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Transcript of Biohydrogen Production From POME-libre
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BIOTECH SBE UISC 2014
Biohydrogen Production from POME: The Answer For Future
Energy Independence Of Indonesia
Proposed by:
Muhamad Zaid (11211040)
Sendi Ramdhani (13011501)
Pramesti Istiandari (11211004)
Hamdin Kifahul Muhajir (11212016)
BANDUNG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BANDUNG
2014
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PREFACE
First of all, praise and thanksgiving prayed to God because for all his gifts so we
can finished this paper entitled Biohydrogen from POME: The Answer for
Future Energy Independence of Indonesia ". in writing this paper, the authors
collected material with literature study and interviewed the lecturer. So we would
like to say thank you to Mr. Dr. Indra Wibowo as our advisor who has gave us
some advices to complete this paper. And to our family and our friends who have
provided moral and material support. And to all the parties that can not be
mentoined one by one that has made this paper can be realized.
The authors realizes that this paper is stil not perfect. Therefore, criticism and
constructive suggestions for improving this paper is expected. Hopefully this
paper can be usefull for all those in need.
Bandung, September 2014
Authors
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CONTENTS
HALAMAN PENGESAHAN.............................................................................................. i
PREFACE........................................................................................................................... ii
CONTENTS....................................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ..............................................................................................................iv
LIST OF FIGURE............................................................................................................... v
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................vi
I.INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 1
II.LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................... 3
HYDROGEN ENERGY................................................................................................. 3
PRODUCTION OF BIOHYDROGEN.......................................................................... 5
Direct Biophotolysis................................................................................................... 5
Indirect Biophotolysis................................................................................................. 6
Dark Fermentation...................................................................................................... 7
Biological Water-Gas Shift Reaction.......................................................................... 8
Photo Fermentation..................................................................................................... 8
Integrated Process....................................................................................................... 9
III.WRITING METHOD................................................................................................. 11
IV.DISCUSSION............................................................................................................. 12
V.CLOSING.................................................................................................................... 16
VI.REFERENCE.............................................................................................................. 17
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Comparison of H2 production by different methods ................................. 5
Table 2 Yield of biohydrogen using POME ......................................................... 12Table 3 Potential of Biohydrogen production from POME in Indonesia ............. 14
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LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1. Hydrogen Fuel Cell (images adapted from h-tec.com)............................ 3
Figure 2 Two photo and one dark combination process of biohydrogenproduction.............................................................................................................. 10
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ABSTRACT
In 2014, energy demand of Indonesia is reported to be 933.3 million BOE (barrel
of oil equivalent), and only 23.9% from this amount that can be supplied from
national oil and gas production. This condition gets worse by the continually
increase in energy demand up to 7.1% every year and our oil and gas reserve is
declining significantly over this last ten years. This dependency of unrenewable
sources and environmentally unfriendly emission reaffirm the urgency for
government to consider potential renewable source of energy to fulfill Indonesias
needs in the future. One of the potential renewable energy sources is biohydrogen
production from palm oil mill effluent (POME). POME is the waste of palm oil
process which can produce 2-4 times bigger than the production of the crude palm
oil itself. The utilization of POME that has not been commercially available might
create a long-term prospect in industry of bioconversion.
Research related to the production of biohydrogen from POME using
microorganism had been widely performed, one of which was through dark
fermentation pathway, which had been reported to have the highest production
efficiency. Unfortunately, this option of renewable energy still has limitation to be
applied to industrial scale. This is due to the relatively higher production cost
compare to its profit from biohydrogen production. Therefore, further study is
needed to be able produce biohydrogen from POME up to commercial level. The
purpose of writing this paper is to analyze the long-term prospect of the
production of biohydrogen from POME which is reviewed from its bioreactor
design, process modification, and along with factors affecting its economic profit.
Hopefully this paper can point out some recommendations in biohydrogen
industry from palm oil waste to become an answer for the independence of energy
of Indonesia in the future.
Keywords: Renewable energy, Biohydrogen, Palm Oil Mill effluent
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harmfull to the environment. Therefore, we have to do significant efforts and
think strategically to answer the energy problem. One of its efforts is to find the
renewable energy that are environmentally friendly (green energy) and replace
petrochemical materials with materials from biomass.
The researcher have developed a bio-ethanol as an alternative to fossil fuel. And
now it has come to the development of third-generation bioethanol using
microalgae as a medium. but there are still some weakness in the development of
bioethanol is that in terms of fuel efficiency is still lacking and too many bad
impact on the environment (Karyati et al, 2011).
One of potential energy resources in addressing these two issues is biohydrogen.
Biohidrogen is the process to produce hydrogen biologically, for example by
using microorganisms. And the hydrogen is a material with an infinite number
unversal in nature and can be produced forever. Molecular H2 has the highest
energy content per unit weight among the known gaseous fuels (143GJton1) [1]
and is the only carbon-free fuel which ultimately oxidizes to water as a
combustion product. Therefore burning hydrogen not only has the potential to
meet a wide variety of end use applications but also does not contribute to
greenhouse emis-sion, acid rain or ozone depletion (Kotay and Das, 2008:258).
In Indonesia one of the most well biohidrogen development and realistic that is
with biohidrogen produced from Palm oil mill effluent (POME). Because POME
abundant in Indonesia, especially Kalimantan area there is lots of palm oil
processing. POME is a waste of processing palm oil that can be produced 5-6
times greater than the production of palm oilnya own. And there is no utilization
of POME developed commercially by the prospect of a long Bioconversion world.
Many of the researchers and engineer have discovered various methods in
wastewater treatment pome become biohydrogen. However, some are less feasible
to do even loss when viewed from an industrial scale. Therefore, this paper will
discuss some methods of bioreactor design and processing biohidrogen POME
which is realistic and can be developed in the industrial scale.
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II. LITERATURE REVIEW
HYDROGEN ENERGY
Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century, via the
mixing of metals with acids. In 176681, Henry Cavendish was the first to
recognize that hydrogen gas was a discrete substance, and that it produces water
when burned. Based on this work, other development shows that the combustion
of hydrogen can produce electricity which is potential to be an energy source in
the future. The picture shown below, explain how hydrogen gases produce
electricity within a fuel cell.
Figure 1. Hydrogen Fuel Cell (images adapted from h-tec.com)
Nevertheless, hydrogen is an energy carrier, like electricity, not a primary energy
resource. Energy firms must first produce the hydrogen gas, and that production
induces environmental impacts. Hydrogen production always requires more
energy than can be retrieved from the gas as a fuel later on. This is a limitation of
the hydrogen production. However, many research has been done to review
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hydrogen production method consider to environmental concerns, energy usage,
and socioeconomic issues. The following below are several ways to produce
hydrogen gases:
1.Steam reforming
Steam reforming is currently the least expensive and most common method to
produce hydrogen. It can be applied to generate hydrogen from natural gas or
from other hydrocarbons with approximately 80% efficiency. However,
disadvantages of this process is some amount of carbon dioxide will be
released, if CO2 were to be captured, an additional separation step would be
needed.
2.Electrolysis
Providing clean hydrogen with no carbon and sulphur contamination is one of
the advantages of this method. However, electrolysis has some disadvantages
such as its higher cost and energy needs than the fossil fuel alternatives, It
because of the hydrogen production process needs electricity trough water to
separate hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Furthermore, electrolysis offers a way to
produce hydrogen with electrical power generated from renewable resources
like solar, wind, hydropower to provide electricity.
3.Gasification
Gasification is a thermo-chemical process in which carbonaceous (carbon-rich)
feedstocks such as coal, petro-coke or biomass are converted into a gas
consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide under oxygen depleted, high
pressure, high-heat and/or steam conditions. One of the drawbacks of
gasification method is numerous energy needs to create a proper condition
during this process.
In addition to the methods above, pure hydrogen gases can also be produce based
on biomass or biological methods. This methods presumed as an alternative and
renewable bioenergy resource of hydrogen with low energy and high efficiency,
thereby being considered a promising way of producing hydrogen (Ganesh D.,
2013), therefore, biological hydrogen production methods will be specially
reviewed in the next chapter.
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PRODUCTION OF BIOHYDROGEN
The biological method applies microorganism to converting the organic matter
into usable hydrogen through their capabilities to produce various potentialenzymes. This method does not only solve the problem of environmental pollution
but also develops clean hydrogen energy and is an economic and competitive
method of hydrogen production (Hsia and Chou, 2014). Processes for biological
hydrogen production mostly operate at ambient temperatures and pressures, and
are expected to be less energy intensive than thermochemical methods of
hydrogen production. Hydrogen can be produced biologically by biophotolysis
(direct and indirect), biological water-gas shift reaction, photo-fermentation and
dark-fermentation or by a combination of these processes (Manish and Banerjee,
2007).
Table 1. Comparison of H2 production by different methods
Direct Biophotolysis
The natural ability of photosynthetic microorganisms like green algae to capture
solar energy and split water has created an alternative way to produce
biohydrogen. They can convert light energy into chemical energy as:
2H2O + light energy = 2 H2 + O2
The most commonly used green algae for biophotolysis is Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii. The hydrogenase enzyme of the green algae combines protons (H+) in
the medium with electrons to form and release H2(Levin et al, 2004). The rate of
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H2production by C. reinhardtii reportedby Kosourov et al. Was 7.95 mmol H2/l
of culture or similar to 0.07 mmole of H2/l/h.
H2production by this method is considered simpler because it only needs sunlight
as energy source and theoretical solar energy conversion can achieve 80% (Sen et
al, 2008). The algal hydrogen production also could be considered as an
economical and sustainable method in terms of water utilization as a renewable
resource and CO2 consumption as one of the air pollutants (Kapdan and Kargi,
2006). However, in actual practice, the efficiency of H2production by this method
is low (Sen et al, 2008) and at high solar intensities, the photosynthesis activity
may utilise too much photons that can result in dissipation and loss of photons as
heat. No waste utilization is also a disadvantage of hydrogen production by algae
(Kapdan and Kargi, 2006).
The main problem of this method is that the activity of hydrogenase enzyme is
highly sensitive to O2 presence, which is the main product of the reaction.
Therefore the production of H2 and O2 must be temporally and/or spatially
separated which includes an incubation of microalgae anaerobically in a sulphur-
free medium.
Indirect Biophotolysis
Cyanobacteria has the simplest nutritional requirement of using CO2 in the air as a
carbon source and solar energy as an energy source. The cells take up CO2first to
produce cellular substances, which are subsequently used for hydrogen
production, with the overall reaction as below (Manish and Banerjee, 2008):
12H2O + 6CO2+ light energy C6H12O6+ 6O2
C6H12O6+ 12H2O + light energy 12H2+ 6CO2
Species of cyanobacteria may possess nitrogenases to reduce ammonia and
hydrogenase to produce H2. Commonly used cyanobacteria are Anabaena,
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Oscillatoria, Calothrix, and Gloeocapsa. Levin et. al. (2004) reviewed that
maximum of 4.2 mol H2/mg chl a/h of H2production was get from Anabaena
variablilis. In other study with nitrogen strarvation medium, the rate of H2
synthesis can be achieved to 12.6 mol/g protein/h that is equal to 0.355 mmol
H2/l/h. Despite of the benefit of the process, maximum light conversion efficiency
for this process is 16.3%, and higher in low light illumination, but in actual
practice, the efficiency is only 1-2% (Sen et al, 2008)
Dark Fermentation
Bacteria known to produce hydrogen include species of Enterobacter, Bacillus,
Clostridium, and mixed Microflora. Carbohydrates are the preferred substrate.
When acetic acid or butyrate is the end-product, it obtains theoretical maximum of
4 or 2 mole H2 per mole of glucose respectively. But in the laboratory
experiment, only maximum yield of 3.2 moles H2/moles substrate has been
achieved (Sen et al, 2008). Levin et al (2004) reviewed that hydrogen production
in order of 121 mmol H2/l/h achieved during mesophilic dark fermentation.
Dark fermentative hydrogen production is economically feasible because of
higher hydrogen production rate and lower doubling time of the microbes than in
the photo fermentation and biophotolysis. Dark fermentation processes result in
huge amount of hydrogen production using different types of organic wastes
(Urja, 2014). The feasibility of the technology may yield a growing commercial
value because it does not need light, wide land, and therefore not affected by
weather (Road2HyCom, 2014).
Sen et al (2008) stated that eventhough rate and yield of dark fermentation process
are more than the others, the H2 concentration is very low (40-60%, v/v). The
amount of hydrogen production by dark fermentation highly depends on the pH
value, hydraulic retention time (HRT) and gas partial pressure. When pH
increases, the metabolic pathways shift to produce more reduced substrates, which
in turn decrease the hydrogen production (Roads2HyCom, 2014). Large
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quantitites of side products like organic acids produced then becomes a concern
and further treatment is then needed (Hallenbeck et al, 2012).
Biological Water-Gas Shift Reaction
This method uses Rhodospillaceae to grow in the dark and using CO as carbon
source. The oxidation of CO to CO2 with the release of H2 occurs via a watergas
shift reaction:
CO(g) + H2O(l) CO2(g) + H2(g)
The reaction is mediated by proteins coordinated in an enzymatic pathway. The
reaction takes place at low temperature and pressure.Thermodynamics of the
reaction are very favorable to CO-oxidation and H2synthesis since the
equilibrium is strongly to the right of this reaction. In his review, Levin et al
(2004) also stated that H2production rate by this method was found to be 96
mmol H2/l/h using R. gelatinosus. The maximum hydrogen production activity
also was found to be 27 mmol/g cell/h, which is about three times higher than R.
rubrum (Road2HyCom, 2014).
Photo Fermentation
Purple photosynthetic bacteria such as Rhodobacter, Rhodopseudomonas, and
Rhodospirillum (Sen et al, 2008) are capable of converting organic acids (acetic,
lactic, and butyric) to hydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) under anaerobic
condition in the presence of light. Nitrogenase is the key enzyme that catalyzes
the production of the hydrogen gas which is inhibited by the presence of oxygen,
ammonia, or high nitrogen-to-carbon ratios (Kapdan and Kargi, 2006). The
preferred substrate is acetic acid whose electrons are transported to the
nitrogenase by ferredoxin using ATP as energy drive. (Manish and Banerjee,
2008).
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Production of H2 by photosynthetic bacteria is affected by light intensity,
wavelength, and illumination protocol (Sen et al, 2008). Thus, the main limiting
factors that prevent practical application of photo fermentation are the overall low
light conversion efficiencies, the inability to use full solar light effectively, low
volumetric rates of hydrogen production, and the low yields observed with some
substrates (Hallenbeck, 2012)
Theoretically, H2 production from one mol of acetic acid, propionic acid, and
butyric acid are 4, 7, 10 mol respectively, but in actual practice, H2 yields are only
1.6, 2.8, and 4.0 mol (reviewed by Sen et al, 2008). It has been investigated that
H2from sugar cane juice yielded maximum level of hydrogen production with 45
mL/mg dry weight/h through photo fermentation process (Kapdan and Kargi,
2006).
Integrated Process
Complete oxidation of glucose into hydrogen and carbon dioxide is not possible
as the corresponding reaction is not feasible thermodynamically (Go =+3.2 kJ).
Therefore dark fermentation which produces organic acids such as acetic acid is
then followed by photo fermentation that oxidizes it into hydrogen. The overall
reaction is as below (Manish and Banerjee, 2008):
C6H12O6+ 2H2O 4H2 + 2CO2+ 2CH3COOH Go =206 kJ
CH3COOH + 2H2O + light energy 4H2+ 2CO2 Go =+104 kJ
As reviewed by Kapdan and Kargi (2006), sequential dark-photo fermentation can
produce up to 110 mL/g dry weight/h.
A three-steps integrated process has been reviewed by Sen et al (2008) that starts
at producing biomass from Chlamydomonas, then the feedstock (starch) is
fermented by Clostridium to produce acetate which then oxidized by Rhodobacter
to produce H2.
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Combining green algae which absorbs visible light and photosynthetic bacteria
which absorbs the infrared of solar radiation, increases the overall light
conversion efficiency. Malis et al successfully combines Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii and Rhodospirillum rubrum. This system would create high yield and
more economically viable H2.
Figure 2. Two photo and one dark combination process of biohydrogen production
(adapted from Sen et al, 2004)
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III. WRITING METHOD
The method used in the writing of this scientific paper is a literature review begins
with a feasibility study on biohydrogen from palm oil waste as an alternative
energy in the future. This section begins by looking for any methods that allow for
the production of biohydrogen from POME. Furthermore, the production methods
that have been found based on existing studies, selected one of the most effective
and efficient by considering the possible extension to the industrial scale.
In the discussion section, total amount of energy that can be produced from
biohydrogen from POME waste in Indonesia also studied using mathematicalapproach. This calculation method starts by searching data production Crude Palm
Oil (CPO) in the entire POM (Palm Oil Mill) in Indonesia. furthermore, from this
result will be obtained amount of waste production POME (Palm Oil Mill
Effluent) by calculating the ratio of national standards in the production of waste
oil per tonne of CPO. Then the total production POME per year will be used to
determine the amount of biohydrogen that can be produced from the method that
has been chosen by considering the yield of production biohidrogen based studies
that has been done. The total energy produced will be a consideration of whether
the biohydrogen industry from palm oil wastewater is potential for long-term
development.
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IV. DISCUSSION
BIOHYDROGEN PRODUCTION METHOD
POME has a very high BOD and COD, which is 100 times more than the
municipal sewage. POME is a non-toxic waste, as no chemical is added during the
oil extraction process, but will pose environmental issues due to large oxygen
depleting capability in aquatic system due to organic and nutrient contents. The
high organic matter is due to the presence of different sugars such as arabinose,
xylose, glucose, galactose and manose. The suspended solids in the POME are
mainly oil-bearing cellulosic materials from the fruits. Since the POME is non-
toxic as no chemical is added in the oil extraction process, it is a good source of
nutrients for microorganisms.
Table 2 Yield of biohydrogen using POME
From all the methods for producing biohydrogen, dark fermentation is preferred
for biohydrogen production from POME in Indonesia. Fermentation process using
anaerobic bacteria is considered much simpler in the process of biohydrogen
production. Dark fermentation is chosen because of its high hydrogen yield per
volume of medium compare to the other method. The fermentative process is also
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more stable than photofermentation, which is only mainly affected by pH and
HRT. The combination of the two fermentation method has been proven to
produce higher yield, but also require higher cost and power consumption
throughout the process. Therefore this paper only focuses on the dark
fermentation process.
The seed microorganisms such as Clostridium or microflora for hydrogen
production was enriched from anaerobic sludge collecting from palm oil mill
wastewater treatment plant. The sludge was settled and collected after decanting
the supernatant. Seed microoganism was prepared by certain shock pre-treatment
to remove methanogenic bioactivity (O-Thong et al, 2009). Sludge wassubsequently enriched in a synthetic medium and the initial pH value was adjusted
to 5.5 (Fan et al, 2004). The sludge needs to be acclimatised gradually by
increasing the concentration of the POME. Acclimatised POME sludge was
employed for hydrogen fermentation using fresh raw POME and enzyme treated
POME (or hydrolysed POME). Hydrolysed POME basically contains monomeric
sugars which are favourable for microbial growth (Khaleb et al, 2011). The
POME sludge was kept at 0-4C before use.
The evolved hydrogen gas was collected. Usually, The biogas evolved was
collected in inverted graduated cylinder using water displacement method. Gas
chromatography is then used to determine the composition of the biogas. The
corresponding values of specific hydrogen production (Ps ) and hydrogen
production potential (P) were obtained by fitting with modified Gompertz
equation (Lay et al, 1999). R2for all parameters was larger than 0.95, indicating
that the parameters were statistically significant.
Where, H(t) (ml) = represents the cumulative volume of hydrogen production, P
(ml) = the hydrogen production potential, Rm(ml/h) = the maximum production
rate, and (h) = the lag time.
http://www.ejbiotechnology.info/index.php/ejbiotechnology/article/view/v14n5-9/1361#25http://www.ejbiotechnology.info/index.php/ejbiotechnology/article/view/v14n5-9/1361#8http://www.ejbiotechnology.info/index.php/ejbiotechnology/article/view/v14n5-9/1361#14http://www.ejbiotechnology.info/index.php/ejbiotechnology/article/view/v14n5-9/1361#14http://www.ejbiotechnology.info/index.php/ejbiotechnology/article/view/v14n5-9/1361#14http://www.ejbiotechnology.info/index.php/ejbiotechnology/article/view/v14n5-9/1361#8http://www.ejbiotechnology.info/index.php/ejbiotechnology/article/view/v14n5-9/1361#25 -
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Enriched microorganism and optimum condition from batch tests and semi-
continuous were applied to continuously hydrogen production from POME. The
temperature was controlled at 60C by circulating hot water inside the water
jacket of the reactors. Mixing was provided by a magnetic stirrer located
underneath the reactor. The initial anaerobic condition in the reactor was
established by replacing the gaseous phase with oxygen free nitrogen. The POME
was continuously pumped into reactors. The amounts of evolved gas, soluble
metabolites, and responsible microbial community were investigated. The reactors
were operated until the system reached steady state. The steady-state condition
was reached when hydrogen gas content, biogas volume and the volatile fatty
acids (VFA) concentration in the effluent were stable (less than 10% variation) for
a week (O-Thong et al, 2011).
Table 3 Potential of Biohydrogen production from POME in Indonesia
Process Quantity Unit Source
Indonesias Palm
Cultivation
Palm Oil Production 31000000 ton/yr
www.pecad.fas.usda.gov
(2013)
Palm Oil Cultivation Area 10800000 hectareswww.pecad.fas.usda.gov
(2013)
FFB (fresh fruit bunch)yield 18.8 ton/ha/yr
outputs.worldagroforestry.org(2014)
POME from FFB 0.65 m3/ton FFB King and Yu (2013)
FFB per year 203040000 ton
POME per year 131976000 m3
Average H2 production
from dark fermentation
process
4500 ml H2/L POME
Lam and Lee (2010)
Hydrogen production 5.93 x 1014 mL H2/yearDensity hydrogen 0.0899 kg/m3
53.39 x 106 kg H2/year
Energy from hydrogen 122000000 J/kg Saratale et al (2008)
6513 x 1012 J/year
Total energy from
hydrogen 1,064,000
BOE (Barrel of
Oil Equivalent)
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From the mathematical analysis above, we know that biohydrogen production
from POME especially in Indonesia, has the potential to produce energy annually
around one million BOE. Furthermore, this number is much smaller than gasoline
deficiency in Indonesia. Although the amount of energy generated from
biohydrogen is still relatively small, biohydrogen production from palm oil waste
still has long-term potential is quite promising due to the growth of palm oil
industry in Indonesia is very fast and needs of energy sources that are
environmentally friendly for the big cities is exigent. Moreover, hydrogen
combustion through fuel cells is more efficient producing useable energy than
gasoline combustion (David Roper, 2006). Hydrogen Energy Systems LLC
mentions that 1 kg of hydrogen (1 GGE) can travel a distance of 81 miles when 1
GGE of gasoline only able to cover up to 31 miles. Latter, hydrogen is a carbon-
free fuel, so, its use in replacing gasoline would much reduce carbon emissions in
the air and keep the air clean even in the big cities. Based on the reasons stated
above, it is clear that biohidrogen production from POME is promising bioprocess
industry in the future, especially in the field of renewable and clean energy.
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V. CLOSING
In this recent time, biohydrogen production from Palm Oil Mill Effluent not yet
be able to solve the energy independent in Indonesia. Further research is needed toproduce biohydrogen with higher efficiency. The next challenge is how to supress
the high cost in industry of biohydrogen production due to the required
sophisticated infrastructure for this process. This industry will not be able to start
without any collaboration with government, investors, and companies which
actually should become the solution to environment issues in big cities.
Amount of energy that can be produced from biohydrogen industry from palm
sewage also will be increased gradually along with the fast growing palm industry
in Indonesia, especially in Sumatera and Kalimantan island. Therefore, attention
from the central government to the potential of this industry is very much needed
for it to become the new source of renewable energy.
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VI. REFERENCE
Kotay, SM., Das, D. 2008. Biohydrogen as renewable energy resource-Prospect
and Potential. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy : 258-263.
Karyati Y, et al. 2011. Manajemen dan Konservasi Energi : Analisa Biohidrogen.
Essay. Program Sarjana Universitas Diponegoro. Semarang.
Hallenbeck, et. al. 2012. Stra tegies for improving biological hydrogen production.
Bioresource Technology. 110 (2012): 19
Kapdan, I. K. and Kargi, F. 2005. Biohydrogen production from waste material.
Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 38 (2006): 569582
Khaleb, et. al. 2011. Biohydrogen Production Using Hydrolysates of Palm Oil
Mill Effluent (POME). Journal of Asian Scientific Research. 2 (11): 705 710
Khanna, N. and Das, D. 2012. Biohydrogen production by dark fermentation.
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 00: 1-21.
Lam, M. K. and Lee, K. T. 2011. Renewable and sustainable bioenergies
production from palm oil mill effluent (POME): Winwin strategies toward better
environmental protection. Biotechnology Advances. 29 (2011): 124141
Levin, et. al. 2003. Biohydrogen production: prospects ad limitations to practicalapplication. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 29 (2004): 173185
Manish, S. and Banerjee, R. 2007. Comparison of biohydrogen production
processes. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 33 (2008) : 279286
O-Thong, S. 2011. Effect of temperature and initial pH on biohydrogen
production from palm oil mill effluent: long-term evaluation and microbial
community analysis. Electronic Journal of Biotechnology. 14 (5)
Saratale, et. al. 2008. Outlook of biohydrogen production from lignocellulosic
feedstock using dark fermentation a review. Journal of Scientific & Industrial
Research. 67 (2008): 962979
Sen, et. al. 2008. Status of Biological hydrogen production. Journal of Scientific
& Industrial Research. 67 (2008): 980993
Urja A. 2014. Biomass to Biohydrogen: A Successful Path. RE Feature