Biology EOC Review
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Transcript of Biology EOC Review
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Biology EOC Review
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Science Methods• Observation• Questioning and stating
problems• Hypothesis vs. Theory• Experiment includes a
control group• IV – independent
variable • DV – dependent variable• Tables and Graphs
Ex) Effects of pH on Tadpole Survival
IV – pHDV-Number of Tadpoles
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Organic Compounds• All living things are made of organic
compounds. • Contain the element Carbon• Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids,
Nucleic Acids
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Carbohydrates
• Monomer- monosaccharide
• Function- energy source and structure
• Tests: glucose-Benedicts starch- Iodine
fructose• Ex. Cellulose, glycogen,
starch
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Lipids
• Made of fatty acids and glycerol• Function- energy storage and insulation• Tests: brown paper test • Examples: fats and steroids
Lipid vs. water
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Nucleic Acids
• Monomer- nucleotide• Function- carry
genetic information• Ex. DNA and RNA
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Proteins
• Monomer- amino acids• Function- building and repairing cells,
communication, transport, and regulation• Tests- Biurets• Examples: enzymes, hemoglobin
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Enzymes• Catalysts in living things• Specific to a particular substrate• Reusable• Affected by temperature and pH
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CellsProkaryotes• Simple, no membrane
bound organelles• Bacteria only• One circular
chromosome• Includes: chromosome,
ribosomes, and plasma membrane Eukaryotes
• Membrane bound organelles
• Plants and Animals• True nucleus
containing chromosomes
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Nucleus• “Control Center”• Contains chromosomes
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MitochondriaSingular: Mitochondrion
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Produces energy in the form of ATP
• Site of Aerobic respiration
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Ribosomes
• Proteins are synthesized• Found in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
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Chloroplast
• Site of photosynthesis
• Plant cells ONLY• Contains the
pigment chlorophyll
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Vacuole
• Storage of excess materials
• Plant cells usually contain one large vacuole
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Cell Wall
• Plant cells ONLY• Surrounds cell and provides support
and protection.• Made of cellulose
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Plasma Membraneaka: Cell Membrane
• Surrounds the cell• Regulates what
enters/leaves the cell
• Helps maintain homeostasis
• Made of phospholipids with embedded proteins
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Eukaryotes
Plant• Cell wall • Chloroplast• Large central vacuole
Animal
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Cell OrganizationCell
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Individual organism
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Cell Specialization• cells develop to perform different functions
(roots, stems, leaves; blood, muscle)• Regulated by genes (DNA)
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Cell to Cell Communication
• Chemical Signals (hormones) can be sent from one cell to another
• Receptor proteins on the plasma membrane receive the signal
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Transport
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Diffusion
• Form of passive transport (NO ENERGY NEEDED) across a membrane
• Solutes move from high concentration to low concentration
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Osmosis• Diffusion of water (also passive
transport)
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Active Transport
• Particles moving against the concentration gradient which REQUIRES ENERGY (ATP)
• Low concentration to high concentration
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CELL TRANSPORT
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ATP
• Energy storing molecule
• Can be used for quick energy by the cell
• Energy is stored in the phosphate bonds
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Photosynthesis
• Water and Carbon Dioxide used to produce Glucose and Oxygen
• H2O+CO2C6H12O6+O2
• Occurs in the chloroplast
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Aerobic Respiration
• Used to release energy (ATP) for cellular use
• C6H12O6+O2H2O+CO2
• Occurs in the mitochondria
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Anaerobic Respirationaka Fermentation
• Does not require Oxygen• also used to release energy, but not as
efficient as aerobic respiration (less ATP)• Products include CO2 and lactic acid or alcohol • Two Types: Alcoholic Fermentation and Lactic
Acid Fermentation
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Autotroph vs. Heterotroph
• Obtain energy from the environment
• Photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
• “Producers”
• Obtain energy from other living things
• “Consumers”
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DNA / RNA
• Carry genetic information• Made of a chain of nucleotides• Nucleotides contain a sugar,
phosphate, and a nitrogen base
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DNA / RNADNA• Double stranded• “Double Helix”• Four base pairs: ATGC• Sugar is Deoxyribose• Found in nucleus
RNA• Single stranded• Four base pairs:
AUCG• Sugar is Ribose
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Base Pair Rule
• In DNA, Adenine always pairs with Thymine, and
Guanine always pairs with Cytosine
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Replication
• Making of an identical strand of DNA
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Central Dogma
DNA RNA protein trait
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Transcription
• DNAmRNA• Occurs in
nucleus• Complementary
mRNA strand is produced from a segment of DNA
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Translation• Connects amino acids in the correct
order to make a protein• Occurs in the cytoplasm within the
ribosomes
A- amino acidB- tRNAC- anticodonD- codonE- mRNAF- RibosomeG-polypeptide
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Codon• Sequence of three mRNA nucleotides
that code for an amino acid
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• Be sure to use mRNA
• You won’t have to memorize this!
• What amino acid is coded for by the DNA
ATA GAG
READING THE CODON CHART
First convert DNA to mRNAATA GAGUAU CUC
UAU = tyrCUC = Leu
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Mutations• Change in DNA code • May cause a change in protein
produced• NOT always harmful
Sickle Cell Mutation
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Mitosis
• Cell division• Produces two
identical diploid daughter cells
• Occurs in body cells to grow and repair
• Ex. Wolf body cell has 34 chromosomes, how many do daughter cells?
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Cancer
• Error in cell growth with causes uncontrolled cell growth
• Has environment and genetic variables
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Meiosis
• Cell division• Produces four
different haploid daughter cells (gametes)
• Occurs in sex cells to form gametes
• Ex. Wolf cell has 34 chromosomes, how many does each daughter cell have?
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Mitosis and Meiosismitosis
•One division•2n 2n
• (same number of chromosomes)
•Results in 2 genetically identical cells
Meiosis•Two divisions•2n n
• Half the number of chromosomes
•Results in 4 DIFFERENT haploid cells•Forms gametes (egg and sperm)
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Crossing Over
• Homologous chromosomes exchange parts of their DNA
• Creates variation in gametes
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Nondisjunction
• Homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis
• Can lead to Down Syndrome, Turners Syndrome, and Klinefelters Syndrome
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Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction
Asexual• One parent• Identical offspring• Variation only thru
mutations• Examples:
budding, fragmentation, fission
Sexual• Two parents• Offspring different
from parents• More variation• Fertilization (fusion
of gametes)
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Inheritance
• Traits are specific characteristics inherited from parents
• Genes are the factors that determine traits
• The different forms of a gene are called alleles
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Genotypeactual alleles an individual has for a trait
Homozygous• Both alleles are the
same• Ex. BB or bb
Heterozygous• Both alleles
are different• Ex. Bb
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Dominant/Recessive Alleles
• Dominant alleles are expressed, if present, and recessive are hidden
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Phenotype• The actual characteristic displayed
by the individual (ex. brown eyes, Hemophiliac)
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Incomplete Dominance
• Heterozygote shows a blending of the dominant and recessive phenotypes
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Codominance
• Heterozygote expresses BOTH dominant and recessive traits
• Ex. Roan animals
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Polygenic Traits
• Traits are influenced by more than one gene
• Ex. skin color
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Sex Linked Traits
• Sex Chromosomes– Female = XX– Male = XY
• Sex linked traits are carried on the X chromosome
• Ex. Hemophilia, red-green colorblindness
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Females are XXMales are XYSex-linked traits are on X chromosomeTrait is more common in MALESExamples are colorblindness and hemophilia (blood fails to clot)
SEX LINKAGE
• Males give X chromosomes to their daughters and Y’s to their sons
• Moms give X’s to both daughters and sons
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• Four blood types
A, B, AB, O
Three different alleles: A, B or neither
A = AA or AO
B = BB or BO
AB = AB
O = OO
CODOMINANCE – BLOOD TYPE
Agglutinogen = protein
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KARYOTY
PE• In humans, 22 pair of
autosomes• 1 pair of sex
chromosomes• XX = female• XY = male• Extra chromosomes a
result of non-disjunction• Chromosome pairs fail to separate in
meiosis• One example is DOWN SYNDROME
(extra 21)• Another example is KLINEFELTERS
(XXY)
A char
t show
ing a
rran
gemen
t of c
hrom
osom
esXY = male
3 21’s = Down Syndrome
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Multiple Alleles
• More than two alleles for a trait (an individual still only inherits two)
• Ex. Blood Type (IA,IB, i)type A = IAIA or IAitype B = IBIB or IBitype AB= IAIB
type O = ii
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Test Cross• used to determine the phenotype of
an unknown dominant individual• uses a homozygous recessive
individual as the “test”
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Pedigree
• similar to a family tree• Shows pattern of inheritance of a
specific trait through a family
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Karyotype• Picture of someone's
chromosomes• Can detect
chromosomal disorders
Ex. Down Syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome, and Turners Syndrome
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Human Genome Project
• Sequencing of human DNA
• Being used to develop gene therapies
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Gel Electrophoresis
• Technique used to separate molecules (DNA or proteins) based on their size
• Sometimes called a DNA fingerprint
• Used to analyze and compare DNA
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Recombinant DNA
• Cell with DNA from another source
• Bacteria used to produce human insulin
• Human gene inserted into bacterial plasmid
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Origin of Life
• Abiotic earth LACKED Oxygen• Early organims anaerobic
prokaryotes
Miller and Urey Experiment recreating The abiotic atomospere
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Endosymbiotic Theory• Eukaryotic cells evolved from
prokaryotes • Early prokaryotes engulfed other
prokaryotes and developed symbiotic relationships
• Evidence includes mitochondria and chloroplast have prokaryotic type DNA
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Natural Selection
• Theory of Evolution (changes in populations)
• Fit organisms survive, reproduce, and pass on traits
Requirements:• Variation• Competition
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Adaptations
• Trait that increases survival
• For Example,– Beaks that make it
easier to eat insects– Bright flowers to
attract pollinators– Vascular tissue in
plants to adapt to life on land
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Evidence for Evolution• Fossil Record• Biochemical
Similarities• Shared anatomical
structures (homology)
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Speciation
• Evolution of a new species
• must be isolation between populations
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Antibiotic and Pesticide Resistance
• Populations will eventually become resistant to pesticides and antibiotics with overuse
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Coevolution
• Two organisms evolve in response to each other
Ex. Flowering plants and their pollinators
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Binomial Nomenclature
• Taxonomy• Two word naming system• Scientific name• Uses Genus and Species names• Ex. Dogs: Canis familiaris
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Dichotomous Keys
• Used to identify organisms• Paired set of questions with two choices
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Levels of Organization
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Phylogenic tree
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Archae
• Prokaryotes• Unicellular• Unusual methods
of metabolism
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Eubacteria
• Prokaryote• Unicellular• Heterotrophs or
autotrophs• Some motile• Most common
types of bacteria
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Protists
• Unicellular Eukaryotes• Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic• Reproduce mostly asexually
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Fungi
• Multicellular eukaryotes (yeast are the only unicellular fungi)
• Heterotrophs• Reproduce asexually
and sexually
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Plants
• Multicelluar eukaryotes
• Autotrophs• Reproduce sexually
and asexually
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Parts of The Plant
•Roots•Leaves•Stem•Flower•Seed
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Animals
• Multicellular eukaryotes
• Heterotrophs• Reproduce
sexually and asexually
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Insects• Transport through open
circulatory system• Exchange gases
through spiracles and tracheal tubes
• Most reproduce sexually with internal fertilization
• Develop through metamorphosis
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Amphibians• Transport through a closed
circulatory system involving a three chambered heart
• Gas exchange in young with gills, adults lungs and moist skin
• Reproduce sexually with external fertilization
• Develop through metamorphosis
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Mammals
• Transport though closed circulatory system involving a four chambered heart
• Gas exchange through lungs• Reproduce sexually with internal
fertilization• Young develop in a uterus and
exchange nutrients and oxygen through the placenta (placental mammals)
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Body Systems• Regulation (maintain homeostasis)
– Integumentary, endocrine, excretory, nervous• Nutrient Absorption
– Digestive, endocrine, cardiovascular, excretory• Reproduction
– Reproductive, endocrine, circulatory• Defense
– Integumentary, Immune, endocrine, circulatory
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Viruses
• Not considered living things• Pathogens that can mutate to resist
vaccines• Ex. HIV, Influenza, SmallpoxTreatment?
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DISEASE CAUSING VIRUSES
VIRUS STRUCTURE
A virus is not made of cells
It is nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) surrounded by protein coat (Capsid)
VIRAL REPRODUCTION
•Virus can’t reproduce unless it is inside a living cell•The virus uses the cells enzymes and ribosomes to make DNA and protein•New viruses either bud off of the cell or the cell bursts, releasing lots of viruses
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BACTERIA VS VIRUSES
BACTERIA
•Made of cells
•Can be killed by antibiotics
•Examples of disease caused by bacteria is strep throat
VIRUS
•Not made of cells•MUCH SMALLER THAN CELLS•Can’t be killed by antibiotics•Example of diseases caused by viruses are AIDS (HIV), Smallpox, Influenza
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Genetic Disorders and the Environment
• Many diseases have both genetic and environmental factors
• Ex. Cancer, diabetes, PKU
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Immune ResponseB-cells
• Fight antigens in body fluids
• B-cells make antibodies
• Make memory cells after exposure to antigen
T-cells
• Fight pathogens inside living cells
• May help B-cells to make antibodies
• Make memory cells after exposure to pathogen
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Immunity
Passive Immunity• Antibodies are
introduced into the body
• Short term• Such as mother
transfers antibodies to infant through breast feeding
Active Immunity• Antibodies are
acquired when an immune response is activated in the body
• Long term• Ex. Vaccines are
weak/dead antigens that are introduced to the body
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Parasites
• Lives on or within a host
• Benefits while causing harm to the host
• Ex. Plasmodium causes malaria (genetic influence- carriers of sickle cell are resistant to malaria)
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Toxins
• Chemical that causes harm to the body
• Can be man-made or produced by microorganisms
• Ex. Mercury and Lead
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Ecosystems
• Collection of abiotic (nonlivng) and biotic (living) factors in an area
• Together they influence growth, survival, and productivity of an organism
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Symbiotic Relationships
• Relationship between two organisms in which one benefits
• Types:– Mutualism (+,+)– Parasitism (+,-)– Commensalism (+,
o)
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Predation
• Predator eats prey• Evolve in response
to one another
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Carrying Capacity
• Maximum number of individuals that an ecosystem can support
• Limiting factors:– Food availability– Competition– Disease– Predation– Natural Disasters
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Carbon Cycle
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Trophic Levels
• Steps in a food chain/web
• Energy passes from one organism to another
• About 10% of the energy at one level passes to the next
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Human Population
• Growth= birth rate-death rate
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Human ImpactsPositive
• Reforestation• Cover Cropping• Recycling• Sustainable practice
Negative
• Acid Rain• Deforestation• Habitat Destruction• Invasive Species• Ozone depletion from
the release of CFCs
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Global Warming
• Increase in the average temperature of the earth
• Caused by the release of too much CO2 into the atmosphere which amplifies the greenhouse effect
• Burning of fossil fuels, volcanic eruptions
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Bioaccumulation
• An increase in environmental toxins at higher tropic levels
• Ex. DDT and birds of prey