Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf ·...

61
Biochemistry: A Short Course Second Edition Tymoczko • Berg • Stryer © 2013 W. H. Freeman and Company CHAPTER 29 Lipid Synthesis: Storage Lipids, Phospholipids, and Cholesterol

Transcript of Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf ·...

Page 1: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Biochemistry: A Short CourseSecond Edition

Tymoczko • Berg • Stryer

© 2013 W. H. Freeman and Company

CHAPTER 29Lipid Synthesis: Storage Lipids, Phospholipids, and Cholesterol

Page 2: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 3: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Chapter 29 Outline

Page 4: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Phosphatidate is formed by the addition of two fatty acids to glycerol 3‐phosphate.

Page 5: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 6: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Triacylglycerol synthase, which is bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, synthesizes triacylglycerol from phosphatidate and acyl CoA.

Triacylglycerols are the primary fuel storage in humans.

Page 7: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum. 

Phosphatidate is combined with an alcohol to generate the phospholipid.

Phospholipids are key constituents of membranes.

Page 8: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

In some cases, diacylglycerol is activated by forming cytidine diphosphate diacylglycerol (CDP‐diacylglycerol).

CDP‐diacylglycerol then reacts with an alcohol to form a phospholipid.

Page 9: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

In other cases, the alcohol is activated by phosphorylation and subsequent reaction with CTP to form CDP‐alcohol.

The activated alcohol reacts with diacylglycerol to form the phospholipid.

Page 10: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

The most common phospholipid in mammals is phosphatidylcholine. If dietary choline is adequate, phosphatidylcholine is synthesized by activation of the choline.

If choline is deficient, phosphatidylcholine can be synthesized from phosphatidylethanolamine by methylation with S‐adenosylmethionine.

Page 11: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 12: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Sphingolipids, membrane lipids found in all eukaryotic cells, have a sphingosine backbone instead of a glycerol backbone.

Ceramide is the initial product of sphingolipid synthesis. 

The terminal hydroxyl group of ceramide is substituted to form other sphingolipids.

Page 13: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 14: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Sphingomyelin, a component of the myelin sheath surrounding nerve cells, is a derivative of ceramide in which phosphorylcholine is bound to the terminal hydroxyl group.

Cerebroside, also a component of myelin, is derived from ceramide by the attachment of glucose or galactose to the terminal hydroxyl group.

A ganglioside is derived from cerebroside by the attachment of an oligosaccharide containing sialic acid to the terminal glucose.

Page 15: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 16: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

A variety of bacterial and viral pathogens gain access to the cell by initially binding to gangliosides.

Page 17: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine is found in the extracellular fluid in lungs. This phospholipid, in conjunction with other biomolecules, prevents lung collapse after exhaling.

Failure to synthesize sufficient dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine results in collapse of the lung upon exhalation, a pathology called respiratory distress syndrome.

Tay‐Sachs disease results from the inability to degrade a particular ganglioside due to the lack of β‐N‐acetylhexosaminidase.

Tay‐Sachs disease results in death by age 3.

Page 18: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 19: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 20: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 21: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Phosphatidic acid phosphatase, which catalyzes the conversion of phosphatidate to diacylglycerol, helps to regulate lipid metabolism.

Different lipids are synthesized depending on whether the phosphatase is active or inactive.

Loss of phosphatase activity in mice results in loss of body fat and the development of insulin resistance.

Page 22: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 23: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

The liver is the primary site of cholesterol synthesis, although most tissues synthesize some cholesterol.

Cholesterol synthesis occurs in 3 stages.

1. Isopentyl pyrophosphate is synthesized from mevalonate.

2. Six molecules of isopentyl pyrophosphate condense to form squalene.

3. Squalene cyclizes and is converted into cholesterol.

Stage 1 occurs in the cytoplasm and stages 2 and 3 in the endoplasmic reticulum.

Page 24: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

The first step in the synthesis of cholesterol is formation of mevalonate by HMG CoA reductase, the committed step in cholesterol synthesis.

Mevalonate is then converted into isopentyl pyrophosphate, an activated isoprene.

Page 25: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 26: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 27: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Six molecules of isopentyl pyrophosphate condense to form squalene by the following reaction sequence: 

The initial condensation is between two isomeric forms of isopentyl pyrophosphate that are in equilibrium.

Page 28: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 29: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Squalene is activated with the formation of squalene epoxide (2,3‐oxidosqualene). 

Cyclization occurs to form lanosterol, which is subsequently metabolized to cholesterol.

Page 30: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 31: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Liver is the major site of cholesterol biosynthesis.

Regulation of cholesterol synthesis occurs by controlling the amount and activity of HMG CoA reductase, the enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of mevalonate.

1. The rate of synthesis of HMG CoA reductase mRNA is controlled by the sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP).

SREBP resides in the ER in association with SCAP. When cholesterol levels fall, SCAP escorts SREBP to the Golgi complex, where it is proteolytically processed and activated.

The activated SREBP moves to the nucleus to simulate reductase mRNA synthesis.

Page 32: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 33: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 34: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

HMG CoA reductase is controlled in multiple ways:

1. The rate of synthesis of HMG CoA reductase mRNA is controlled by the sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP).

2. The rate of translation of the reductase mRNA is controlled by metabolites of mevalonate and dietary cholesterol.

3. Increases in cholesterol concentration result in the proteolytic degradation of the reductase.

4. Phosphorylation of the reductase by AMP‐dependent kinase inactivates the enzyme.

IJ2

Page 35: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

슬라이드 34

IJ2 Is this a continuation of the list started on slide 31? If so, I think that needs to be made more clear.Isman, Jodi, 2012-03-01

Page 36: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 37: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Cholesterol and triacylglycerols are transported in the blood in the form of lipoprotein particles.

Lipoprotein particles consist of a protein(s) component and various lipids, depending on the type of particle.

The protein(s) serve to solubilize the lipids and to direct the particles to specific targets.

Lipoprotein particles are classified according to density: the greater proportion of lipid, the less dense the particle.

Low‐density lipoprotein (LDL) is the major carrier of cholesterol in the blood.

High‐density lipoprotein (HDL) carries cholesterol released into the blood back to the liver, a process called reverse cholesterol transport.

Page 38: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 39: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 40: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Low‐density lipoproteins deliver cholesterol to peripheral tissues. At the tissues, cholesterol enters the cell by receptor‐mediated endocytosis.

Receptor‐mediated endocytosis consists of three steps:

1. LDL binds to the LDL‐receptor on the cell surface.

2. The receptor‐LDL complex is internalized, a process called endocytosis.

3. The LDL is hydrolyzed in lysosomes while the LDL receptor is returned to the cell surface to bind another LDL particle.

Page 41: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 42: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 43: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 44: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Familial hypercholesterolemia is a genetic disease that results from the absence of functional LDL receptor. Studies of this disease have lead to information on the more common situation of high levels of cholesterol.

Excess cholesterol collects in various tissues of the body.

Excess LDL becomes oxidized, and the oxidized LDL is ingested by macrophage. So much LDL is present in the macrophage that the detergent properties of cholesterol cause the cells to appear foamy.

These foam cells become trapped in blood vessels and contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease.

Page 45: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 46: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

The strategy for treating high levels of blood cholesterol is to increase the number of LDL receptors to more effectively remove the cholesterol. To do this, precursors of cholesterol are diminished. The strategy is composed of a two‐prong approach.

1. Bile salt reabsorption from the intestine is prevented by ingesting a resin that binds to the bile salts.

2. New cholesterol synthesis is prevented by inhibition of HMG‐CoA reductase by a class of drugs called statins.

Page 47: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 48: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

In the process of reverse cholesterol transport, HDL removes cholesterol from macrophages and returns it to the liver for use as bile salts or excretion.

HDL also contains an enzyme that may degrade oxidized HDL.

Page 49: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Cholesterol is a precursor to steroid hormones, vitamin D, and bile salts.

Bile salts are detergents that render dietary lipids more accessible for digestion by lipases.

Bile salts are synthesized in the liver and stored in the gall bladder until secreted into the small intestine.

Page 50: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 51: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

The five major classes of steroid hormones are represented by the common examples below.

1. Progesterone (progestagen): prepares the uterus for implantation and supports pregnancy.

2. Testosterone (androgen): promotes development of male sexual behavior and lean muscle mass. Dihydrotestosterone, a metabolite of testosterone, supports the embryonic development of the male phenotype.

3. Estradiol (estrogen): promotes the development of female sex characteristics.

Page 52: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

4. Cortisol (glucocorticoid): stimulates glucose and glycogen synthesis and inhibits the inflammatory response.

5. Aldosterone (mineralocorticoid): regulates salt balance, and the volume and pressure of blood.

All of the steroid hormones operate in a similar fashion. They bind to specific intracellular receptor proteins that subsequently regulate gene expression.

Page 53: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 54: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Vitamin D plays a key role in the regulation of calcium and phosphate metabolism.

The active form of vitamin D, calcitriol, is formed from cholesterol in a pathway that involves ultraviolet light‐induced cleavage of one of the rings of the steroid nucleus.

Calcitriol functions in a manner similar to the steroid hormones.

Page 55: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 56: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Deficiency of vitamin D results in inadequate calcification of cartilage and bone, a pathological  condition called rickets.

In adults, vitamin D deficiency results in osteomalacia, a condition characterized by soft and weak bones.

Page 57: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Some athletes take synthetic androgens to increase lean muscle mass. Although effective, deleterious side‐effects such as testicular atrophy, decreased testosterone synthesis, and breast enlargement occur in males.

In woman, androgens decrease ovulation and estrogen secretion, cause breast regression, and increase facial hair.

Page 58: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 59: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes
Page 60: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, a class of membrane‐anchored enzymes that use heme as a prosthetic group, catalyze the hydroxylation of cholesterol. 

These hydroxylations are important in the synthesis of the various steroid hormones.

These monooxygenases also function in the metabolism of foreign chemicals, such as drugs.

Page 61: Biochemistry: A Short Coursecontents.kocw.net/KOCW/document/2014/korea/leejinhyup/13.pdf · 2016-09-09 · Phosphatidate is also a precursor for phospholipid synthesis, which takes

Ethanol can be metabolized to generate acetaldehyde and subsequently acetate by the cytochrome P450 system.

Excess acetate can result in ketosis, and any aldehyde build‐up will lead to liver damage.

Because the cytochrome P450 enzymes use O2 and deplete NADPH, the risk of damage by reactive oxygen species increases.

These enzymes prevent the formation of retinoic acid, a signal crucial for growth and development, and inactivate any retinoic acid present.