Chapter 3

Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Development

of Small Islands

Biodiversity Conservation and Small Islands

It has been estimated that human-caused species extinction's are more an

island based than a continental phenomenon. "Of the 94 species of birds known to

have become extinct worldwide since contact with European only 9 were continental. "1

Currently more endemic island bird species are officially listed as endangered or

threatened than are listed for the entire continents. Where information is available on

other groups of animals, it indicates that human-caused extinction's are invariably

more frequent on islands.

"The causes of extinction on islands as deforestation and fire, the introduction

of grazing mammal, cultivation and the introduction of weedy plants. "2 All these factors

can be important on continents as well, but species introductions (deliberate or

accidental) are disproportionately important on islands. "Isolated islands and

archipelagos often lack major elements of the biota of continents, and their native

species often lack defences against grazing or predations. "3

Biological invasions are not the only factor leading to elevated extinction

rates for island species. Extinction rates are also higher on islands because island

species generally have small populations, restricted genetic diversity, and narrow ranges

prior to human colonization. It is because human alterations of land through use destroy

(1) M.Gorman, 'Island Ecology', Chapman and Hall, London, 1979, p. 79.

(2) U.H.Haywood, The Future of Island Flora, Academic Press London, 1979, p.435.

(3) C. S. Elton, The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. Melthuen Co.,

London, 1958, p.181.

69

an already limited critical habitat. Whatever the human interaction with these other

causes of extinction, the biological invaders endanger native species in reserves and

other protected lands.

The fact that biological invasions dicrease diversity of species on islands is

paradoxical because the introduction of alien species generally increases the total

number of species on an island, often spectacularly. However, most of the introduced

species are cosmopolitan that are in no danger of global species extinction, whereas

most species on isolated islands are endemic.

Small islands frequently have distinctive and often unique assemblages of

species. In general they have lower species diversity than equivalent continental areas.

But they tend to have elevated numbers of endemic species. Because of exclusive

endemic species the small islands thus making an important contribution to the biological

wealth of the entire planet. This holds very true for Andaman and Nicobar Islands and

Mauritius too. The biological resources of small islands are of great aesthetic, economic

and spiritual value to the people of these islands.

The number of species in a particular taxonomic group on a given island and

the proportion these which are endemic appears to depend upon a wide variety of

factors, both historical and ecological. Among these factors are the degree of isolation,

age, size, topography and climate of the island and the biological characteristics of

toxomamic groups concerned. Historical accidents also appear to play a large part in

the patterns of species occurrences on islands.

The endemics of small islands tend to be of two types: relict species which

appear to have been more widespread in the past and the species which have evolved

in isolation on the island concerned. "Relict-species are generally confined to islands,

which were previously part of larger land masses. Because of the processes continental

drift or changes in sea level these islands have been isolated. In contrast, many island

70

species are believed to represent the results of adaptive radiation. The accidental

colonisation by individuals encouraged adaptive radiation. The biotic composition of

isolated oceanic islands which have never been parts of larger land masses (and are

generally volcanic in origin) is largely a result of this process. The taxa (taxonomic

species) represented on these islands are those which have the capacity for long

range dispersal. "4 Thus, we can say that small oceanic islands may have good

representation of, and high level of endemism in plants, birds and some invertebrate

groups, such as land snails and some insects, while having low diversity of groups

such as non volent manual and amphibians.

Once islands have been colonised other factors play an important role in

determining subsequent patterns of evolution and speculation. "Species which are

highly vagile tend not to speciate and diversity. Species here tend to have very wide

distributions. In contrasts, groups such as the rails (Rallidae), pigeons, and tortoises

which have the capacity for long range dispersal will tend to form separate species on

islands or group of islands which they successfully colonise. "5 The degree of speciation

which occurs on islands subsequent to colonisation appears to be highly dependent

on habitat diversity, which is itself dependent on the size, topography and climate of

the island. Thus, low lying oceanic islands, such as coral atolls, tend to have low

diversity and low rates of endemism for most groups, while montane (generally volcanic)

island tend to have much higher species diversity and rates of endemism. As with

continental ecosystems, other factors being equal, species diversity increases with

decreasing latitude.

(4) Brion Groom bridge, (ed.)," Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth's Living Re­

sources." World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Chapman & Hall, London,

1992, p.147.

(5) Ibid. p. 148.

71

The biotas of small oceanic islands tend to share similar features, such as

gigantism iri plants and reptiles, dwarfism in large mammals (mostly extinct now) and

flightlessness in birds. This may arise from the disharmonic colonisation of islands

and the subsequent evolution of plants and animals in isolations.

The number of endemic species and the proportion of the flora that is endemic

varies considerable from island to island and depend on number of the factors mentioned

above. The extent to which island endemic floras consists of relict species tends to be

a matter of speculation. "The relict species include an extraordinary array of endemic

monotypic genera and even families. Monotypic families are threatened species and

in consequence, threatened families. "6

In contrast many of the endemic have evolved in isolation on small islands.

The species that result from isolation and adaptive radiation tend to be difficult to

classify. This is because of much hybridisation between the various species. This

helped Darwin to develop the theory of evolution and natural selection; These series

of evolving and evolved small island endemics are of great importance to science.

The significance of small islands in terms of biological diversity could be

realised with following facts:

) ) Almost 900 bird species- 10 per cent of the world's total are endemic to

one or other of the world's islands.

~2) A single volcanic island in the Philippines, Mount Makiliang, has more

varied plants regime than the entire united states of America.

(6) Ibid. p. 148.

72

3) About 75 per cent of all animals and birds known to have become extinct

in recent history lived on islands.

4) The Dodo the most famous of all extinct species lived in Mauritius until the

last was killed in 1662, rest of the islands endemic birds, mammal and reptite specie

are extinct and rest are rare, threatened or extinct.

5) $ 40 billion worth of medicine derived from wild species are used to treat

disease world wide every year; genes from wild plants have rescued many of the

worlds crops from disaster.

The aforesaid facts present the grave condition of biodiversity in small islands.

We can draw conclusion from above discussion that island ecosystems are valued

primarily for their endemic resources evolved due to their remoteness and isolation

from the onslaught of degradation witnessed from mainland development activities.

Various types of ecosystem like, evergreen rainforests, mangroves, coral reefs, etc.,

offer varies resources ranging from fuelwood, fish, animals food, and biomedicines.

The small islands by nature have limited resources in terms of land, freshwater,

flora and fauna. The isolation circumscribed space and unique environment factors

have resulted in specialised life form and human communities. Though small islands

have limited resources yet they are renowned for the diversity and uniqueness of their

plants and animal species, but because of small size, isolation and fragility of island

ecosystems, their biological diversity is among the most threatened in the world.

Deforestation, coral reef deterioration and the introduction of non-indigenous species

are the most significant causes. "The small islands have been conditioned over a long

time, adapted to minimum changes but have become vulnerable in recent times in the

face of exogenous factors caused by human interactions with modern continentally

scaled development technology. The very quality of pristine nature and recreational

potentials, which attract urbanised people, tend to be altered by the introduction of

73

modern technology and infrastructure to service these people. "7 The implications are

the irreversible changes in physical and biological asserts of the islands. This is in

contrast to traditional practices of use of resources by islander whose livelihood in

harmony with the environmentally dependent resources. Wherever small islands have

been subjected to quick modem technological development, environmental cultural

and economic impacts have been severe. Hence the economical, social and

environmental development objectives for the small islands should be in conjunction

with the available limited natural resources and their inter relationships in the island

systems to permit optimum exploitation consistent with human needs and minimal

environmental balance.

The insular and fragile qualities of island ecosystems often raise the concern

whether island should be developed at all. "The undeveloped state of islands offer

scope not only for preservation of rare, specialised biotic communities to pursue and

sustain the knowledge of evolution, genetic and the relationship within and between

ecosystems but also for the promotion of aesthetic, cultural and recreational values." 8

Thus preservationists would like the island to remain in a more or less frozen state,

free from any outside contamination by opting for rigid protective measures such as

declaration of the islands as bio-reserves, sanctuaries and national parks.

The islands however fragile, cannot be isolated for development thrusts due

to population growth and modern technological advancements like quick transport

and fast communications to improve the quality of life. The conservationists would like

to allow measured technology and development inputs consonant with the -judicious

use of island resources for the benefits of islanders as well as permanent visitors'. The

(7) Samir Acharya," Community Participation in the Conservation of Island Ecosys­

tem," Society for Andaman and Nicobar Ecology, Port Blair, 1995, p. 69.

(B) Ibid. p. 69.

74

emphasis is to involve local people with traditional knowledge along with official

patronage for ecologically sound and socially acceptable development endeavors.

The interests of private developers with an eye for quick and lucrative returns

focus on shaping the islands as tourist paradise. Since the local resources cannot

cope with megs-needs of the facilities to be developed, the island will be ultimately

totally dependent upon men and material from mainland. A total dependence on outside

development capital will lead to over exploitation and the distribution of social benefits

may strongly favour outside people to the disadvantage of locals (as in the case of

Andaman and Nicobar islands, India).

Development Options For Smalllslalids

Development choices ranges in 9ifferent way from "Those having no

anthropogenic adverse environmental impacts (e.g., wildlife sanctuaries) to those with

little impact (e.g., subsistence affluence economics in which local needs are fulfilled

largely through sustainable use of local resources) to those bringing about radical

changes in the environment (e.g., large scale mining or export cash cropping military

and nuclear testing and intensive tourism development. "9

The first choice excludes permanent human residents, so is not properly

'development.' The second choice is hindered by the growing populations and

aspirations of island peoples. The third one represents those activities totally removed

from resource management and_potentially resulting in their destruction.

Between these extremes are a number of development activities that 'tread

lightly on the environment, including some forms of agriculture, fisheries, aquaculture,

(9) P. Hein, (ed.), nstates, Microstates, and /slandsn. Croom Helm, London, 1985.

p.216.

. 75

tourism, light industry, service activities, migration, remittances, aid and bureaucracy.

It is only recently that these options have been explored.

However in many islands inappropriate introduction or intensification of

technologies has resulted in widespread depletion of basic resources. "Island tourism

provide relatively little benefit to the local economy. It has often carried the seeds of its

own- destruction: the very resources that attract visitors are those being threatened by

tourism infrastructure and tourist activities."10

Despite history, little concern may exist for the economic or ecological

sustainability of income generating activities. Public interventions to restore ecosystems

and reverse costly mistakes become prohibitively expensive and unsustainable activities

continue.

A typical response to economic recession and environmental degradation is

to reduce human populations dependent upon the resources. "People emigrate and,

perhaps, repopulate the area when the resources have recovered, when new

technologies allow reclamation or when new demands create new resources. Emigration

may be off island or resource dependent activities may be concentrated on ever smaller

areas of land."11 The small size of islands and their consequent scarcity of land and

resources makes the latter alternative undesirable and probably infeasible. The former

alternative may reduce the chances of economic development.

(10) Ibid., p.218.

(11) Alison. L. Hess, "Overview: Sustainable Development and Environmental Man­

agement of Small Islands, n Sustainable Development and Environmental Man­

agement of Small Islands. W.Bel/er, P.D.Ayala, and P.Hein, (eds). The

Perthenon Publishing Group, UK, 1990, p. 7.

76

Similarly, small population and economies disallow expenditure of large

amounts of scarce capital and labour on artificial provision of environmental services

or continuous reclamation of degraded areas. Even though island citizens have the

same abilities to degrade their ecosystem as resident of continental areas, they do not

have the same scope for response.

Clearly, the preferred alternative is to prevent biodiversity loss of small islands

in the first place. "However, human activity must perforce involve modification of the

environment to increase the provision of goods and services valued by man. Thus, on

small and resource poor islands, biodiversity and environmental management is a

part of sustained economic growth .• 12 Similarly, management of economic growth is

part and parcel of biodiversity and environmental management.

Development Goals and Small Islands

Where self-sufficiency or economic specialization are not possible or

desirable, development might be defined in terms other than those of traditional

economic growth. "The evolution of an small island- its people, its biological resources,

its institutions and its future options depends to a large extent on development goals

and the means chosen to achieve them."13 One alternative goal might be to increase

self reliance- a goal within the bounds of sustainable development for many small

islands. Self-reliance need not be measured in terms of economic growth or of

participation in international trade. It might mean meeting more of the social and personal

aspirations of small island societies.

(12) P.Hein, (ed.), "States, Microstates and Islands". Croom Helm, London, 1985, p.216.

(13) Alison. L.Hess, "Overview: Sustainable Development and Environmental Man­

agement of Small Islands," Sustainable Development and Environmental Manage­

ment of Small Islands. W.Beller, P.D.Ayala, and P.Hein, (eds). The Perthenon Pub­

lishing Group, UK, 1990, p. 9.

77

Another related goal might be to maximise the opt!ons available for

development rather than any one desired outcome of development: to increase the

choices for and capabilities island residents to satisfy their aspirations within the

boundaries set by their island's culture, economies, and resources. These boundaries

imply a sense of responsibility among current island residents to future inhabitants­

their own children. Analysis of sustainable development and biodiversity conservation

constraints and potentials would, at least, beget the legacy of hope.

In general, increasing small islands current and future sustainable

development options might be based on two general principles:

1) "sectoral integration of development and multiple use of resources to derive

multiple benefits from investment, and

2) Diversity and flexibility of economic activities to permit adjustment to market

and stock flucturations. "14

More specific ways in which sustainable development options for small islands

might be increased fall into six basic categories:

(i) Resource preservation

(ii) Resource restoration

(iii) Resource enhancement

(iv) Sustainable resource development

(v) Provision of human services

(vi) Non-resource-dependent development options

(14) Ibid, p.11.

78

Resource Preservation

Even though islands commonly contain high proportions of rare and endangered

species relative to their size. The small island societies remove their habitats from

productive use only at the cost of some development options. Resource use

mechanisms that protect these species and simultaneously allow provision of economic

benefit- multiple use options-are needed. For the most valuable or vulnerable

ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangrove communities and sea grass beds, protection

policies may allow derivation of multiple benefits. Policies to conserve these resources

are likely to prove more important to the process of building sustainable development

than those prepared for the development of an industrial complexes. Further more,

development monitoring surveillance and enforcement mechanisms especially for

Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) and environmental education and public participation

are required to make preservation and conservation measures effective.

Resource Restoration

Many small islands have histories of resource degradation caused by in

appropriate intensification or introduction of technologies and activities. This resource

degradation posing constraints on their development options beyond those imposed

by nature. The means and incentives to reclaim the productivity of these resources

(e.g., reforestation) could considerably extend development options on many islands.

Resource Enhancement

As we know that natural resources are severely limited on smaH islands. Although

limits wiil always exist opportunities to expand the resources available to small islands

beyond those provided by nature are being developed, such as artificial sea water

upwelling.

79

Sustainable Resource Development

Most islands probably will continue to rely heavily on resource-based activities­

agriculture, fisheries, aquaculture and tourism to provide employment and generate

income. Growing populations and aspirations dictate that the productivity of these

activities increases. Small island communities might look the other islands or to

developing countries rather than developed continental countries for suitable forms of

developments. Mechanisms to maximize economic benefits without reducing the

potential for long-term sustainability or continued development need to be explored.

Provision of Human Services

Human kind can not function without modifying the environment to some extent.

Techniques and technologies to provide the needs of human settlements on small

islands are required to support sustainable development and prepare for future

development demands.

Non-Resource Dependent Development Options

Certain development activities can operate largely independent of the

constraints of scarce natural resources and environment vulnerability of islands and

thus contribute to island economies without detracting from their long-term viability.

Therefore, to identify and evaluate sustainable development options, island

governments and residents must do more than identified societal needs and aspirations.

They must define development goals and consider the ways to retain or increase

future development options.

Sustainable development will be a hit or miss affair without a thorough

understanding of the resources available for development and the vulnerability of insular

biological resources and resource system to adverse impacts of human activities.

80

Surveys of island resources, analyses of interaction among resource systems and

means for environmental monitoring are needed for each island.

To understand the factors that influence the human carrying capacity of small

islands, one must examine the characteristics of the human community occupying the

islands. Because traditional human societies operated within the constraints posed by

nature and because the social systems that evolve in association with traditional

resource use and conservation practices still exist to some extent on many island.

These practices ~n play an important role in the sustainable use of island resources.

"Custom can provide the basis for environmental education and development of an

environmental ethic, modern resource uses can profitably draw principles and guidelines

from traditional practices and items of practical importance can become products with

commercial value. "15

Planning is fundamental to sustainable development. Each planning study must be

made on an island-by-island or development-by-development basis. The general

techniques and guidelines for determining the capability of insular resources to sustain

various uses could simplify identification of feasible alternatives for application to island

biodiversity.

Biodiversity Conservation and Technology Transfer In Small Islands

There have been several barriers to technology transfer to developing and

small island countries in the past. It includes lack of access, demand, finance, to chro­

noJogical capability, infrastructure and relevant technology. The reduction of these

barriers seems to be more to do with finding the necessary political will than the ab­

sence of the means and knowledge to do it.

(15) W.Beller, P. D.Ayala and P.Hein, (eds), "Sustainable Development and Envi­

ronment Management of Small Islands". UK- The Perthenon Publishing Group,

U.K., 1990, p.13.

81

In recent years there has been renewed interest in the international transfer

of technology as a primary mechanism for solving both the traditional problem of pov­

erty in developing countries and the newer problems of global as well as regional

environmental security and biodiversity conservation.

"The application of science and technology offers the possibility of avoiding

the widening gap that exist between the needs of an increasing population and global

society's ability to meet them. Technology enables us to believe that a desirable future

is at least in the realm of the possible, If the right social, technological and political

choices are made. "16

"Technology has played one important role in significantly improving the lot

of many people in developing countries since the mid 1960s. Over this period per

capita consumption in developing countries rose by two thirds, life expectancy by 20

per cent and primary school enrolment by 15 per cent."17

However, history has shown thattechnology is a two edged sword that brings

both benefits and burdens. Improvements in technology provide the means for pro­

ducing more with less. In developing countries the introduction of new technologies

had brought benefits but it has also frequently had devastating effects on the liveli­

hoods of vast number of people. For example mechanisation that has displaced labour,

new materials that have undermined the price of tropical products, and e":en, new

medicines that have contributed to 'explosions' of population.

Currently considerable attention is rightly being given to the existence and

consequences of major technological revolutio~s. But these innovation divert atten­

tion away from the less glamorous efforts required to utilise old, 'dirty' and conven­

tional technology to meet the basic needs of vast numbers of people.

(16) Andrew Barnett, ''Technology Transfer," Science and Public Policy, Vol. 21,

November 1 I February, 1994, pp. 1-2

(17) Ibid

82

In the analysis of the future facing the poorer parts of the world, dilemmas

posed by the essential dualism of the development process. Technical change allows

parts of a society to become increasingly integrated into a global economy, while

forcing a larger majority to become further excluded.

Viewed from the early 1990s the dominant policies appear to be based more

on the idea that the 'mortally wounded' nations of the world should be left to die rather

than to a belief that there is a genuine 'inter-dependence' between 'us and them'.

"The current emphasis on 'Global Issues' certainly draws attention to the possibility

that the achievement of sustainability in particular areas could be under mined by

instability in others. Yet such a focus attracts attention towards certain issues and

away from others. Attention is directed to those issues that are considered a threat to

the north, such as global pollution and common heritages of mankind, i.e. High seas,

biodiversity, etc. "18

Although much of the discussion of technology transfer relates to the mod­

ern industrial sector, the major barrier to the transfer of scientific and technological

knowledge for the majority of the peoples of the world is likely to continue to be the

crude lack of physical access, habitual poverty and illiteracy in the traditional and

informal sectors.

Unfortunately many developing countries (including small Island states) face

formidable difficulties in trying to increase their revenues through international trade,

as increasing numbers countries compete for the same northern markets as well as

aid from these northern countries for conserving biological diversity- and sustainable

development.

Although there is considerable scope for improving the quality of aid associ­

ated with the transfer of sustainable technology. It is likely that substantial additional

flows will be required if developing countries are to be able to significantly increase

their access to the technology required to assure their future.

(18) The World Health Organization reports, 1992.

83

information on the environmental aspects of existing and state-of-the-art technologies

required upgrading information on such technologies including their environmental

risks, and improving access to environmentally sound technologies."19

"UNCED Proposed a number of objectives, including helping to ensure ac­

cess, in particular of developing countries, to scientific and technological information

and to promote, facilitate and finance access to and transfer of environmentally sound

technologies and corresponding know-how on favourable terms."20 Other objectives

were:

a. Facilitating the maintenance and promotion of environmentally sound

indigenous technologies;

b. supporting endogenous capacity building, particularly in developing coun­

tries;

c. human resource development;

d. strengthening institutional capacities for research and development and

programme implementation;

e. integrated sector assessments of technology needs;

f. promoting long teem technological partnership between holders of envi­

ronmentally sound technologes and potential users;

g. developing international information networks to link national, sub-re­

gional and international systems as a part of programme activities;

h. supporting and promoting access to transfer of technology and improv­

ing the capacity to develop and manage environmentally sound tech­

nologies;

(19) Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development,

Rio de Janeiro, 3- 14 June 1992, Vol. 1. Ill

(20) Ibid.

85

i. establishing collaborative network of research eenters;

j. supporting programmes of cooperation and assistance and promoting

technology assessment to support the management of environmentally

sound technologies; and

k. developing collaborative arrangements and partnership between enter­

prises of developed and developing countries to develop such technolo­

gies.

To fulfill the above mentioned objectives, two basic things must be kept in

mind, e.g. a strong political will at national level and a well developed co-ordination

and cooperation between north and south countries in the field of technology transfer,

financial assistance, research and development, etc. for biodiversity conservation and

sustainable development.

Role of Bio-technology

The emergence of modern biotechnology presents an important potential for

a productive link between conservation and sustainable utilisation of genetic diver­

sity. Bio-technology can lead to new and improved methods of preservation of plant

and animal genetic resources. It can accelerate the evaluation of germplasm collec­

tions for specific traits. It offers new possibilities for increasing the production of food,

medicine, energy, speciality chemicals, and other new materials and for improving

environmental management. Maintenance of a wide genetic base (one of the ele­

ments of biodiversity) is essential to the future of biotechnology and the sustainable

use of biological resources.

The new bio-technologies may increase the value ofthe wold's biodiversity if

they allow increased use of the genetic diversity of both wild and domesticated spe­

cies, thereby increasing their economic importance. As far as small islands like Mauritius

and A & N are concerned bio-technology can play a very important role in preserving

the unique and fragile biodiversity of these islands and enhance the economic and

86

3. a collaborative relationship betweel') governments scientists, local com­

munities, and private sector which supports the process of conserving

biodiversity;

4. a well managed system of protected areas established in each country.

This system should include the representative ecosystems and the wid­

est possible range of a country's biodiversity.

5. finally, there must be a comprehensive database on soils, climate, to­

pography, geology and biodiversity to monitor status and trends of genes,

species and ecosystems and to Predict the impact on future changes.

It has been widely accepted that sustainable use of biological resources is

an essential element in sustainable development. Most countries have signed the

C.B.D to follow up several strategic lines. But much remains to be done to actually

implement the convention. It is being expected that every country should establish

mechanisms to determine how the convention can be most useful to each country and

to the world as a whole. A first step is to prepare national biodiversity strategies and

action plans, as called for in Article 6. Strategic issues that must be addressed in­

cludes means to regulate access to genetic resources, mechanism for controlling im­

port and possession of materials obtained contrary to the legislation of the originating

country. It must alos include mechanisms to identify the source of material from which

any particular benefit is derived, funding mechanisms, intellectual property rights and

technology transfer.

Information, research and data management need to be improved. Deci­

sions for planning conservation measures, Identifying priorities, and formulating man­

agement policies must be on a careful analysis of the most complete and up -to-date

factual information.

Baseline information on the status and distribution of species and ecosys­

tems that can serve as a benchmark for monitoring, indicating a significant shortage of

essential informations. Biodiversity needs to become a focus of research at national

88

than most continental areas, these islands experience sea wave action from all sides

and tend to have small water catchment so that much freshwater and sediment is lost

into the sea. In addition, insular peoples commonly evolved cultures distinct from

continental peoples and retain a strong allegiance to home and culture. Exogeneously

driven forces-social,.economic, technological-affect and often disrupt these cultures.

traditional skills are eroding and modern skilled labour is emigrating from many islands.

As such, sustainable development and biodiversity conservation on small islands is

problematic.

As far as microcosm is concerned small islands may not profitably be

considered continents. "The island futures might be likened to global futures in

microcosm; where on continents the limits are only beginning to be perceived, on

some small islands they already have been reached. Small islands cover a vast array

of climatic, geographic, economic, social, political and cultural conditions." 21 That is

why the generalisation or integration is difficult.

Small islands provide a special case in development, largely due to special

characteristics of their natural resources, biodiversity, economies and their cultures.

Ecologically ad economically sustainable development options are few, human

resources are scarce, provision of utilities and public services is difficult and costly and

little economic development has occurred without outside intervention. The trends of

economic development of many small islands have been characterised as disappointing

and ~elf-sufficiency may be hardly possible.

(21) Alison, L.Hess," Overview :Sustainable Development And Environmental Man­

agement of Small Islands", Sustainable Development And Environmental Man­

agement of Small Islands, W.Beller, P.D Ayala, and P.Hein, (eds). The

Parthenon Publishing Group, UK, 1990, p. 3.

90

Insular natural resources- water, vegetation, soil, air, nearshore system and

wildlife- ultimately dictate the capacity of on island to accept and sustain development.

Resource productivity and the environmental services are intimately and obviously

linked in small islands to the functions of neighboring ecosystem. Damage to one

ecosystem given rise to reverberating effects in 'downstream' ecosystem. For example,

on some islands deforestation has resulted in declining land and stream fauna,

increasing soil erosion and sedimentation, and consequent adverse impacts on esturine

and marine resources. Thus, a temporary success in agriculture may be achieved at

the expense of a temporary or even permanent loss in fisheries.

Economic development options may be further hindered by island size and

location. Small size alone is not disadvantageous when both producers and consumers

are local. However, today's growing population and their rising aspirations demand

products and markets far from the islands edges. "Provision of modern basic

infrastructure and services consume a- large share of island's financial and human

resources. Difficulty or inability 10 achieve economies of scale in administration,

production and transportation provide very real constraints to nearly all small islands. "22

"Small size also may pose little disadvantage to an island with high level of

outside aid per capita or a strategic location that leads to outside investment in

infrastructure. However, neither income transfer nor locational advantage or

disadvantage) are constant; they can change on a donor's whim, on successes or

failures of competitors or with changes in technology. Changes in locational advantage

demand investment if they are to be captured and such investment is beyond the

capabilities of all but a very few small island countries. Even if once captured, few 23

small island retain such advantages."

(22) H. C Brookfield, "Problem of Monoculture and Diversification in a sugar Island:

Mauritius", Economic Geography, 1959, Vol. 34, pp.25-40.

(23) Ibid, pp. 25-40.

91

Finally, even where ecologically and economically sustainable development

options exist, they may conflict with island cultures. For example, tourism has become

a common development focus on many islands, and may yet be viewed as a panacea

on some. But tourism also may be abhorred by island residents who object to selling

the cultures for currency. More generally, small societies have problems in policy

making, administrative and management processes other than those arising from

diseconomies of scale.

On small islands, most people are either closely related or know each other

well. It is much more difficult to formulate and apply policies on their own merits. And

decisions are inevitable highly influenced by personal and kinship consideration." The

essential small island development dilemma, then, is that aspiration render self

sufficiency unacceptable, but attempts to gain or maximize wealth by economic

specialisation tend to render the society and economy unstable. "24 Those most injured

by an unmanaged drive for growth and economic development are the islands

fundamental resources- natural (biodiversity) and human. Those injuries can be lasting

or even fatal to the future development of small islands.

Sustainability of Small Islands

Sustainability of island development ultimately depends upon the abilities of

island residents and institutions to choose wisely among alternative activities and to

implement choices. these abilities depends on individual skill and institutional capabili­

ties and the information available to them. Making public participation an integral part

of insular decision making. ''The inter-island cooperation, transfer of resource man­

agement skills and problem solving techniques can only assist in the sustainable de­

velopment and biodiversity conservation of small islands."25

(24) See Alison L.Hess. p.6.

(25) J.McEiroy, "Challanges for Sustainable Development in Small Carribean

lslandsn. 1990. p.110.

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But little progress can be made in discussing policies for sustainable devel­

opment unless we are clear about the meaning of the concept. It may, for example,

refer to economic sustainability, ecological sustainability, sustainability of biological

resource base and sustainability of cultural and community life.

The above mentioned sustainability goals are all difficult for small islands to

achieve because their dependence on the rest of the world for their economic welfare

· via international trade, aid and remittances. Small island states have limited control

over their economic destiny. They have, however some control. Their difficulty, for

example, of sustaining per capita incomes and achieving ecological sustainability is

increased because of their high rates of population growth.

The meager resource base of many small island countries limits their scope

for economic development and may make them permanently aid dependent. In giving

aid it is important not to erode the biological and other resource base of the recipient

country. Otherwise the aid required to reach a target level of income in the recipient

country may rise. More attention is being given by aid bodies to the environmental

impact of their aid. It should also be remembered that methods of project and environ­

mental appraisal are still evolving in developed countries and that they may exhibit

cultural biases. They undoubtedly reflect the cultural values of developed countries.

Global conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island devel­

oping States held in Bridgetown, Barbados from 25 April to 6 May 1994. In this very

conference it was dedded that small island Governments would adopt a Program of

Action in 15 key areas. These 15 key areas are as follow:

i) Climate change and sea level rise

ii) Natural and Environmental disasters

iii) Waste Management

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iv) Coastal and marine resources

v) Freshwater

vi) Land Resources

vii) Energy

viii) Tourism

ix) Biodiversity

x) National Institutions

xi) Regional Institutions and Technical Cooperation

xii) Transport and Communications

xiii) Science and Technology

xiv) Human Resource Development

xv) Implementation, Monitoring and Review.

Out of these 15 key areas we will have a look at three key areas for the

purpose of our study. These areas are, i.e. Biodiversity, coastal and Marine resources

and tourism. We will discuss here about Action proposals on above mentioned three

key areas only.

Most small island countries are highly dependent on their coastal and ma­

rine resources-on fish, for food and export income, and on healthy and unpolluted

reefs, lagoons and beaches to sustain ecosystems and attract tourism. But increasing

development, especially for tourism has threatened the very natural resources on which

islands depend. Overexploitation and destructive fishing practice by local and foreign

fishing fleets are reducing fish catches. Yet most island Governments lack the funds

and technology to asses and monitor these vaheable resources, the first step toward

sustainable management.

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Recommendation through action proporals include· development of national

integrated coastal zone management plans, monitories programmes and fisheries

policies; strengthening of regional fisheries organizations and information sharing and

negotiation of mutually advantageous fishing agreeent between small islands and for­

eign fishing groups. The concerns of small island should also be reflected in the nego­

tiations on high-seas fishing being held by UN Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks

and Highly Migratory Fish Stock, which concluded in August 1994.

Tourism is a main source of revenue for many islands, one of the few devel­

opment options they have, but its impact on island environments and indigenous cul­

tures threatened to ruin the very beauty and diversity that draws tourists. As an indus­

try tourism is, both resource- intensive and waste-intensive, affecting coastal ecosys­

tem.

Action proposals are that it is imperative that small islands. carefully plan

tourism development. This should include balancing development with other needs

for land and coastal resources; requiring environmental impact assesments for all

projects; developing guidelines for design and construction of tourist facilities to mini­

mize environmental impact; and adopting measures to protect the cultural integrity of

island people. Regional cooperative efforts should aim to harmonise industry stan­

dards and improve marketing and packaging of tours.

Action proposals for biodiversity Conservation are that small islands should

develop integrated strategies. It includes to promote community support for those ef­

fort, and satify the convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention on Interna­

tional Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Nationally and regionally small islands

should keep buffer stocks or gene banks of endangered species and improve re-

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search, species invantorie and information exchsange on biological resources includ­

ing bio-technology.

The international Community should provide improved access to financial

and technical resources that small·islands need to pursue conservation and research

efforts, as well as access to environmentally sound biotechnology. Countries world­

wide should make greater use of import restrictions under the CITES convention, and

support strategies to protect small islands from the introduction of non-indigenous

species.

The global conference was called for at the earth summit- the United Nations

Conference on Environment and Development in Brazil in June 1992. Its goal is to put

together strategies and measures to enhance the sustainable development of small

islands developing states, based on Agenda 21, the comprehensive global plan of

action adopted at the Earth Summit. At the Summit, small islands were designated as

a vulnerable group warranting special international attention.The Barbados Confer­

ence, 1994 was an early test of the global partnership formed at the Earth Summit, at

which rich and poor countries agreed to act together to pursue sustainable develop­

ment. If this new partnership can address effectively the problems of small islands,

there will be greater confidence that other global challenges can successfully be met.

Small islands have long conjured up images of 'paradise', but their azure

lagoons, coral reefs and lush rain forests are showing sign of increasing stress. As

island societies strive to raise living standards for growing population and struggle to

find their place in a complex global economy, they often sacrifice the.fragile ecosys­

tems which are among their most valuable assets. International assistance is needed

to help islands reverse their trend. Concentrated gobal action is also required to pre-

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vent another alarming scenario: rising sea levels & climate· change, could damage

coastal areas and even submerge some low-lying islands.

Finally, we can conclude on the basis of above discussion on small islands &

sustainable development that development of new products reflects the search by

island countries for a role in the world trading system which will enable them to achieve

sustainable development. Some island have found such opportunities through export­

processing zones. Mauritius, once heavily reliant on sugar export, successfully diver­

sified its economy through an export processing zone based on textiles, and is now

developing an offshore banking operation. Many international experts think that such

services, rather than product exports, hold the key to sustainable development for

small island countries. But their is also concern that, without proper planning and

regulation, export processing zones can lead to substandard working conditions and

environmental damage. In Barbados conference small island countries had sought

assistance from Nortt in obtaining the environmentally sound technologies that would

enable them to manufacture finished goods from their own raw materials, without

undermiming their natural resource base. They had also stressed the importance of

improving international market access for their export. The Global Conference on the

Sustainable Development of Small Island, developing states represents a drive to

build a political concensus on these above issues. It will place firmly on the interna­

tional agenda the concerns and priorities of small island countries with regard to

trade, economic choices, biodiversity loss, and environmental impact.

Moreover, the Island Development Authority should have appropriate repre­

sentation from local island community to have meaningful participation in the sustain­

able development of the island. The island community should also have a say in con­

trolling the immigrant population and the introduction of outside technology into the

island ecosystem. The local community should be encouraged to develop eco-tourism

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with indigenous inputs. The committed non-government orga'nization should educate,

guide and mediate for the interactions between the island community and government

for effective co-management of the island ecosystem for preserving and conserving

the natural resources and biodiversity. Above all the respective governments, of course,

should provide the necessary inputs and incentives for sustainable management of

the island ecosystem.

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