum growth rate, the population inthe vessel will build up until the concentration of the nutrients is reduced.

The growth rate decreases and there is less biomass to utilize the nutrients. The specific growth rate is equal to the dilution rate and no further build-up of the cells occurs. The culture is at equilibrium and steady state isattained.

Continuous culture, in a device called a chemostat , can be used to maintaina bacterial population at a constant density.

Chemostat (from Chem ical environment is stat ic) is a bioreactor to whichfresh medium is continuously added, while culture liquid is continuouslyremoved to keep the culture volume constant.

A turbidostat is a continuous culture device, similar to a chemostat, which hasfeedback between the turbidity of the culture vessel and the dilution rate.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioreactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemostathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemostathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioreactor


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METHABOLIC PATHWAYS

Metabolism is usually divided into two categories.

1. Catabolism process of degrading the compound into smaller and simpler productsand produces energy for the cell by way of cellular respiration.

a. Stage 1 large nutrient molecules are degraded to their major building blocks;polysaccharides to simple sugars, lipids to fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into their20 component amino acids.

b. Stage 2 products of stage 1 are converted into smaller and simpler molecules.c. Stage 3- the products of stage 2 are converted to carbon dioxide and water.

2. Anabolism uses energy to construct components of cells such as protein and nucleicacid.


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Questionnaire

1. Defines the position of groups around one or more nonrotating bonds or around chiralcenters, defined as an atom having no plane or center of symmetry. Configuration

a. Configuration

b. Isomerization

c. Polymerization

d. Conformation

2. A crucial molecule in animals. It is a common component of animal cell membranesand is also the precursor from which other steroids are synthesized. Cholesterolsa. Cholesterolsb. Phospholipids

c. Steroidsd. Cellulose

3. Are the one class of large biological molecules that does not include true polymers,and they are generally not big enough to be considered macromolecules. Lipidsa. Dextrinb. Lipids

c. Starchd. Chitin

4. The spatial arrangement of multiple distinct polymers (or subunits) that form afunctional complex. Quaternary Structurea. Primary Structureb. Secondary Structure

c. Tertiary Structured. Quaternary Structure

5. Studies the system of body defenses that protects against infection. Immunologya. Biotechnologyb. Agricultural Microbiology

c. Immunologyd. Microbiology

6. Has one or more double bonds, with one fewer hydrogen atom on each double-bondedcarbon. Nearly all double bonds in naturally occurring fatty acids are cis double bonds.Unsaturated Fatty Acida. Saturated Fatty Acidb. Unsaturated Fatty Acid

c. Supersaturated Fatty Acidd. Unsaturated Fatty Acid

7. Are the simple building blocks that, when polymerized, yield a macromolecule.Monomersa. Isomersb. Biomers

c. Monomersd. Polymers

8. Formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides. The covalent bondin disaccharides is called a glycosidic linkage. Disaccharides a. Monosaccharidesb. Disaccharides

c. Polysaccharidesd. Tetrasaccharides

9. The linear arrangement (or sequence) of residues in the covalently linked polymer.Primary Structure


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a. Primary Structureb. Secondary Structure


10. Includes any process in which humans use the metabolism of living things to arriveat a desired product, ranging from bread making to gene therapy. Biotechnology

a. Agricultural Microbiologyb. Immunology

c. Biotechnologyd. Microbiology

11. Describes the spatial arrangement of groups about one or more freely rotatingbonds. Conformationa. Configurationb. Isomerization

c. Polymerizationd. Conformation

12. Typically defined as a large and complex molecule with biological function.Macromolecule

a. Monomersb. Biomers c. Macromoleculed. Isomers

13. Describes the global 3D fold or topology of the molecule, relating the positions ofeach atom and residue in 3D space. For macromolecules with a single subunit, thefunctional tertiary structure is its native structure. Tertiary Structurea. Primary Structureb. Secondary Structure


14. The most abundant organic molecules in animals, playing important roles in allaspects of cell structure and function. Proteinsa. Proteinsb. Amino Acid

c. Fatty Acidd. Carbohydrates

15. A type of organic acid that contains an acid functional group and an aminefunctional group on adjacent carbon atoms. Amino Acida. Proteinsb. Amino Acid

c. Fatty Acidd. Carbohydrates

16. Known as table sugar, is comprised of -D- glucose and -D fructose. Sucrose is theonly nonreducing sugar among the four disaccharides. Sucrose

a. Glucoseb. Sucrose

c. Fructosed. Galactose

17. A specialized area of biology that deals with living things ordinarily too small to beseen without magnification. Microbiologya. Microbiologyb. Immunology

c. Agricultural Microbiologyd. Biotechnology


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18. Have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of 2 . Glucose ( 6 12 6) isthe most common type of this molecule. Monosaccharides a. Monosaccharidesb. Disaccharides


19. Contain a functional aldehyde grouping (-CHO).Aldosesa. Aldosesb. Aetoses

c. Ketosesd. Polyols

20. Products of the partial hydrolysis of starch, are polysaccharides of lower molecularweight than starch. They are used in infant food because they are easier to digest thanstarches. Dextrins a. Dextrinb. Lipids

c. Starchd. Chitin

21. A keto sugar and is found in fruits and honey. It is sweeter than other natural sugar.Fructosea. Glucoseb. Sucrose

c. Fructosed. Galactose

22. Determined by its sugar monomers and the positions of glycosidic linkages.Polysaccharides a. Monosaccharidesb. Diosaccharides


23. The local regular structure of a macromolecule or specific regions of the molecule. These are the helical structures. Secondary Structurea. Primary Structureb. Secondary Structure


24. Contain a functional ketone grouping (>CO). Ketosesa. Aldosesb. Aetoses

c. Ketosesd. Polyols

25. Sugar present in milk, is a dimer of -D-galactose bonded with D-glucose. Thealdehyde group of the left ring of lactose is used for linkage. Lactosea. Lactoseb. Sucrose

c. Fructosed. Glucose

26. A storage polysaccharide of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers. Plantsstore surplus it as granules within chloroplasts and other plastids. Starch a. Fats b. Carbohydrate


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c. Starch d. Grana

27. A major component of the tough wall of plant cells. Cellulose a. Celluloseb. Lignin

c. Fiberd. Stomates

28. Found in the exoskeleton of arthropods. It also provides structural support for thecell walls of many fungi. Chitin a. Dextrinb. Lipids

c. Starchd. Chitin

29. Constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. The restof the skeleton consists of a hydrocarbon chain. Fats a. Fatsb. Oils

c. Waxesd. Lipids

30. Is an alcohol; each of its three carbons bears a hydroxyl group. Glycerola. Glycoholb. Glycerol

c. Phenold. Octanol

31. Has a long carbon skeleton, usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length. The carbon atone end of the skeleton is part of a carboxyl group. Fatty Acida. Fatty Acidb. Lipids

c. Starchd. Glycerol

32. Molecules having no double bonds between carbon atoms composing a chain, then

as many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon skeleton. Saturated FattyAcida. Saturated Fatty Acidb. Unsaturated Fatty Acid

c. Supersaturated Fatty Acidd. Unsaturated Fatty Acid

33. Are essential for cells because they make up cell membranes. Their structureprovides a classic example of how form fits function at the molecular level. Phospholipidsa. Cholesterolsb. Phospholipids


34. Concerned with the relationships between microbes and crops, with an emphasison improving yields and combating plant diseases. Agricultural Microbiologya. Biotechnologyb. Agricultural Microbiology

c. Microbiologyd. Immunology

35. Lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. Steroidsa. Cholesterolsb. Phospholipids



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36 It forms the covering or lining of all free body surfaces, both external and internal.a. Epithelial tissueb. Nerve cells

c. Muscle cellsd. Connective tissue

37. The cells that are always embedded in an extensive intercellular matrix, which may

be liquid, semisolid, or solid.a. Epithelial tissueb. Nerve cells


38. These are composed of a cell body, containing the nucleus, and one or more longthin extensions called fibersa. Epithelial tissueb. Nerve cells


39. These are usually elongate and bound together into sheets or bundles by connective

tissue.a. Epithelial tissueb. Nerve cells


40. It packages proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export"from the cell.a. Golgi bodyb. Mitochondrion

c. Lysosomed. Ribosome

41. It converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for thecell.a. Golgi bodyb. Mitochondrion


42. Small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of proteinsynthesis.a. Golgi bodyb. Mitochondrion


43. Round organelles surrounded by a membrane and containing digestive enzymesa. Golgi bodyb. Mitochondrion


44. A stack of thylakoid disks within the chloroplast is called a granum.a. Christaeb. Centrosome

c. Cytoplasmd. Granum


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45. The multiply-folded inner membrane of a cell's mitochondrion that are finger-likeprojectionsa. Christaeb. Centrosome


46. A small body located near the nucleus. It has a dense center and radiating tubules.a. Christaeb. Centrosome


47. The jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located.a. Christaeb. Centrosome


48. Bacteria that is spherical or ovoid in shapea. cocci

b. bacilli

c. dendritic

d. spirilla

49. Cylindrical or rod shaped bacteriaa. coccib. bacilli

c. dendriticd. spirilla

50. Helically coiled-shaped bacteriaa. coccib. bacilli

c. dendriticd. spirilla

51. Organisms which cannot use CO as a sole source of carbona. phototrophs:b. heterotrophs

c. chemotrophsd. autotrophs

52. Organisms which are capable of employing radiant energy.a. phototrophs:b. heterotrophs


53. Organisms which obtain the energy for their activities and self-synthesis fromchemical reactions that can occur in the dark.a. phototrophs:b. heterotrophs


54. Organisms which can thrive on an entirely inorganic diet, using CO2 or carbonatesas a sole source of carbona. phototrophs:b. heterotrophs



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55. A photoautotrophs that lack the roots and stems of plants .a. yeastb. molds

c. protozoad. algae

56. Reproduce by means of tiny spores; the spores are invisible to the naked eye and

float through outdoor and indoor air.a. yeastb. molds

c. protozoad. algae

57. Are unicellular, eukaryotic organisms. The process by which it reproduce is termedas schizogony.a. yeastb. molds

c. protozoad. algae

58. Are generally unicellular organisms and their shape is spherical to ovoid

a. yeastb. molds c. protozoad. algae

59. Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermophiles, Psychrophilesa. Archaebacteriab. Eubacteria

c. Fungid. Protista

60. Mushrooms, yeast, moldsa. Archaebacteriab. Eubacteria

c. Fungid. Protista

61. Bacteria, Cyanobacteria(blue-green algae), Actinobacteriaa. Archaebacteriab. Eubacteria

c. Fungid. Protista

62. Amoebae, green algae, brown algae, diatoms, euglena, slime moldsa. Archaebacteriab. Eubacteria

c. Fungid. Protista

63. Gather at the upper part of the test tube but not at the top. They require oxygen,but at a lower concentration.a. Obligate aerobic bacteriab. Aerotolerant bacteria

c. Microaerophilesd. Facultative bacteria

64. Not affected at all by oxygen, and they are evenly spread along the test tube.a. Obligate aerobic bacteriab. Aerotolerant bacteria



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65. Gather at the top of the test tube in order to absorb maximal amount of oxygen.a. Obligate aerobic bacteriab. Aerotolerant bacteria


66. Gather mostly at the top but as lack of oxygen does not hurt them so they can be

found all along the test tube.a. Obligate aerobic bacteriab. Aerotolerant bacteria


67. Are also called blood parasitea. Hemoflagellatesb. Ciliates

c. Aspergillus flavusd. Amebae

68. Move by extending blunt, lobelike projections of the cytoplasm called pseudopod

a. Hemoflagellatesb. Ciliates

c. Aspergillus flavusd. Amebae

69. All of the following are eukaryotic except:a. plantaeb. fungi

c. eubacteriad. protista

70. Produces most of the world's citric acid, a common preservative for foods,detergents, and industrial productsa. A. nigerb. Aspergillus

c. Saccharomyces cerevisiaed. Hemoflagellates

1. Bioreactor to which fresh medium is continuously added while culture liquid iscontinuously removed

a. Turbidostat c. Fermenterb. Chemostat d. None of the Above

72. Phase where in no cell division takes place but there is an increase in cell mass.a. Log Phase c. Lag Phaseb. Death Phase d. Stationary Phase

73. Offspring are produced through the union of sex cells from two parentsa. Sexual c. Asexualb. Budding d. Binary Fusion

74. A medium consisting only of chemically defined nutrients.a. Complex Medium c. Natural Mediumb. Simple Medium d. Synthetic Medium


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75. It prevents growth of particular microorganism in culture media.a. Antibiotic c. Microstatic Agentsb. Disinfectants d. Inhibitory Substance

76. Intercellular process of degrading a compound into simple products and producesenergy for the cell.a. Anabolism c. Glycolysisb. Photosynthesis d. Catabolism

77. Intercellular process uses energy to construct components of cells such as proteinand nucleic acid.a. Anabolism c. Glycolysisb. Photosynthesis d. Catabolism

78. An isolation method where in suspension of cell is mixed with the melted agar andpoured into a petri dish.a. Pour Plate c. Streak Plateb. Separation d. Sedimentation

79. Methods by which unicellular cell reproduce.a. Sexual c. Asexualb. Budding d. Binary Fusion

80. An isolation method where in melted and cooled medium is first poured into a sterilepetri dish and allowed to harden thoroughly.a. Pour Plate c. Streak Plateb. Separation d. Sedimentation

81. Phase where in cells divide at a constant rate.a. Log Phase c. Lag Phaseb. Death Phase d. Stationary Phase

82. Stage where products of the previous stage are converted into smaller and simplermolecules.a. Stage I c. Stage IIb. Stage III b. Catabolism

83. Replication of the circular prokaryotic chromosome begins at ____________a. Origin of Replication c. Midpoint of the cellb. FtsZ Protein d. Nucleus

84. The cell begins to elongate, FtsZ migrate towards __________________


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a. Origin of Replication c. Midpoint of the cellb. FtsZ Protein d. Nucleus

85. Stage where the products of the previous stage are converted to carbon dioxide andwater.

a. Stage I c. Stage IIb. Stage III b. Catabolism

86. Bioreactor which has feedback between the turbidity of the culture vessel and thedilution rate.a. Turbidostat c. Fermenterb. Chemostat d. None of the Above

87. When this agent is removed, growth is resumed.a. Antibiotic c. Microstatic Agents

b. Disinfectants d. Inhibitory Substance

88. Stage where large nutrient molecules are degraded to their major building blocks.a. Stage I c. Stage IIb. Stage III b. Catabolism

89. Phase where in rate of birth is equal to rate of death.a. Log Phase c. Lag Phaseb. Death Phase d. Stationary Phase

90. Yeast is produced in the process of ________a. Sexual c. Asexualb. Budding d. Binary Fusion

91. This phase cause by bacterial lysis and cell destruction.a. Log Phase c. Lag Phaseb. Death Phase d. Stationary Phase

92. It inhibits the growth of pathogenic microorganisms.a. Antibiotic c. Microstatic Agentsb. Disinfectants d. Inhibitory Substance

93. If the dilution rate is greater than the maximum growth rate, _____________________a. there is a continuous decrease of cells in the reactorb. there is a continuous increase of cells in the reactorc. there is a continuous decrease of culture liquids in the reactord. there is a continuous increase of culture liquids in the reactor
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidity


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94. It kills or prevents the growth of pathogenic diseases.a. Antibiotic c. Microstatic Agentsb. Disinfectants d. Inhibitory Substance

95. Due to the formation of a __________, the daughter cells separate to form individual

cells.a. Septum c. FtsZ Proteinb. Cleavage Furrow d. Cell Wall

96. Replication of the bacterial DNA is ___________a. Consecutively c. Consequentlyb. Reverse d. Bidirectional

97. The chromosome is attached to the plasma membrane at about _______________a. Origin of Replication c. Midpoint of the cell

b. FtsZ Protein d. Nucleus

98. When the dilution rate is less than the maximum growth rate, ________________a. the population in the vessel will build up until the concentration of the nutrients isreducedb. the population in the vessel will build up until the concentration of the nutrients isproducedc. the concentration in the vessel will break up until the population of the nutrients isproducedd. the concentration in the vessel will break up until the population of the nutrients isreduced

99. The time required for one cell to divide into two cells.a. generation time c. conceptionb. reproduction time d. multiplying time

100. Which of the following has a required time to generate of 17 minutes?a. E-coli c. Mycobacteriumb. Yeast d. Gametes


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Answer Key1. a2. a3. b4. d5. c6. d7. c8. b9. a10. c11. d12. c13. c14. a15. b16. b17. a18. a19. a20. a21. c22. c23. b24. c25. a26. c27. a28. d

29. a30. b31. a32. a33. b34. b

35. c36. a37. d38. b39. c40. a41. b42. d43. c44. d45. a46. b47. c48. a49. b50. d51. b52. a53. c54. d55. d56. b57. c58 a59. a60. c61. b62. d63. c

64. b65. a66. d67. a68. d69. c70. a71. b

72. c73. a74. d75. d76. d77. a78. a79. d80. c81. a82. c83. a84. c85. b86. a87. c88. a89. d90. b91. b92. a93. a94. b95. a96. d97. c98. a99. a100. a

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