Biochemistry & Molecules of Life

BIOLOGY KEYSTONE REVIEW Use this powerpoint presentation to complete your viewing guide handout per topic. At the end of each topic, take time to answer the Keystone Biology practice questions on your handout and discuss. Good Luck!TOPIC 1:Biochemistry & Molecules of LifeCOMPOUNDSOrganic Inorganic*carbohydratehasCO2*lipidC & HH2O*nucleic acidsO2*proteinsNO C & H

Water is a POLAR molecule-weak HYDROGEN bonds attract one another between molecules of water-Gives water its special properties

Monomers are small units that make up Polymers in the processcalled POLYMERIZATIONmacromoleculeElementsMonomer/ polymerfunctionCarbohydrateC:H:O1:2:1MonosaccharidePolysaccharideQuick / main energy sourceLipidsC, H, little OGlycerol & fatty acidsLong term energy (fats); cell membraneNucleic acidsC H O PNucleotidesGenetic materialsProteinsC H O S NAmino acids which form polypeptides (protein)Structure & enzymes Chemical reactions have 2 parts: reactants and products

Reactants compounds that come together to start the reactionProducts compounds produced by the reaction

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions and lower activation energy

Active Site is where the reactant meets the enzyme to lower activation energyEnzymes can be affected by two main environmental factors:

Temperature

pH

TOPIC 2:Cells & Cellular OrganizationPROKARYOTESNo nucleusCytoplasm, cell membrane, DNA, ribosomesSmaller & simplerExamples: bacteria

EUKARYOTESTrue nucleusCytoplasm, cell membrane, DNA, ribosomes, ER, Golgi, nucleolus, vacuole, other organellesLarger & more complexExamples: plants & animals

Organelles tiny structures that carry out functions of the cellFunctions such as energy, building or transporting material, storing food or wastes.

Topic 3 Cellular TransportDiffusion movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentrationEquilibrium balanced state

Osmosis diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

Isotonic same strength on both sides of the membrane

Hypertonic above strength;Higher concentration of solute;Not enough water on the inside of the cell (shrivels)

Hypotonic: below strength; lower concentration of solute; full of water inside the cellFacilitated Diffusion movement of larger particles through special CHANNEL PROTEINS.NO ENERGY is required.

Active Transport movement across membrane AGAINST the concentration gradient.Needs ENERGY to occur.

Sodium Potassium Pump (active transport example)Topic 4: Cell DivisionWhy do cells divide?? get biggerrepairreproduction

Cell cycle

InterphaseG1 = growth phase

S = DNA Synthesis

G2 = make more organelles

Mitosis

Prophase: *chromosomes are visible*nuclear envelope breaksMetaphase: *chromosomes line up in middle*spindle fibers attach

Anaphase: spindle fibers pull sister chromatids apartTelophase: chromosomes loosen and nuclear envelope re-forms

Results in 2 2Ncells

Daughter cells genetically identical to the parent cell

Meiosis cell division to produce gametes (sperm & egg)Produces cells with haploid (single set) chromosomesHuman gametes sperm & egg have 23 chromosomes each.

Meiosis is a REDUCTION DIVISION 2N (diploid) to N (haploid)

2 sets of divisions Meiosis I and Meiosis II

29Meiosis IInterphaseProphase I homologous chromsomes pair up and form tetrads (4 sister chromatids) CROSSING OVER parts of chromatids may exchange genes creating new combinations of alleles

Use this to go thru the remainder of Meiosis I and all of Meiosis II31Meiosis Results in Genetic Variationcrossing overindependent assortment chromosomes line up randomly during metaphase I and metaphase IIgenes of different traits can segregate, or spread out, independently during the formation of gameteserrors in meiosis can produce harmful effectsTopic 5 Cellular EnergyAUTOTROPHHETEROTROPHSPRODUCERS-Creates own chemical energy (photosynthesis)

Plants, algae, bacteria CONSUMERSCant make own food, must obtain energy from another source

Animals, fungi

Energy Molecules:

Lipids: long term

Carbohydrates: short term energy

ATP: INSTANT energy form

PhotosynthesisPhoto=lightsynthesis=production

Process in which the suns energy is converted into stored energy in the form of carbohydrates

PhotosynthesisLight dependentNeed lightPhotolysis (breaking water molecule apart with light)Set up H+ ionsLight independentDark reactionsCalvin CycleCarbon fixation: fix carbon dioxide and make it glucose

LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS

Occurs in chloroplasts

Sunlight energy splits H20 molecule (PHOTOLYSIS)

releases H+ ions to set up a concentration gradientreleases oxygen as a by product

LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTIONSCO2 goes through multiple steps to combine and rearrange into a 6 carbon sugar (glucose)

CELLULAR RESPIRATION-NOT BREATHING!-process in which the energy of food (glucose) is converted to usable energy (ATP) in the presence of oxygen-all cells undergo cellular respiration

Cellular Respiration-starts with Glycolysis glyco sugarlysis split-splits 6 carbon glucose into two 3 carbon pyruvate-invest 2 ATP yield 4ATP (2ATP net gain)

After GlycolysisGlycolysisNo oxygen available(anaerobic)Alcohol fermentationlactic acid fermentationOxygen (aerobic)Krebs CycleElectron Transport ChainNo OxygenFermentation replenishes items needed for glycolysis when NO OXYGEN is available

OxygenKrebs Cycle takes pyruvic acid (3 carbons) and breaks it down to CO2

Electron Transport Chain takes H+ ions & pushes them through a transport proteinthat movement through protein charges ATPNet Gain = 36 ATPs

Topic 6 DNA & its ProcessesFunctions of DNAstores genetic infocopies genetic info for new cells produced during cell divisiontransmits genetic info from one generation to the next

Structure of DNAMonomer = nucleotide nucleotide includes a 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate and a nitrogen base (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine)

Double helix

Bases pair up adenine ---- thyminecytosine ---- guanine

DNA Replication-process of taking a strand of DNA and making an identical copy

Structure of RNAMonomer is a nucleotide with a 5carbon sugar RIBOSE, phosphate & nitrogen base (A, G, C & URACIL)

Single stranded

3 types mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

messengerRNA (mRNA) copy instructions from DNA

ribosomalRNA (rRNA) located in ribosome, helps with protein synthesis

transferRNA (tRNA) transfers amino acids to ribosomes to create proteins

Protein Synthesisprocess of making proteins by stringing together amino acids to form polypeptide chainstranscription (RNA synthesis) copies a small section of DNA (a gene) creating mRNAuses base pairing rulestranslation reading instructions from mRNA to make protein

The Genetic Code-four base pairs on mRNA (AUGC) code for 20 amino acids that build proteins

-3 consecutive bases on mRNA are called a CODON & code for specific amino acids

-AUG start codon begins protein synthesis-UAA, UAG, UGA stop codons end protein synthesis

What amino acids does the following mRNA strand code for?AUG CGA CUU UGA

Answers are methionine (start), arginine, leucine, stop55MutationsMistakes or changes in the DNA that are heritable (able to be passed down to the next generationPoint mutation changes in one or a few nucleotides

Chromosomal mutationsInvolve changes in the number or structure of the chromosomes-often causes severe effectsChromosomal MutationsDeletion loss of all or part of chromosomeDuplication extra copies of part

Inversion reverse direction of part of chromosomeTranslocation part breaks off and attaches to another

TOPIC 7: GeneticsGregor Mendel bred pea plants and observed their characteristics such as shape, color, etc.

Genetics VOCABULARYFertilization joining male & female reproductive cellsSelf pollination pollen from one plant fertilizes egg cell from the same plantPure breed (true-breeding) if self pollination produces offspring identical to the parentCross pollination pollen from one plant fertilizes egg of another plantHeredity how traits get passed from one generation to the nextGENETICS scientific study of heredity P generation parent generation

F1 first filial offspring of the P generationF2 second filial offspring of the F1

Dominant allele shows up aloneRecessive hidden allele unless there are 2Genotype genetic makeup (alleles)Phenotype physical appearanceHomozygous 2 same allelesHeterozygous 2 different alleles Y=yellow

yy=green

YY or yy or Yy

Yellow or green

yy or YY

Yy

How to PunnettNon Mendelian Patterns of InheritanceSome alleles are neither dominant nor recessive but are controlled by other factorsSuch asIncomplete dominanceCodominanceMultiple alleles

Incomplete DominanceOne allele is not dominant over the other, instead the heterozygous genotype shows an intermediate phenotype

CodominanceIn the heterozygous genotype, both alleles are seen

Multiple AllelesSome genes have more than 2 possible alleles

The INDIVIDUAL only carries 2 alleles though

Polygenic Traits

A trait controlled by 2 or more genes with a wide variety of phenotypes

TOPIC 8: EvolutionProcess of change in a species over timeCharles Darwin theory of evolution by natural selectionPopulations change in response to environmental pressures and they become adapted to new conditions and they change over time.

4 Key Ideas for Natural SelectionGenetic VariationOverproduction of OffspringStruggle for Existence (selection)Differential Survival & Reproduction (adaptation & Survival of the Fittest)Adaptation any heritable characteristic that increases an organisms ability to survive and reproduce (its advantageous)

Isolating MechanismsSeparating 2 populations further and further until they can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspringGeographic IsolationPhysical boundary

Temporal IsolationOccurs because species mate at different times

Behavioral IsolationDifferences in behavior, courtship, coloring, morphology, etc.

In the case pictured, the species became isolated by the food they became accustomed to eating.

Founder EffectA decrease in genetic variation caused by the formation of a new population by a small number of individuals from a larger population

Evidence for EvolutionFossilsBiogeographyHomologous structuresAnalogous structuresVestigial structuresEmbryologyGenetics and molecular biology

FossilsRecord shows that species have gradually changed over time

BiogeographyDistribution of life forms over a geographical area Similar species share a common time & place

Homologous structuresInherited and shared by related species

Analogous StructuresBody parts that share a common function but NOT a common structure

Vestigial StructuresInherited from ancestors but have lost all or most of their original function

Can mention tailbone, appendix82EmbryologySimilar patterns of embryological development

Genetics and Molecular BiologyGenes nearly identical in almost all organisms

TOPIC 9: ECOLOGY

Ecology study of how organisms interact with each other and their environments

Ecosystem FactorsBIOTIC living or used to be livingEx: bear, oak tree, bacteria, dead leafABIOTIC never been livingEx.: sun, wind, rocks, water

Food WebHeterotrophs consumers of energyPrimary, secondary, tertiary, quaternaryAutotrophs producers of energyPhotosynthesis or chemosynthesis

Food Web

Depicts the flow of energy through an ecosystemDetritivores & DecomposersDetritivoreConsume non-living organic matter, such as leaf litter, waste products, dead bodiesAKA scavengersExamples: millipedes, condors

DecomposerBreaks down non-living matter into simpler parts that can be reused.Examples: bacteria, fungi

Energy in an EcosystemTrophic level feeding level of an organismAmount of available energy decreases as you move up in trophic level (10% Rule)

Community Interactions

habitat = food, water, space, shelter, required for an organism to liveNiche = how organisms use its habitat to survive and reproduceResources = necessity of life; water, nutrients, light, food, spaceLimiting factor = any chemical or physical factor that limit the existence, growth, abundance or distribution of an individual or populationCompetitionOrganisms of the same of different species attempt to use the same resource in the same place at the same time

Explain that the removal of one species allows the other to spread outbasically removed the competition.93Predation (+/-)Interaction in which one organism captures and feeds (predator) on another (prey)

SymbiosisRelationship in which 2 organisms live closely together

Parasitism (+/-)One organism (parasite) relies on another (host) for nourishment or other benefit

Note that parasites do not want to kill their hostsor else their food train is over!96Mutualism (+/+)2 or more species benefit

Blind pistol shrimp dig burrows for goby fish who keep watch over them Commensalism (+/0)Relationship where one species benefits and another is unaffected

Endemic vs. Non native SpeciesEndemicSpecies found in its originating location and is generally restricted to that geographical areaNon-Native SpeciesNormally living outside a distribution range that has been introduced through either deliberate or accidental human activityCan become INVASIVE

The road to extinctionThreatened decrease in numbers could become endangered if no actions are takenEndangered population is dropping, may become extinctExtinct completely disappears from its area on the planet

SuccessionA series of predictable and orderly changes within an ecosystem over time

GOOD LUCK!!Get a good nights sleep!Eat a healthy breakfast (or a pop tart)Read all directions and answer the question they ask!

Trust your instincts!!!