-Photosynthesis- set of chemical reactions that turn carbon dioxide and water into molecules that plants cells use as food

Unit 1: Plant Cellular Activities

Chloroplast and Photosynthesis pigments-Photosynthesis- set of chemical reactions that turn carbon dioxide and water into molecules that plants cells use as food - organisms capture solar energy and store it as chemical energy in carbohydrate molecules (glucose)- transfer from glucose to ATP for energy- Light is type of Electromagnetic (EM) radiation- EM occurs in forms of individuals called Photons- Photons are packets of light- short wavelengths have high energy. Vice-versa for long waves- Photosynthesis6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY 6O2 + C6H12O6- Cellular respiration6O2 + C6H12O6 6H2O+6CO2+ENERGY- Light from sun is mixture of Photons of different energy- when passed through a transparent prism called spectroscope, Photons separate according to their energy- The visible part of the spectrum to humans, ranging from 380nm (violet) to 750nm (red)- Chloroplasts membrane bound organelle in plant and algae cells that carry out photosynthesis- Chlorophyll contained in plants within the photosynthetic membranes of discrete organelles called chloroplasts-Chloroplasts 2 limiting membranes, outer and inner membrane- membranes enclose an interior space filled with a protein rich called Stroma- Stroma contains a system of Thylakoid stack to form Grana- Thylakoid system of interconnected membrane sacs - Grana stacks of Thylakoid, about 30-50 Thylakoids- Lamellae unstacked Thylakoids between Grana- Thylakoid membrane photosynthesis occurs within the Stroma and Thylakoid - encloses liquid called Thylakoid Lumen- Thylakoid Lumen fluid that increases the efficiency of photosynthesisChlorophyll begins photosynthesis, shaded plants have more choroplast

Reactions of Photosynthesis- Electron Transport Chain (ETC) series of progressively stronger electron acceptors- energy is released when electrons is transferredChlorophyll captures light energy that energizes electrons that are transferred through molecular complexesThe ETC move e- from high energy state to more stable and energy given off can form ATP and new compounds- Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecule that acts as the primary energy transferring molecule in living organism- Photosynthetic steps- capture solar energy and transfer to electrons- using the chemical energy stored in ATP and the high energy electrons carried by NADPH to produce energy rich organic molecules, such as glucose from carbon dioxide- Light reactions first 2 stages of photosynthesis in which light energy excites electrons in chlorophyll molecules, powers chemiosmosis ATP and results in reduction of NADP and NADHP - Carbon fixation third stage is process of incorporating carbon dioxide into carbohydrate molecules (occurs in Stroma)Photosystem 2 - light excites electron- creates H+ from H2O- create O2- H+ builds up and follows electrons- the build-up in Lumen makes ATPPhotosystem 1 - lights hits H+ again that was separated from Photosystem 1- NADPH+ is made- ase means enzyme- Thylakoid space high H+ concentration- Stroma low H+ concentrationATP + NADPH = Glucose- Calvin cycle cyclic set of reactions that fixes the carbon of carbon dioxide into carbohydrate molecules through a series of enzyme catalyzed reactions and recycles coenzymes- Photosystems clusters of photosynthetic pigments embedded in the Thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts that absorb light energyClusters of pigments use light energy to produce ATP (Photosystem II P680) and NADPH (Photosystem I P700)- Photosystem II (P680)-electron from water pass to the ETC moving the electron through that Thylakoid membrane toward Thylakoid Lumen- electron pulls H+ into Lumen creating concentration gradient- Photosystem I (P700)- now electrons have lost their energy in Photosystem I, they are re-energized by light again and transferred by series of complexes to NADH+ where molecule accepts 2 high energy electrons and an H+ to make NADPH. These molecules transport high energy electrons to be used in the Calvin cycle- ATP synthase complexes protein complexes embedded in Thylakoid membrane that allow H+ to escape the Lumen and use resulting energy to make ATP- Chemiosmosis synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme- Fixation of carbon dioxide- carbon dioxide from atmosphere attaches to RuBP, 5 carbons and 2 phosphates- 6 carbon formed molecule- splits due to unstable valence, PGA- reaction made by RuBP carboxylase- Reduction of carbon dioxide- each PGA undergoes reduction PGALATPADP+P-PGAPGAPPGAL NADPH NADP+- most PGAL is turned to RuBP- glucose has 6 carbon molecules- 6 rotations per carbon dioxide molecule to make glucose- Importance of PGAL- first reactant of plants- glucose phosphate- sucrose and transport sugar- starch

Mitochondria- singular mitochondrian- carries molecules within living cell- double membrane organelle- smooth outer layer- highly folded inner- associated with cellular respiration- Matrix protein-rich fluid that fills the mitochondria- Intermembrane space fluid-filled space- 3 stages- Pyruvate oxidation (transition cycle)- Krebs cycle- ETC / Chemiosmosis

Step 1 Glycolysis- produces 2ATP, 2NADH, 2Pyruvate (C3)- pyruvates are transported through the 2 mitochondrial membranesMatrixStep 2 Pyruvate Oxidation / transition cycle- before Krebs cycle begins- pyruvate must be converted to acetyl CoA (C2 acetyl attached to coenzyme)- 3 steps1.- CO2 is removed from pyruvate2.- remaining C2 are oxidized by NAD+ - each NAD+ molecule gains 2 H+ atoms from pyruvate and remaining C2 compound becomes an acetyl acid (acetate) group3.- a compound coenzyme A (CoA) has become attached to the acetyl compound (C2) forming Acetyl-CoA.- 2 molecules of Acetyl-CoA enter Krebs cycle- 2 molecules of NADH go to the Electron transport stageStep 3 Krebs cycle / citric acid cycle- completes breakdown of C2 fragment that remains from pyruvic acid- begins when acetyl CoA condenses with oxaloacetate to form nitrate- in 1 turn of cycle, the last 2 carbon atoms of original glucose molecules are removed as CO2 and free energy is transferred to ATP, NAPH, and FADH2

Krebs cycle1.- acetyl group (C2) carried by CoA combines with oxaloacetate (C4) forming (C6)2.- CoA is released3.- during 1 complete cycle (1 acetyl group)- 3 NAD and 1 FAD are reduced to form 3 NADH and 1 FADH- 1 ADP and Pi ATP- 2 CO2 produced- cycle occur 2 times for each glucose molecule4.- citrate goes around the cycle changing to C5, then to C4- each acetyl group is oxidized 2 molecules of CO2- redox reactions3 NADH1 FADH21 ATP

Cellular respirationNet gainsMolecular changes

Glycolysis(cytoplasm)2ATP2 NADHGlucose to two C3

Pyruvate oxidation(cytoplasm)2 NADHCoA addedC3 to C3 CoA added

Krebs cycle( matrix)6 NADH per CoA2 FADH per C22 ATP per C2Krebs cycle

ETC and Chemiosmosis

Net total 36

Input Output -- 2 CoA- HCO2- 6 NAD+- 6 NADH- 2 FAD- 2 FADH2- 2 ADP+Pi- 2 ATP

Anaerobic respiration / fermentation- allows organisms to recycle NADH without oxygen-electrons from NADH are passed to the organic molecules- Eukaryote have 2 methods1.- alcohol fermentation (plant and animal)2.- Lactic acid fermentation (animal)

1.- Alcohol fermentation- occurs in cytoplasm of plant cells- 2 stages1.-Glycolysis2.-Alcohol formation1.-Glycolysis- same steps as aerobic respiration resulting in production of:2 net ATP2 pyruvate2 NADH1.- each pyruvate loses a molecule of carbon dioxide by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylaseacetylaldehyde 2.- each NADH passes its electron to one molecule of NAD+2.-3.- ethanol is formed C2H604.- steps 1-3 occur 2 times for each molecule of glucose

2.- Lactic acid fermentation- during high ATP usage (strenuous exercise), muscle cells demand higher levels of ATP- 2 stages1.-Glycolysis2.-Lactic acid formation1.-Glycolysis2.-each pyruvate molecule is reduced by NADH to form Lactic acid C3H6OUnit 2: Macromolecules

Enzymes- chemical reactions within a cell occur in higher speed movement of molecules- thermal to systems increases kinetic- chemical reactions proceed in low temperature- catalysts speed up chemical reactions-remains unchanged after chemical reaction- enzyme permit chemical reaction to proceed at low temperature- substrate is how enzymes work- each combines with an enzyme to form product- about 200k different chemical reactions- active site of enzyme is where they join- enzyme-substrate complex is formed as the enzyme joins substrate- induced-fit is lock-and-key model- actual shape is altered by traps, making it tighter- cofactors and coenzymes help enzymes bind to substance- cofactors are inorganic- coenzymes are Organics1.- pH- enzymes function best in certain pH ranges- folds in protein- basic yield ve OH- ions- acidic yield +ve H+ ions- both affect H+ bonds2.- Substrate Molecular concentration- the greater the number of molecules, the greater the number of collisions and the greater the rate of reactions- limit of enzyme substrate cant join with active site until free- when the number of substrate molecules exceed the number of enzyme molecules, the reaction levels off3.- Temperature- reaction increases as temperature increases- faster movement, more collision- high of 37degress celsius- shape-change affects enzyme-substrate complex and reactions will proceed at slower rates- explains the danger of high fever4.- Competitive inhibitors- have same shapes as substrate- compete with substrate molecules for sites of enzymes- enzymes the dont function properly

Regulation of Enzyme Activity- metabolic pathways are orderly sequences of chemical reactions, enzymes going to each step- population of chemicals with a cell is regulated by the need of chemicals- as product from a series of chemical reactions accumulates, it interferes with an enzyme- feedback inhibition of an enzyme in a metabolic pathway by final product of the pathway- interference slows reaction rate, preventing accumulation of products- final product of metabolic pathway interferes with enzyme by combining with its regulatory site- binding of final product with regulation site of enzyme altar active site(prevents enzyme and substrate)

Regulation site- build up of substrate can turn off pathway

Recursor activity- activation of last enzyme in metabolic pathway by initial- speeds up formation on final product- involves binding of molecule with regulating sites- binding of final with regulatory site of this enzyme will change this enzymes actual site, inhibiting subsequent reactions

Vitamins and Minerals- help in chemical reactions- found in complex chemicals

Nucleic Acids- genetic material that directs all activity- composed of sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen base

Nutrients - provides raw materials for cell metabolism and growth - 3 groups 1.-carbohydrate2.- proteins3.- fats/lipids1.-Carbohydrates- molecule composed of sugar subunits that have carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 1:2:1- energy nutrient- largest component in most diet- include potatoes, bread, and fruit- eaten in excess, carbohydrates are stored as fat- enter single/polymer sugar units of many units- most sugar contain 3,5 or 6 chains- the more the 5 carbons, ring form- identified by ose suffix- monosaccharides single sugar unit , glucose, isomers- disacharides 2 mono joining,- sucrose glucose and fructose- maltose 2 sucrose- lactose glucose and galactose- all formed by dehydration synthesis, water is formed by 2 - polysaccharides many sugars

2.- Proteins- can provide energy but is not main function- forms structural parts of cells- made when cells are damaged- component of blocks of amino acids- NH2 group (amino group)- COOH group (carboxyl group)- the R differs one amino acid from another- cytoplasmic organelles (mitochondrian ribosomes) composed of protein- protein is a predominate part of muscles, skin, nerves, and hair- Antibodies are specialized proteins that help the body- composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (like lipids and carbohydrates)- diversity of people can be explained by proteins- array of proteins is infinite- 20 different proteins- 2-250000 chains- the order and number of amino acids determine the type of protein- the sequence of amino acids are determined by genes- if we dont digest and rearrange the amino acids into human proteins, our diets would change our appearance- dehydration synthesis is when amino acids are joined, a water molecule is removed- peptide acid is the covalent bond formed between amino acids and an amino acid of another- a chain is polypeptide- we are not capable of making 8 amino acids, they are mainly obtained from food

- Protein structure- polypeptides are folded into specific 3D shapes- the shape/structure of a protein determines its function- 4 levels:primary unique sequencesecondary folds and coils by forming H+ bondstertiary makes folding between R groupsquaternary large globular proteins formed

- Denaturation- protein exposure to excess heat or pH change will alter shape- denaturation is when physical/chemical factors disrupt bond, changing protein configuration - protein may uncoil or resume a new shape- result of denaturation changes the biological activities of proteins- once factors are removed, proteins may assume their original shape

- Coagulation- permanent change in protein shape (boiled egg)3.- Lipids- lipids are nonpolar- composed of 2 structural unites: glycerol and sugar- store energy- glycogen supply- excess carbohydrates convert to fat- important components in cell membranes- cushion organs- carriers for vitamins A, D, E and K- raw materials for synthesis of hormones- insulates against cold- Triglycerides lipid composed of glycerol and 3 fatty acids- Fats glycerol and fatty acids that is solid at room temperature- mostly saturated- only single bonds exist between carbon atoms of fatty acids in animals- single bonds are stable, making fats harder to breakdown- Oils triglycerides that are liquids in room temperature- fatty acid that is a component of most plants- have double bonds between carbon atoms- unsaturated double bonds are reactive, meaning they are easily broken down(fats are solid at room temp., single bonds, and saturated)(oils are liquid at room temp., double bonds, and unsaturated)

- Phospholipids- phosphate group bond to glycerol backbone of molecules- -ve charged phosphate replaces one of the fatty acids- component of cell membranes

- Waxes- third group of lipids- long-chain of fatty acids are joined to long-chain alcohols or to carbon rings- long-stable molecules that are insoluble in water- used as waterproof coating on plant leaves and found on animal feathers and fur

- Lysosomes - double-layered lipids that are in a sphere-like configuration- can fuse with cell and deliver components to the cells interior- used with cancer fighting drugs to help drugs target tumors- reduces side effects from drug interaction with healthy tissue- patients can accept higher doses

Unit 3: Human Systems

Digestive System- Heterotrophs must consume organic compounds to survive- Nutrients are:1.- Digested2.- Absorbed3.- Transported (circulatory system) to all of body- Breaks down large complex organic material- Small components are used by tissues

1.- Components of Digestion Ingestion taking in nutrientsDigestion breakdownAbsorption transport of digested nutrient to body cellsEgestion removal of wastes

Ingestion - mouth- food chewed, called bolus- breaks food into smaller pieces and increases the surface area for chemical digestion- saliva- produced by salivary glands- contains amylase which break down complex carbohydratessimpler carbohydrates- lubricates food so it can be swallowed- Esophagus- once swallowed, food travels from mouthstomach- bolus of food will then stretch the walls of the esophaguspesistalsis- rhythmic, wave-like contractions of smooth muscles move food- food move during swallowing and egestion - food storage and protein digestion- movement of food to/from stomach-sphincters is constriction of muscles that regulate the opening and closure of the tube-like structures- contraction of Lower Esophagus Sphincter (LES), closes the opening to stomach and relaxation allows food to enter- LES prevents food and acid from long regurgitation - Pyloric sphincter control movement of food and stomach acid into the small intestine

Stomach- 3-shaped with numerous ridges, allowing expansion- cells from interior of stomach secrete gastric fluids that are in digestion- mucus - HCl- Pepsinogens- contractions of stomach mix food with gastric juice- involved in both physical and chemical digestion- HCl kills harmful substances that are digested with food- HCl converts pepsinogenpepsin- proton-digesting enzyme that breaks the long amino acids into smaller chains (polypeptide)- pH is 2.0-3.0 in stomach- a layer of alkaline mucus protects stomach lining from being digested

Peptic Ulcers- caused when lining of stomach is broken down and exposed to HCl and pepsin- when created, lesions appear on organ surface- tissue burned by acid- linked to bacterium H. pylori- laser can be used to remove damaged parts- Endoscopes are used to view stomach ulcers

Digestion: small intestine- majority of digestion in first 25-30cm called dysolenum- secretes digestive enzymes and moves contents by perstalsis- 3 parts- duodenum- jejunum- ileum

Digestion: Pancreas- when acids enter small intestines; prosecretinsecretin- hormone released from duodenum that stimulates pancreatic and bile secretion- secretin is absorbed in bloodstream and carried to the pancreas- signals release of bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions- (HCO3-) ions are carried to small intestine, changing acids from pH 2.5 to 9.0- basic pH inactivates pepsin- contain enzymes that promote break down of - proteins- carbohydrates- lipids- trypsinogen is released from pancreassmall intestine where enterokinase converts trypsinogen to trypsin, breaking polypeptides to shorter polypeptides- amylase is released, continuing digestion of carbohydrates into intermediate disaccharides- small intestine releases disaccharides - lipases break down lipids- fats fatty acids and glycerol- phospholipase - acts on phospholipids

Liver and Gallbladder- liver continually produces a fluid called bile- when fats are pressed into the small intestine, the hormone cholecystokinin (CKK) is released- carried in bloodgall bladder, releasing bile salts- in small intestine, bile salts emulsify fats- prepares fats for chemical digestion, increases surface area- bile contains pigments- hemoglobin from red blood cells are stored in gallbladder for removal- Vitamins A, B12, and D are stored in liver- liver is capable of detoxifying substances in body (eliminated by urine)- cholesterol (insoluble component of bile) acts as a binding agent for salt crystals found in bile- crystals produced precipitate and make gallstones- blocks bile duct, impairs fat digestion- build-up of bile pigments lead to jaundice- Cirrhosis is chronic inflammation of liver tissue

Absorption- stomach absorbs water, vitamins, and nutrients- most absorption in small intestine- Villi is finger-like projectiles that extend to small intestine and increases surface area for absorption- Microvilli line the cell membranes and increases surface areas- each Villis has a capillary network that intervenes the lymph vessels called Lacteals- transport products- some nutrients are absorbed by diffusion and some are transported from digestion tract- monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed into capillary networks- fast are absorbed in lacteals

Large Intestine- Colon is where water is re-absorbed- inorganic sales, minerals, and vitamins are absorbed also- the bacteria (E. Coli) is housed here where needed. It then uses wastes to synthesize B and K vitamins- cellulose reaches large intestine undigested- cellulose is important in providing bulks- as wastes build up, receptors provide information to central nervous system and bowel movement is prompted- ensures removal of potential toxic wastes - colon cancer is related to diet consumption of highly refined foods

Control of Digestion- seeing, smelling, and tasting food and swallowing activates the gastric secretions before food is in stomach- homostatic controls of digestion act before food is absorbed- secretin is released when stomach acid and food small intestine- secretin is then absorbed in bloodpancreas and initiates releases of substances that raise the pH od the small intestine- Gastrin is another hormone that is produced as the walls of the stomach are distended by presence of food- production also stimulated by partially digested protein in stomach- travels through the blood to the parietil cells of the stomachsignals release of HCl- as food enters the stomachnerves will cause muscles to contract and gastrin fluids are secreted- a large meal will activate more receptorsmore forceful stomach contractions and faster emptying- if a fatty meal is consumedsmall intestine secretes a digestive hormone, Enterogastrone, which slows peristaltic movements, allowing fats to be digested and absorbed

Hormone and Nerves control digestion

Gastrin secreted by stomach to secrete gastric juices, stomach then stretches

Prosecretin secretin secreted by small intestine to activate pancreas to release bicarbonate ions and enzymes

CCK secreted from small intestine which activates liver and gallbladder to release bile salts

Insulin secreted by pancreas- lowers blood sugar by moving sugars into cells, increasing membrane permeability

Entertogastone secreted by small intestine; slows peristalsis and gastric secretionProtein digestion

Pepsinogen ====== HCl === pepsin (secreted by stomach)

Trypsinogen ====== enterokinase == trypsin

Erepsin secreted from pancreas and small intestine- breaks down proteins into amino acids

Fat digestion

- liver produces bile from damaged red blood cells that combines with salts of gallbladder- release of bile saltsemulsifies fat, physical separation of molecules

PhospholipaseLipase breakdown lipids into glycerol and fatty acids

Carbohydrate digestion

Contains: salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase, and dissacharides- breaks carbohydrates into mosaccharides

Entrance to Exit

Mouth : Saliva Amylase = breaks down starches, complex sugar units

Esophagus : Peristalsis = apply contractions that pushes food down esophagus

Sphincter : = opens to let food from esophagus enter stomach, closes to keep stomach acids in stomach

Stomach : secretes gastrin = hormone that releases HClHCl breaks pepsinogenpepsin = breaks proteins into amino acids

Small intestine and Pancreas: contains three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum Steps from stomachsmall intestine:1.- when acid food enters duodenum, pancreas releases prosecretinsecretin = signals pancreas to release bicarbonate ions, neutralizing food before food reaches small intestine- turns pH 2.0 to 9.02.- pancreas releases enterokinase, breaks trypinogentrypsin = breaks protein into amino acids3.- pancreas releases erepsins = break small chains of proteins into individual amino acids for absorption4.- pancreas releases amylase = breaks polysaccharidesdisaccharides5.- pancreas releases dissacharidases = breaks dissacharidesmonosaccharides6.- pancreas releases lipases = breaks fats

Liver and Gallbladder: produces bile = breaks big fats into small fats, no digestion - stored in gallbladders when there are no digestion - released by trigger of CCK when fats are present in duodenum : stored glycogen and Vitamins A, B12, and D: detoxifies harmful chemicals

Large intestine : = re-absorbs water, vitamins, and minerals : contains E. Coli that breaks and makes Vitamins

Motor Systems

- animals may have exoskeletons composed of chitin (invertebrates) or endoskeletons made up of cartilage, bones, muscles- the body is composed of over 350 as a newborn and 206 bones as an adult. Most of the bones are in your hands and feet to allow for more types of motions between bones and muscles- Bone marrow tissue located in the central cavity of the long bones that produces cells and stores fat- Compact bone dense bone- Spongy bone porous bone- Periosteum this tissue that covers the bone- Axial skeleton central part of the skeleton containing the skull, vertebral, column, ribs, and sternum- Appendicular skeleton bones of the upper and lower limbs and their supporting structures - Osteocyte bone cell directly below periosteum surrounded by minerals and a hard dense mixture of collagen- Collagen connective protein fibres found in the bone matrix where Osteocytes are set- Cartilage semisolid, flexible connective made up of collagen and polysaccharides- Chondrocyte cartilage cell- Ossification process in which a bone is created from chondrocytes to osteocytes from the help of osteoblasts- Osteoblasts bone forming cells - as calcium and potassium salts from cartilage deposits die and canals remain and eventually form and grow together to make bone marrow- Haversian canals small canals located in the bone tissues occupied by blood vessels and nerves- Epiphyseal plates areas of cartilage near the ends of long bones, Growth plates- once epiphyseal cartilage plates are replaced with bone, growth is complete- Oseoclasts cells that dissolve bone- Joint place in the skeleton where 2 or more bones meet- can be immovable, slightly moveable and freely moveable - Moveable joint joint that allows bones to move- Ligaments bands of connective tissue that join bones- Rheumatoid arthritis is where the synovial fluid becomes inflamed and thickens - Muscles, tendons, ligaments, and bones wear away- Tendons bands of connective tissue that join muscles to bone- Bursae sacs of fluids found below- Greenstick fracture a fracture commonly found in children in which the bone doesnt break all the way through- Anthroscopic surgery where fibre optic tools can be used to perform joint surgery, greatly decreasing recovery time

Muscles

- Cardiac muscle involuntary muscle of heart- Smooth muscle muscle that must be contracted to bend a joint- Skeletal muscle voluntary muscle that makes the bones and skeleton move- Antagonistic muscles pair of skeletal muscles that are arranged in pairs and that work against each other to make a joint move- Flexor muscle that must be contracted to bend a joint- Extensor muscle that must contract to straighten a joint

- biceps and triceps operate as antagonistic muscles, the origin is where the tendon is attached to a skeleton bone, the insertion is the tendon attached to a moving bone

- Sarcolemma delicate shealth that surrounds muscle fibres - Myofilament threads of contractile proteins

- in a sarcolemma actions, filaments (thin) slide over myosin fila (thick) to contract. ATP helps contration

- Creative phosphate compound found in muscle cells that release phosphate to ADP to make ATP

- muscle cells use ATP quickly that the cells produce. C.P. helps maintain adequate level but as energy demand exceeds ATP supply, lactic acid builds- if another stimulus is produced before complete relaxation, summation occurs

- Summation increased muscle contraction produced by the combination of stimuli- Tetanus state of constant muscle contraction caused by sustained nerve

- Fast twitch (anaerobic respiration) and slow twitch (aerobic) muscles help in varying physical activity- Sports injuries can result from cold, improper stretching and shockwaves from exercise. Injuries can affect young athletes that push their limits to extreme

Respiratory system

- Breathing air exchange between the lungs and the environment, including inspiration and expiration- Respiratory membrane membrane where the diffusion of oxygen and other gases occurs between living cells of the body and environment- Respiration all processes involved in the exchange of O and CO2 between cells and the environment, including breathing, gas exchange, and cellular respiration

- air enters through our nose or mouth and is filtered from impurities by nasal hairs and mucous layers. The air travels to the pharynx at the back of the mouth to one of the two openings: trachea and esophagus- air is filtered by mucous and cilia to prevent impurities from reaching lungs. The epiglottis protects the opening of the trachea from food or water

- Trachea windpipe- Cilia tiny hair structures found on cells that filter environment- Epiglottis structure that covers glottis (opening of trachea)- Larynx voice box where this elastic ligaments vibrate to produce sound- air then branches in the bronchi to the lungs moving to smaller bronchiole airways with the lack of cartilage bands, air then goes to Alveoli- in Alveoli, it is surrounded by capillaries which allow gases to diffuse (from high concentration to low)

- Bronchi passages from trachea to left and right lungs- Bronchiole smallest passageway of respiration tract- Alveoli sacs of the lung in which gas exchange occurs- Pleural membrane a thin membrane that surrounds the outer surface of the lungs and lines the inner wall of the chest cavity- diaphragm helps to regulate the pressure of gases move in- has relationship between volume of chest and gas pressure

- Diaphragm sheet of muscle that operates to organs of thoracic cavity- Intercostal muscle muscle that lowers and raises rib cage

Gas exchange

- dissolved gases create partial pressure according to Daltons Gas Law. This phenomenon aid in gas exchange as increases partial pressure allow more absorption of gases from the air to blood- oxygen is not very soluble in blood, so Hemoglobin helps by creating intermolecular branches with oxygen to allow more oxygen uptake which aids in the bodys demand for high concentration of oxygen needed- partial pressure helps increase the affinity between hemoglobin and oxygen which allows the oxygenated blood to travel all the way to the cells- Co2 is much more soluble in blood and the intermolecular bonds between CO2 and hemoglobin from carboaminohemoglobin. The remaining of CO2 combines with water to form carbonic acid- carbonic anhydrase helps convert the 2 reactants to carbonic acid (CO2 + H2O H2CO3). This keeps a low partial pressure of CO2 helping the increase of absorption of more CO2.- H2CO3 build-up is then buffered so that the pH is not too high and the dissociation of the ions H+ helps dislodge O2 to move into the cell and hemoglobin act as buffer.- mechanisms can help maintain normal levels of gases by causing increase of breathing during moments of high physical activty

Breathing Movements

- Chemoreceptors specialized nerve receptor that detects chemicals

- CO2 and acid receptors are highly sensitive to the build-up of chemicals and relay messages to the medulla oblongata to help increase breathing by stimulating intercostal and diaphragm muscles until CO2 levels return to normal- oxygen receptors are called carotid and aortic bodies and they detect low concentrations of oxygen. This signal is also sent to the medulla where the diaphragm and intercostal muscles are again stimulated to increase breathing of oxygenation. These bodies can also detect high CO2 and acid concentration in blood.- bodys response to exercise is initiated by 3 factors: decreased O2, increased CO2, and increased H+. The brain detects CO2 and H+ build-up and signals an increase in breathing. The kidney remove H+ from blood. When the muscle O2 levels drop, adrenal gland releases hormone protein epinephine to increasing of breathing rates.- Respiratory disorders decrease oxygenation to body.

- Bronchitis inflammation of bronchial tubes caused by bacteria and viral infection from environment- Emphesema overinflammation of alveoli - Bronchial asthma respiratory disorder characterized by a reversible narrowing of bronchial passages

Body and Heart

Body- artery blood vessel that carries blood away from heart- made of layers of muscle fibres, elastic connective tissues- pulse change in diameter of arteries following heart contractions- capillaries single layers of cells where fluid and gas exchange- veins blood vessel that carry blood towards heart

Heart- heart is surrounded by a fluid membrane (pericardium) to prevent friction as the 2 heart pumps are divided by septum and operates

- septum wall of muscle that operates the right and left sides of heart- pulmonary circuit from lungs to heart- circulatory systems bring deoxygenated to lungs and oxygenated blood to heart- systemic circulatory system carry oxygenated blood to the tissues and deoxygenated to heart- atria thin-walled chambers of heart that receive blood from veins- ventricles thick-walled chambers of heart that deliver blood to arteries and tissues- AV valves prevent backflow of blood from ventricles into atria- semilunar valves valves that prevent backflow of blood from arteries to ventricles- aorta largest artery in body, carry oxygenated blood to tissues- coronary arteries arteries that supply the cardiac muscle with oxygen and nutrients

- there are 2 nodes that set the rhythm of heart where myogenic muscles cells contract to push the blood throughout the body- myogenic muscle muscle that contracts without external nerve stimulation- SA node small mass of tissue in the right atrium that originates the impulses stimulating heartbeats- AV node small mass of tissue in the right AV region through which impulses from the SA node are passed throughout ventricles

- Purkinje fibres nerve fibres that branch and carry electrical impulses throughout ventricles- Sympathetic nervous system division of autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stress, causing increasing heartrates to increase blood flow- Parasympathetic nervous system division of autonomic system that returns the body to normal resting levels following adjustments to stress

- atria that has relaxed and filled with blood is forced through the AV valves to the ventricles. The closing valves makes a lubb sound. When the ventricle blood is forced through the semilunar valves, the dubb sound in heard.

- diastole relaxation (dialation)of the heart during which the cavities of the heart fill with blood- systole contraction of heart during which blood is pushed out of heart

Homeostasis and Blood flow

- cardiac output the amount of blood pumped from the heart each minute- stoke volume- quantity of blood pumped with each beat of heart. - sphygmomanometer device used to measure blood pressure- systolic over diasytolic is the blood pressure measurement. Normal blood pressure is 120-80 mmHg

- High blood pressure weakens blood vessels that may rupture. This results from:- Increased cardiac output- Arteriolar resistance, restriction of arteries reduces blood flow thus more blood remains in arteries. - carbon dioxide and lactic acid production causes arterioles to dilate and increase blood flow

- receptors that are sensitive to the increase in blood pressure trigger the increase of parasympathetic nerve impulses, the sympathetic response increases blood flow and both help to maintain homeostasis.- during exercise, adrenal glands secrete epinephrine and the sympathetic response increases blood flow due to greater cell demand for processes. Epinephrine causes dilation of arterioles in heart, brain, and muscles focusing on cells that would initiate a fight or flight response.

- thermoregulation maintenance of body temperature within a range that enable cells to function efficiently - temperature rise in the body signals the hypothalamus to stimulate sweat glands. Blood is the sent to the skin and cools thus helping body temperature- hypothalamus region of mid brain

Capillary Fluid Exchange

- capillaries turn oxygen, glucose, amino acids, and remove wastes from extracellular fluid. Smaller molecules diffuse, while others are brought into the cell by endocytes/ exocytes.- extracellular fluid (ECF) fluid that occupies the spaces between cells and tissues; includes plasma and interstitial fluid

- fluid pressure moves higher to lower pressure into cells from capillaries. The concentration of proteins and dissolved minerals in blood helps osmotic pressure to cause fluids to return to blood

- hemorrhage - causes low fluid pressure, normal osmotic pressure- starvation - causes normal fluid pressure, low osmotic pressure- inflammation causes normal fluid pressure, low osmotic pressure- fitration selective movement of materials through capillary walls by a pressure gradient- any proteins that leak into the ECF must by removed if the osmotic gradient is to remain intact. thus proteins are drained by the lymphatic system- lymph fluid found in lymph vessels that contains some proteins that leaked through capillary walls- lymph nodes masses of tissues that store lymphocytes and remove bacteria and forcing particles from the lymph. These can swell during immune responses to pathogens.

- lymphocytes white blood cells that produce antibodies- RBCs are made by red bone marrow which use stem cells and differentiate into the needed blood cell. There is more red bone marrow in children then in adults. - spleen lymphoid organ that acts as a reservoir for blood and a filtering site for lymph- thymus gland lymphoid organ in which the T lymphocytes mature Immunology

First Line of Defense- non-specific immune response- largely physical- skin and muscle defend against viral and bacterial invaders- pH of 3 to 5, inhibits microbe growth- lysozyme destroys cell walls of bacteria- invading microbes and foreign debris in respiratory tract become trapped in cilia- corrosive acids in stomach and protein-digesting enzymes destroy most of the invading microbes carried into the body within food

Second Line of Defense- mobilized if the invader residences in body- leukocytes (white blood cell) may:- engulf invading microbes- Phagocytosis- produce antibodies- when foreign particles penetrate the skin, monocytes (special leukocytes) migrate from blood to tissue where they develop into macrophages (white blood cell engulfs microbe turning into phagocytic white blood cells), also big eater- macrophages create psuedopods that attach to the surface of microbes- microbe is then engulfed and destroyed by enzyme in macrophage- neutrophils ( another phagocytic response) are attracted to chemical signals given off by cells that have been damaged by microbes- chemotaxis process when neutrophils squeeze onto the capillaries and migrate toward infected tissue- neutrophils then engulf the microbe and release lysomal enzymes that digest both the microbe and leukocyte- pus - remaining fragments of protein, dead white blood cells, and the invader

Second Line of Defense (localized injury)- tissue damage due to physical injury also initiates a localized inflammatory response- inflammatory response nonspecific immune response resulting in swelling, redness, heat, and pain- pus and accompanying inflammation are signs that the second line of defense is working

Third Line of Defense- foreign organisms in body activate antimicrobial plasma proteins called complement proteins (there are 20types)- proteins are present in inactive form under normal conditions- marker proteins from microbes activate complement proteins which turn into messengers- these proteins aggregate to initiate attack on cell membranesDefense strategies:- protein seals around invader- protein punctures and attaches to membrane of invader- protein attaches to invader and is attracted to engulfing leukocytes, yummy!!!- lymphocytes produce antibodies- antibodies are protein molecules that protect the body from invaders- cells have markers and normally the immune system does not react to bodys own markers- cell membrane of bacteria and the outer coat of a virus contain antigens - antigens may even be toxins produces by moulds/algaeThere are 2 different lymphocytes:T cell produced in bone marrow- stored in thymus gland- signal attackB cell produce antibodies- displayed along cell membrane

Antigen-Antibody reactions- variations in antibodies exist on outer edge of each area- Receptor sites found on different cells, explain how antibodies prevent poisons from destroying cells- once attached, the poison is engulfed by cell- viruses also use receptor sites as entry ports- virus injects heredity material into cells, leaving protein coat in receptor site- different viruses attach to different cells- outer coat of virus attaches to lungs - HIV attaches to T cell- once a virus attaches to a cell, it is engulfed by T cells- problem for immune systems- requires blueprint of invader- protein coat is gone- antibodies attach to invading viruses, preventing virus from binding to receptor sites- mutated microbes than goes to receptor site

- Innate Immunity born with- External- Internal- mucous- phagocytes- skin (lysozyme)- inflammation- cilia- complement protein- Acquired Immunity given through medicine- humoral antibodies- cell mediated

Recognizing Harmful Antigen

- T cells roam body searching for invaders- macrophages attack invaders by engulfing- foreign antigen markers are not destroyed by invader but are pushed to cell membrane of macrophage- macrophage with T cell are called Helper T cells

Blood Type

- erthrocytes red blood cell containing hemoglobin- plasma fluid of blood- albumins osmotic balance- globulins antibodies, immunity- fibrinogens blood clotting- anemia reduction of blood oxygen due to low levels of hemoglobin- leukocyte white blood cells- ratio of 1:700- platelets (thrombocytes) initiates blood clotting- produced in bone marrow- formed from large megakaryocyteBlood Clotting- when rupture/damage to skin happens:- thromboplastin activates prothrombin protein in plasma- prothrombin thrombin- thrombin enzyme that splices 2 amino acids from fibrinogen - fibrinogen fibrin threads- fibrin threads threads that wrap around damage area to trap red blood cells and allows platelets to clot area- thrombus when blood clot blocks blood vessel- embolus when blood clot gets loose from damages area and lodges to vital organs (cerebral embolisms, coronary embolisms, pulmonary embolisms)

Artificial Blood- artificial blood specified in textbook: Fluosol- fluosol non-toxic liquid containing flourineAdvantages- carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide- requires non blood matching and can be stored frozen for long periods of time- doesnt carry HIV, hepatitis, or other virusesDisadvantages- doesnt have functions as real blood cells, such as blood clotting and immunity

- antigen protein that stimulates the formation of an antibody (contains no or special marker)- antibody protein that reacts to antigen (responds to foreign marker)- same accepts blood type- different agglutination- agglutination clumping of blood when 2 different blood types attack each other, clogging capillaries

Blood GroupAntigenAntibody

ONONE (Universal Donor)A AND B

AAB

BBA

ABA AND BNONE (Universal Recipient)

Rhesus Factor- Rh- may donate blood to Rh+, but cannot receive from Rh+Science HistoryWhen a Rh- mother develops a Rh+ baby, erthroblastosis fetalis occurs in the second pregnancy. First Baby - At the beginning, the babys blood is separated by the placenta(membrane that exchanges mother-baby materials). When birth takes place, the placenta is shed and babys blood contacts moms blood, causing production of antibodies to attack foreign blood. Since baby has left the mothers body, the antibody will not be able to attack baby, causing death. Second Baby from the last birth, an aftermath has occurred, the placenta has weakened and antibodies from the first birth remain, therefore the mothers blood will be able to attack baby while it is still developing. This happens when antibodies cross placenta, causing erthroblastosis fetalis including anemia, jaundice, and enlarged liver symptoms.

Recognizing Harmful Antigens

- T cells read antigens shape and release lymphokine- lymphokine protein produced by T cells acting as messengers between B and T cells- causes B cells to divide and clone - second message is sent from Helper T cells to B cells- Killer T cells lymphocytes that carry out and destroy invaders- they puncture cell membranes- kill hiding viruses- destroys mutated cells because some are cancerous- accounts for bodys rejection to transplants- Immunosuppressant drups (cyclosporin) slows Killer T cells

Suppressor T cells

- inhibit immune system response once the invaders have been destroyed- communication between Helper T cells and Suppressor T cells ensures that the body maintains adequate numbers of antibodies- most B and T cells die a few days after battle- phagocytes survey area, cleaning up debris of dead cells- Helper T cells read blueprint of invader before B cells produce antibodies- blueprints are stored after the invaders are destroyed- immunity is based on maintaining an adequate number of antibodies- memory B cells retain information about shape of antigen- identify and mobilize B cells- 1 million different B cells, 10 million different T cells

Helper T cells identify invadersB cells produce antibodiesKiller T cells puncture cell membranes of infected cells (kill cells)Suppressor T cells turn off immune systemMemory B cells retain information about shape of antigen Excretory System

- lungs eliminate carbon dioxide while the liver breaks down toxins and turns metabolism products into metabolites- removing wastes balance pH of blood and thermoregulation

- Deamination removal of amino (group) from an organic compound (live ammonia)- Urea waste formed from breakdown of nucleic acids- Uric acid waste product formed from breakdown of nucleic acids- Ureters tubes that conduct urine from the kidneys to bladder- Urethra tubes that carries urine from bladder to exterior

3 main parts of Kidney- Cortex outer layer of kidney- Medulla area inside cortex- Renal pelvis hollow area where kidney joins the ureter

- Nephrons functional units of kidneys- Afferent arterioles small branches that carry blood to glomerulus- Efferent arterioles small branches that carry blood away from the glomerulus to the peritubular capillaries - Glomerulus high-pressure capillary bed that is the side of filtration- Peritubular capillaries network of small blood vessel - Bowmans capsule cup-like structure that surround the glomerulus- Proximal tubule section of the nephrons joining the Bowmans capsule with Loop of Henle- Loop of Henle section of tubule that carries filtrate from proximal to distal- Distal tubule conducts urine from Loop of Henle to the collecting ducts- Collecting ducts tube carrying urine from nephrons to renal pelvis

Formation of Urine- Filtration process of which blood or fluids pass through a selectively permeable membrane- Reabsorption transfer of glomerular filtrate from nephrons back to the peritubular capillaries- Secretion transport of materials from blood into distal tubule

- high pressure capillary beds of glomerulus allows passage into Bowmans capsule of smaller molecules like water, salt, glucose, and H+ ions. Large molecules cant pass- active and selective transport account for selective reabsorption of ions. This allows efficient ways to retain water and nutrients in body instead of voiding them as waste. This also explains the vast network of peritubular capillaries around nephron to allow continue of reabsorption and secretion until waste products reach collecting ducts- sugars and proteins are actively transported from nephron to blood stream and allow water to follow these solutes accounting for high concentration of salts and minerals in wastes- wastes are secreted into nephron because of mitochondrian that line the distal tubule. Ensuring wastes reach nephron to be eliminated from the body

- Threshold level max amount of substance that can be moved across nephron- Interstitual fluid fluid that surround body cells

Water Balance- nervous and endocrine system work together to reduce urine output when body is dehydrated or exercising and increased urine output when body has increased water output

- Antidieuretic Hormone (ADH) hormone that causes kidneys to increase water reabsorption that leads to a more concentrated urine output- produced in hypothalamus then stored in pituitary gland and then enters the blood stream - sweating causes blood solutes to have a higher concentration. Osmotic blood pressure increases and ADH is released as hypothalamus cells shrink. More water is reabsorbed relieving osmotic pressure and a sense of thirst causes organism to drink and hypothalamus cells swell and ADH production is halted- Osmoreceptors specialized nerve cells in hypothalamus that detect changes in osmotic pressure of blood and surrounding extracellular fluids - only proximal tubule of Henles loop are permeable to water, however, when ADH is released, the remaining tubules become permeable, thus helping to increase and decrease absorption to maintain homeostasis. High concentration of salts in ECF draw more water through the remaining portion of nephron helping to increase water retention and making urine more concentrated- adrenal glands, located on top of kidney, releases Aldosterone that increases sodium absorption thus drawing more water out of nephron by osmosis. If there is low blood pressure (fluid loss), tissues receive less oxygen and nutrients. BP receptors in Juxtaglamerula (near glomerulus) detect this low BP. Renin is then released and converts AngotensinogenAngiotension(liver plamsa protein)- Angiotension constricts blood vessels and stimulate more fluids in blood- Aldosterone hormone that increase sodium absorption from distal tubule and collecting ducts- pH is maintains by kidney when transporting carbon dioxide from peritubular capillaries and joins with water to make HCO3 to buffer acidity of carbonic acid

Kidneys Dysfunction

- Diabetes Mellitus results in high concentrations of blood sugar from improper pancreatic islet cells that normally produce insulin. This draws water and large amounts of urine then expels sugars and water. Therefore people must replace sugar- Diabetes Insipidus destruction of ADH production that normally regulates water absorption, causing a huge quantity of urine. Synthetic ADH can regulate water re-absorption. - Nephritis inflammation of nephrons causes damage to glomerulus and large proteins can now pass into nephrons, drawing water for urine output. This can cause irreversible kidney damage.- Kidney Stones precipitate forming from minerals carried from blood. Both alkaline and acid stones cause tissue damage as they travel through excretory system. Some stones break up through ultra-sound and then pass through urinary tract- Dialysis Treatment restores balance by passing blood through semi-permeable membrane under specific pressures. Unfortunately, dialysis cant mimic actual transplant- Hemodialysis blood cycles from vein is passed through solute solutions where gradients of salt and sugars diffuses waste into the clean solution. The solution is replaced and more wastes can be drawn out of blood, using chemical gradients. Hormone can also be added that the body needs- Peritoneal Dialysis 2L of dialysis fluid is pumped into peritoneal cavity which selectively filters- Kidney cells from pigs can be used in dialysis that can produce hormones, pH- Kidney Transplants with anti-rejection drugs, it gives a patient with kidney failure a much better change of survival. It is attached to existing blood vessels when possible and the new kidney can compensate to failed kidneys

Biosphere

- dynamic equilibrium describes any change that does not affect the entire system- biosphere Earth life- biotic biological or living thing - abiotic non-living thing- population amount of same species in an area- community population of all species in an area- ecosystem community and environment- habitat type of environment suitable for population- biodiversity amount of species in an ecosystem

- food chain chain that links organisms that eat each other, starting from food source- producer autotroph, organism that makes it own food- autotroph organism that uses sun light to make energy- consumer heterotroph, eats other consumers/producers to survive- heterotroph incapable of making it food and must eat others for energy

- endangered species close to extinction in all parts of the country- extirpated species no longer exists in part of country- threatened species most likely to become endangered- special concern species at risk of extinction due to low population- indicator species sensitive to small environmental changes

- herbivore eats plant only- carnivore eats meat only- omnivore eats all in its path

- detritus waste from organisms, including dead remains- decomposer organism that eats detritus (#### bugs)(roaches)

- Causes of Endangerment/Extirpation/Extinction- loss of habitat destruction of living place/feeding/breeding areas- pollution acid rain destroys habitat also- climate change global warming and ecosystem changes- UV causes sunburn and skin cancer; destroys ozone layer- UV electromagnetic radiation causes sunburn and gene mutations- ozone O3, inorganic molecule that protects life from excessive UV

- trophic level category of organisms defined by how it gains energy- primary consumer organisms that rely only on autotrophs for energy- secondary consumer organism that rely on primary consumers for energy(tree branch herbivore carnivore)

- food web presents feeding relationships of organisms in an ecosystem(plant moose, deer, mouse, elk wolf - photosysnthesis organism that uses solar energy - cellular respiration breaking of glucose into carbon dioxide and water- chemosynthesis non-photosynthetic organisms convert inorganic chemicals into organic compounds- chemoautotroph organism that make organic compounds without solar energy

- Laws of Thermodynamics energy cant be created or destroyed but can be transformed - nothing is 100% efficient

- ecological pyramids presents energy flow in food chains- biomass total dry mass of all living organisms in an ecosystem

- monoculture cultivation of single species

Hydrological cycle

- Water importance- absorbs and releases thermal energy and moderates temperature- metabolic reaction medium- excellent solvent- makes over 60% cell mass- polar molecule positive and negative ends- hydrogen bond type of bond between water molecules- hydrological cycle movement of water through atmosphere- evaporation condensation precipitation/transpiration river- transpiration water loss through plant leaves- percolation movement of liquid through porous material- leaching removal of soluble minerals through percolation - water table region below ground where water saturates- Acid deposition and Water cycle - wind, acid rain, lakes, soil, acid fogs

- Carbon cycle - carbon cycle cycle of matter where carbons move from inorganic to organic form- combustion chemical reaction that occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen- peat slow decomposing plant produced in low-oxygen environments

- Nitrogen cycle- nitrogen builds protein- nitrogen fixation bacteria provides nitrogen for plants which then receive energy from it- decomposers than breakdown detritus into nitrates, ammonia- denitrification occurs in anoxic condition where nitrates/nitrites are converted into N2- anoxic kills bacterial denitrifiersnitratesnitrogenlegumes: clover, alfalfa, peas- fertilizers provides nitrates to soil to increase crop yield- phosphorous synthesis of cells, DNA, bones- nutrients vital to life and cycle at differing rates, temperature, humidity, oxygen

- greenhouse effect gases trap the heat from the sun and warms earths surface- global warming carbon dioxide increase temperature- albedo reflection of light- stromatolite limestone containing fossilized bacteria

- Phosphorus cycle - cycling of phosphorus between biotic and abiotic components- Nutrient cycle - chemical essential to organisms

Unit 4: Ecology

Ecosystems

- ecology study of interactions of organisms and environment- ecotone transition area between ecosystems (pond, land)- ecological niche organisms role in ecosystem

- littoral zone area where no more plants grow - limnetic zone area where photosynthesis occurs- profundal zone region below limnetic zone, where photosynthesis cant occur- plankton autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms found in limnetic zone2 types of lakes:- Oligatrophic- deep and cold- low nutrient supply- clear water- Eutrophic- shallow and warm- excellent nutrient supply- murky water- Eutrophication the evolution of an oligatrophic lake into a eutrophic lake lake layers:- epilimnion upper level- thermocline zone between - hypolimnion lower level

- biome large geographical region with specific range of temperatures and precipitation- Soil- litter upper layer of soil, detritus- topsoil layer beneath litter, small rocks- humus decaying plants and animal matter- subsoil layer beneath topsoil, more rock and less organics- bedrock layer beneath soil, rock- groundwater water in soil

- biotic potentail max number of offspring per species with unlimited resources- carrying capacity max number of species that can be supported by environment- law of minimum nutrient in the least supply is the one that limits growth- law of tolerance how long an organism can survive inn a range of an abiotic factor- density-independant factor affects population regardless of population density- density-dependant factors - affects population due to population density

- coliform bacteria bacteria that is in intestines that indicate presence of fecal contamination in water- biological oxygen demand (BOD) amount of dissolved oxygen decomposers need to eat detritus

Evolution

- taxonomy classification according to relationships among organisms- binomial nomenclature method of naming organisms by tow names, genus and species- genus includes several species- species groups of organisms that look alike and can interbreed naturally- taxa categories used to classify organisms

- Protista kingdom of unicellular organisms- Monera 5-kingdom system, organisms that lack true nucleus- Archaebacteria 6-kingdom system, organisms that dont have a peptidoglycan cell wall- Eubacteria 6-kingdom system, organisms that have a peptidoglycan cell wall- phylogeny history of evolution of species- paleontology study of fossils- Sir Charles Lyell- Lord Kelvin - radiometric technique used to find age of a rock/fossil- biogeography study of geographic distribution of Earth life- endemic species found in one location- Homologous features features with similar structures but different functions- Analogous features features that are similar in appearance and function, but dont have same evolution origin- Vestigal features rudimentary structures with no function- DNA molecules made of genes- gene segment of DNA- Artificial selection humans selecting organisms with desired trait- natural selection individuals with traits that are better suited to environment have a greater change of surviving and reproducing- Lamarcks theory- force and led to change to environment- spontaneous generation- Theory- observation 1 many variation inherited- observation 2 more offspring then before- observation 3 population remains stable- interference 1 constant struggle- interference 2 more favourable variations- interference 3 more common offspring- mutation DNA change in sequence- neutral mutation no effect to organism- fitness organisms reproduction success- harmful mutation reduces fitness- beneficial mutation - enhances fitness