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181© The Author(s) 2018I. Salamey et al. (eds.), Post-Conflict Power-Sharing Agreements, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60104-5

Index

NUMBERS AND SYMBOLS14 March Alliance, 111, 121n415 Lebanese Salafi clerics, 111

AAfghans, 95Alawite, 14, 15, 95, 129, 136,

138–41, 145n10, 149, 158Aleppo, 5, 7, 55, 135Algeria, 116, 150al-Ain, Ras, 55Al Assad, Hafez, 13Al Nusra, 38Al Qaida, 38al-Sayyed, Amin, 111al-Zabadani, 14, 155Amazigh, 151, 154American Declaration of

Independence, 29anti-Alawism, 106anti-Assad, 65anti-democratic, 34, 35anti-Shiism, 106

anti-Western ideology, 73Arab countries, 127, 151Arabism project, 150Arab-Israeli conflict, 35, 76Arab League, 64, 66, 156Arab nationalism, 1, 75, 150Arab Spring, 1–4, 17, 24, 64, 92,

125, 128, 129, 137, 143, 149, 151

Arab Winter, 137Arab women’s movements, 91Arendt, Hannah, 126armed conflict, 54, 63, 88, 94, 125–8,

130, 138n6Assad, 5, 13, 45, 64, 65, 77, 91,

110, 111, 126, 130, 136, 138, 140–3, 150

Assyrian groups, 149Asylum, 64Australia, 12Austria, 34, 67authoritarianism, 126, 127, 141autocratic regimes, 3, 16autonomy, 68

182 INDEX

BBaathism, 12Ba’ath party, 49Bab Tebbaneh, 121n4Baghdad, 150Bahrain, 125balance of deterrence, 111Balkan conflict, 141Bamako, 102, 116, 117, 121Barzeh, 55Bashar al-Assad, 64, 95Basra, 151Beirut, 112, 121Belfast agreement, 66Belgium, 34, 35, 162bicameral system, 49, 57bin Laden, Osama, 105Bosnia, 8, 87, 145n7, 157, 158Bosnia-Herzegovina, 8, 87, 158Bougainville, 89, 99n4Bourdieu, 108Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 30, 69Brahimi, Lakhdar, 55, 134BRA militants, 89Brzezinski, 141bureaucracy, 86

CCaliphate, 105Camp David Peace Accords, 150Canada, 12, 34, 64cataclysmic civil war, 84ceasefire agreement, 55, 141Center for Civil Society and

Democracy, 57Central Sahel to the Atlantic Ocean, 115centripetalism, 48chemical weapons, 78Chile, 46Christians, 13, 38, 72, 73, 77, 95,

135, 138, 151, 156, 157Circassians, 7, 135, 157

citizenship, 29civilian movements, 92civilians, 77civil rights, 64civil society, 49, 52, 54–7, 84, 85, 92,

95, 133, 158, 159civil unrest, 2civil war, 7, 8, 31, 35, 44–7, 52, 64,

73, 84, 85, 92, 94, 95, 110, 131, 134, 139, 143, 157, 158

clash of civilizations, 3clientelism, 26, 126, 144n5coexistence, 10, 14, 15, 17, 30, 54,

136, 153, 154communal violence, 39, 70, 71communitarian, 6communitarianization, 4communitarian transnationalism, 151confederate system, 141confederation, 13, 145n10confessionalism, 126, 131, 144n5conflict management, 69, 88, 94, 97conflict resolution, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18,

33, 43, 56, 68, 83–99, 151conflict studies, 85, 86consociationalism, 34, 36–8, 153–5consociational regimes, 133constitutional framework, 36contemporary feminism, 93corruption, 7, 11, 17, 26, 50, 52, 126counter-interventions, 32crimes against humanities, 45, 46crisis, 149–51critical-consociationalists, 161Croatia, 145n7, 157cultural autonomy, 48, 133cultural cleavages, 35cultural intolerance, 94cultural milieu, 63cultural transition, 11, 12custodial rights, 89Cyprus, 34Czechoslovakia, 33

183 INDEX

DDamascus, 5, 7, 55, 76, 112, 121,

128, 135, 141, 145n10Danish prophet cartoons, 114Dar’a, 32Dayton Agreement, 157de-Ba’athification process, 49decentralization, 38, 66, 76, 79, 114,

133, 152, 158decentralization law 107, 160de-confessionalization, 163Deir Al-Zour, 7Delhi, 71demobilize, 51democracy, 19, 24, 33–7, 45–8, 66,

67, 70, 72, 73, 134–6, 153, 162democratic institutions, 46democratization, 4, 24, 25, 32, 39,

125, 134, 141, 143demographic confessional, 140n5de-securitization, 132development, 52, 97dictatorship, 153diplomatic solution, 131, 134disarming, 56, 57discrimination, 11, 91, 92, 99n6, 159divided society, 48, 52, 57, 67, 155domestic consensus, 13, 152double movement, 4Druze, 6–8, 13, 38, 77, 110, 140,

145n10, 149, 154, 157

Eeconomic affair, 68economic cooperation, 162economic market forces, 5economic power sharing, 52, 53, 57education system, 92Egyptianization, 76elections, 16, 50, 64, 67, 104, 157, 160electoral law, 36

electoral reforms, 2electoral system, 48, 49, 58n2elite, 43, 46, 75equality, 25, 28, 29, 86, 91, 92, 98,

117, 139n8, 159equal rights, 49, 84, 85, 134ethnic, 6, 132–6ethnic civil war, 139ethnic cleansing, 33ethnic groups, 6, 7, 14, 19, 29, 35,

116, 117, 133, 157ethnic security, 96, 137, 139, 140n3ethnic security dilemma, 137,

139, 140ethnoreligious minorities, 135ethnosectarian groups, 77Europe, 17, 24, 35, 65, 143, 150European countries, 49, 152European Union (EU), 64exclusion, 11, 89, 106, 154expansionist interests, 31external actors, 32, 45external aid, 56external intervention, 54, 153external relations, 131extremist groups, 7, 12

FFailed States, 30Federal Union of North Syria, 140federalism, 15, 34, 70federalizations, 153, 158feminism, 83, 85, 93feminist scholarship, 87Filipino women, 88First World War, 143foreign fighters, 162foreign investment, 5foreign military interventions, 3, 7foreign power, 26, 28, 69, 73Foucault, 90, 93, 95, 99n5

184 INDEX

fragmentation, 10, 12, 14, 37, 39, 74, 119, 128, 131, 149, 159, 162

France, 73, 126French colonialism, 116French mandate, 76fundamentalism, 24, 126, 131, 132Future Movement, 111–13, 121

GGaddafi Libya, 116Galtung, John, 68game theory analysis, 35Gandhi, Indira, 71GDP, 52gender-based violence, 8gender equality, 86, 92, 98, 159gender participation, 152gender quota, 92, 159Geneva Communique, 66, 156Geneva I conference, 134Geneva II Conference, 134, 135genocide, 31, 137gentleman’s agreement, 72geo-demographic fears, 154geographic concentration, 135geopolitical dynamic, 127,

131, 144n1geopolitical sovereignty, 4geosectarianism, 144n1global community, 87globalization, 4, 5, 24, 26, 37, 154Golan Heights, 6, 76, 77The Good Friday Agreement for

Northern Ireland, 158Gramsci, 90grassroot’s approach, 11greater Syria, 76, 77Greek Orthodox Christian, 72Grievances, 114Gulf states, 118

HHama, 135Hariri, Rafiq (Prime Minister), 111Hariri, Saad, 111, 114Hasaka, 15Hatey region, 76hegemony, 13, 71Herzegovina, 157, 158Hezbollah, 32, 108–14, 119, 121,

129, 130High Islamic Council of Mali, 117Hindu-Muslim political clashes, 71Homs, 7, 55, 135hospitable environment, 11, 162Houthis, 151Hudnas, 56human crisis, 63humanitarian intervention, 54human rights, 17hypothetical Alawite state, 138

Iidentity conflict, 20, 23–39, 49, 51,

152, 156identity crisis, 3ideological arenas, 105ideology, 23, 26, 27, 73, 99n4, 104,

108, 109ideology of Arab nationalism, 150Idlib, 7IGOs, 52Imad Mughniyeh, 113inclusion, 120, 155Independent Commission of

Arbitration, 51independent national security

policies, 130India, 69–71, 74, 75, 79, 145n7, 156Indian federal system, 71indicators of identity, 37individual security, 51

185 INDEX

injustice frames, 107institutional engineering, 48institutional reform, 47, 51institutions, 5, 17, 30, 36–8, 46, 47,

50–2, 57, 67, 70, 93, 96, 98, 136, 152

instrumentalists, 26, 35integrationists, 48integrative consociationalism, 48,

49, 154intermestic crisis-laden, 15intermestic politics, 154internal combatants, 45internally displaced, 54, 56, 65internal organization, 131international actors, 7, 66, 74, 127, 156international affairs, 4, 63international coalition, 130international community, 29, 30, 33,

54, 57, 58, 66, 94, 98, 134, 142, 143

international conflict, 26international diplomacy, 142internationalization, 31, 130international jihad, 115international policies, 68international political process, 159international relations, 131international support, 24, 29, 36, 38international system, 24, 28, 30, 33, 153internationalized internal conflicts, 130interstate, 26, 28, 30intra-Islamist rivalries, 108, 110, 112,

113, 119, 120Iran, 7, 14, 15, 29, 32, 38, 129, 135,

138, 142, 144n1, 150–2, 154Iraq, 2, 3, 8, 12–16, 18, 24, 29, 31–4,

38, 39, 44, 46, 49, 50, 58, 64, 65, 77, 107, 114, 120, 127, 141, 145n11, 149, 151, 152, 159, 162

Ireland, 35, 66, 162irredentist movements, 154

Ishmaelites, 135ISIS, 3, 38, 45, 58n1, 64, 65, 77,

78, 104, 126, 130, 140, 141, 143, 162

Islam, 12, 113, 115, 117, 118, 121Islamic civilization, 77Islamic Council, 102Islamic groups, 115, 117Islamic Heritage movement, 108, 113Islamic law, 143Islamic State, 3, 29, 38, 64, 126Islamic Tawhid Movement, 102, 110Islamist activism, 109Islamist Jihadi, 114Islamist movements, 105, 107Israel, 7, 13, 31–3, 57, 76, 77, 111,

114, 119, 145n7, 150Israeli-Lebanese war, 53

JJabal Mohsen, 111Jihad, 37, 115, 117Jihadi, 105, 106, 108–10, 112Jihadists, 129Jordan, 6, 32, 65, 77, 150justice, 46–53, 79

KKashmir, 70, 71Kazakh capital Astana, 135Kerry, John (U.S. State Secretary),

142, 144n1kinship, 27, 139Kirkuk, 150Kosovo, 9, 158Kurdish, 3, 8, 15, 29, 45, 135,

139, 140, 145n10, 149, 151, 154, 158

Kurdish Democratic Union Party, 45Kurdistan, 6, 152

186 INDEX

Kurds, 6, 7, 38, 151, 157, 158Kuwait, 113Kuwaiti Salafists, 113

LLatin America, 103leadership, 9, 44, 88, 89, 108, 118,

128, 152Lebanese Armed Forces, 157Lebanese Civil War, 156Lebanese conflict, 31, 37Lebanese government, 53, 111Lebanese Muslims, 73Lebanese Salafi leaders, 114Lebanon, 8, 13, 15–19, 27, 34, 35,

38, 44, 46, 48–50, 52, 56–8, 58n2, 65, 72–5, 77, 79, 101–21, 127–32, 136, 139, 142, 149, 152, 156, 157, 162

Lemieux, 109, 113Liberalism, 4liberals, 4, 13, 14, 93Libya, 3, 18, 65, 125, 141, 149,

150, 155Lijphart, Arend, 35, 66, 73, 132, 153Lincoln Agreement, 89local communities, 53local councils, 56local Islamist field, 108local level peacebuilding, 53

MMacedon, 77macro-securitization, 129–31Madani NGO, 57mainstreaming, 10, 12majority rule, 48Makhlouf, Rami, 5Mali, 19, 101, 102, 107, 108, 114–18Malian Sate, 114, 116Maliki legal, 115, 117

Malinke, 116Mande superstructure, 116marginalized, 9, 51, 97, 151martyrdom, 12mass executions, 78media, 6, 33, 54, 103, 112, 153mediators, 44–6MENA minority groups, 3, 17, 151MENA region, 2–4, 11, 17, 19, 151Middle East, 2–4, 6, 23–39, 49–51,

58n2, 93, 103, 112, 125–7, 129, 130, 137, 144, 144n1, 150, 151, 162

Middle Eastern, 3, 20n1, 24, 31, 36, 39, 151

Middle Eastern states, 3, 24militarization of society, 150military, 50military coup, 2, 76, 114millet system, 76Mindanao, 87, 88minorities, 8, 9, 26, 33, 34, 37, 38,

48, 66–8, 70, 71, 74, 76, 78, 79, 129, 134, 135, 137, 138, 140, 151, 154, 158

minority rights, 17–19, 33, 34, 152minority veto, 68, 71, 78mitigate, 20, 44, 69, 73, 155, 156MNLA fighters, 116modernity, 1, 35Morocco, 51Moro Islamic Liberation Front

(MILF), 88Mosul, 151Movement for the National Liberation

of Azawad (MNLA), 116Movement for Unity and Jihad in West

Africa, 117multi-communitarian, 4, 6, 9, 14,

151, 153–5multicultural societies, 141multi-layer identities, 73multi-level participation, 53

187 INDEX

multi-national, 5, 28, 157Muslim, 8, 70–2, 105, 109, 114,

116, 121, 135, 144n4, 156, 157

Muslim Personal Law, 70Muslim solidarity, 109Mussalaha, 56

NNasser’s Pan Arabism, 73Nation, 25, 28National Action Plan

on Women, 88national army, 50national borders, 130, 155national identity, 73National Pact, 8, 72, 73, 116nationalism, 26nationalists, 2, 66, 150nationalization projects, 150national political process, 108, 159nationhood, 28negative-sum game, 26negotiation, 49Nehru, Jawaharlal, 71, 79neo-Machiavellian model, 32neopatrimonial states, 128nepotism, 52, 71Netherlands, 34, 35, 48, 66new Middle East, 144new regional realism, 151

OObama administration, 64oil, 6oligarchy, 79open borders, 5opposition supporters, 54organized crime, 128

Orthodox, 6–8, 15, 158Ottoman Empire, 143

PPakistan, 33, 70, 145n7Palestine, 31, 33, 145n7, 152patriarchal ideologies, 87patriarchy and feminism, 93patronage, 5, 52, 89, 128peace, 43, 52, 58, 63, 79, 85, 88, 150,

161, 163peace agreement, 18, 46, 47, 50–2,

57, 86, 88, 160peacebuilding, 10, 13–18, 53, 68, 69,

83, 84, 159–61peace facilitators, 88peaceful reconciliation, 102peacemaking, 53, 83, 144n3, 156peace policy, 88peace processes, 19, 67, 73, 74, 84,

86, 88peace studies, 43, 85, 96peace treaty, 88, 89perpetrators, 33, 51Persian invasion, 111–12Philippines, 19, 52, 88Phoenicianism, 73pluralism, 16, 24, 25, 39, 74, 107, 154pluralist democracy, 24, 72plurality, 8, 18, 23, 72, 76, 152, 162polarization, 9, 45, 48, 54polarized society, 87policymakers, 68, 89, 97political actors, 23, 119political agenda, 91, 133political alliances, 114political and ideological discourse, 150political boundaries, 153political clientelism, 126political communities, 153political deadlock, 126, 127

188 INDEX

political dialogue, 155political discourse, 133, 153political groups, 109political ideology, 104political parties, 6, 136, 153, 159political patronage, 5political power, 48political resolutions, 154political sectarianism, 128, 136politics, 20n3, 26, 90–2polity and power, 85post-autocratic, 20post-Cold War, 37post-conflict agreement, 8, 9, 84,

151, 157–9post-conflict countries, 161post-conflict ‘justice’ process, 161post-conflict local governance, 160post-conflict management, 132, 133post-conflict reconstruction, 16, 97,

157post-conflict Syria, 15, 19, 65, 92,

132, 157post-crisis contexts, 155post-independent nation state, 151poverty, 52, 128power, 1, 33–7, 46–8, 50, 52, 58, 63,

66, 108–10, 132, 152, 153, 155–9, 163

powerful agents, 83power sharing, 33, 47, 66, 152, 153power structure, 10, 91, 92preventive measures, 33primordial, 28, 29primordialism, 25principal founder of peace and conflict

studies, 86prisoner’s dilemma, 26pro-Arab groups, 73pro-Assad, 65process of reconciliation, 44, 46, 88,

92, 94process of securitization, 133

pro-Iranian-Syrian groups, 73proportional representation, 67, 78proxy wars, 13psychological trauma, 78public consultancy, 88public institutions, 50, 51public policy, 50, 136public spheres, 87

QQatari National Relief committee, 53quotas, 49, 134, 136, 154, 155

Rrace, 27radical actions, 108radical Islamism, 126radicalization, 13, 105rational, 32Realpolitik, 4, 32, 110rebel group, 45, 51, 108, 130, 131rebellion, 37, 116reconciliation, 49, 51, 53–7, 83–98,

101, 103, 112, 119, 155reconstruction programs, 52refugee camps, 94, 99n2refugee crisis, 64refugees, 7regime of Bashar al-Assad, 95regional actors, 46regional players, 15regional powers, 29, 30, 32, 65,

142, 152regional subgroups, 150rehabilitation, 54, 87re-integrate, 51religion, 7, 9, 19, 27, 37, 48, 69, 75,

84, 115, 128, 129, 131, 140, 144n4, 153

religious, 6, 12, 114–19religious extremists, 45

189 INDEX

religious fundamentalism, 131, 132religious groups, 9, 13, 19, 24, 54,

110, 120, 134religious leaders, 119repression, 33resolution 1325, 88retributive justice, 46revolution, 29, 91, 128rights, 17, 79, 97Rome, 77Rougier, 105, 109, 111, 113rule of law, 46Russia, 3, 7, 15, 32, 38, 64, 126, 127,

130, 134, 137–42, 150, 152, 158Rwanda, 33, 46

SSaddam regime, 50, 65Sahel and West Africa, 117Salafi, 101, 102, 105–7, 109, 111–13,

117, 118, 120, 121Salafi-inspired movements, 103, 117Salafi Jihadism, 109Salafi Revival of the Islamic Heritage

Institute, 102Salafi theology, 106Saudi Arabia, 7, 15, 32, 38, 73, 118,

129, 138, 144n1, 145n11, 150, 152

sectarian, 14, 15, 151sectarian groups, 2, 4, 8, 11, 15,

144n5, 156, 157sectarian identity, 27, 144n5sectarianism, 73, 94, 126–31, 136,

137, 140–2, 144n5sectarianization, 15sectarian violent conflict, 156sectarian war, 137secularism, 12, 70, 128, 136secular regimes, 49secular state, 14, 150

security, 55, 88security complex, 130, 132, 142security dilemma, 132, 137, 139, 140Selau, 89Senate, 49separatism, 71Serbia, 157Shah Bano case, 71Shakespearean, 37Sharia, 104Shaykh Dai al-Islam al-Shahhal, 112Shia, 7, 72, 77, 106, 109, 111–14,

127, 129, 135, 149, 151, 154, 156

social activists, 83, 93social coherence, 94social discourses, 87social exclusion, 11social foundations, 84social movement, 107–8social science, 144–5societal fragmentation, 149socio-economic, 25, 34, 36, 38, 39,

54, 157socio-economic development, 25, 34,

38, 39socio legal system, 94sociology, 109socio-political, 3, 24, 83, 95, 96Soninke, 116south of the River Niger, 116–18sovereign, 27, 29, 32sovereignty, 4, 25, 29–31, 156spillover effects, 24, 127stability, 2, 4, 11, 16, 17, 24, 30,

34–6, 39, 46, 67, 72, 114, 115, 160, 162

stabilization, 134, 140n3, 143state building, 16, 84, 156, 161statehood, 115state preservation, 4Subbanu movement of Wahhabiyya, 117

190 INDEX

sub-national factions, 37sub-national level power sharing

arrangements, 160Sudan, 3, 16, 18, 33, 149Sufi imams, 117Sufi Islam, 115sui generis, 13Sunni, 7, 8, 13, 15, 38, 72, 77, 95,

104, 109–11, 113–15, 117, 119–21, 127, 129, 134, 135, 138, 140, 143, 145n10, 149, 151, 154, 156–8

Sunni Islamists, 111Supreme Court, 71Switzerland, 34, 35, 48, 67Syria, 1–20, 24, 25, 29, 31–4, 38, 39,

43–58, 59n14, 63–79, 84, 85, 90–6, 102, 103, 109, 119, 120, 125–43, 145n10, 149–63

Syrian armed forces, 95Syrian army, 110–12Syrian Center for

Policy Research, 128Syrian citizen, 155Syrian civil society, 158Syrian Conflict, 7–10, 37, 44, 84Syrian jails, 110Syrian military domination, 111Syrian Nonviolent Movement, 57Syrian opposition, 55, 135, 143Syrian peace, 84Syrian politics, 152Syrian post-conflict management, 132Syrian refugees, 126, 160Syrian regime, 55, 110, 132, 136Syrians, 7, 12, 13, 54, 65, 75, 76, 78,

79, 94–6, 141, 142, 145n9, 155, 160

Syrian’s Druze community, 140Syrian sects, 162Syrian war, 126, 137, 140, 141, 156systematic cleansing, 7

TTa’if, 49Takfiri, 106technocratic systems, 86territorial borders, 31territorial fragmentation, 74territorial integrity, 30, 117, 156terrorism, 11, 24, 39, 126, 137, 138terrorist activity, 63terrorist network, 32theological opposition, 111Theory of Change, 2Timbuktu, 114, 115tolerance, 12, 54top-down approach, 56totalitarian regimes, 24trade, 5, 65, 115transitional governments, 152transitionalism, 2transitional justice, 157transitional justice mechanisms, 157transitional power sharing agreement,

163transnational, 2, 5, 12, 74, 104, 105,

107–10, 118, 120, 120n2, 130, 151, 153, 155, 162

transnational Islamic Caliphate, 104, 105transnational Islamists, 105transnational militias, 65transnational rebels, 130, 139transnational violent Jihadi groups, 105transnational war, 130tribal groups, 154Tripoli, 102, 110–12, 121troops, 31, 156truth commissions, 47, 157Tuareg, 108, 114–18Tunisia, 16, 17, 125Turkey, 7, 15, 29, 32, 38, 65, 75–7,

135, 138, 145n11, 150, 152, 158two-state solution, 31tyranny, 49, 154

191 INDEX

UUmmah, 12, 104, 118, 129UN, 29, 30, 44, 55, 65, 66, 69, 77,

88, 94, 97, 156, 158unemployment, 52unification reductionism, 150unionists, 66UN resolution 1325, 88UN Security Council, 66, 88, 97UN Special Envoy, 66, 158UN Women, 97United Arab Republic, 76, 150United Nations, 7, 30, 63, 66, 69, 88,

98, 134, 156, 159United Nations Higher Commission

for Refugees (UNHCR), 7, 45United Nations Security Council

Resolution 2254, 156U.S., 3, 7, 8, 12, 32, 79, 150, 152,

158, 159US Institute of Peace, 12US-led invasions, 114US military intervention, 151

Vveto, 68veto power, 34, 48, 74, 154victims of rapes, 87Vienna, 142violence, 11, 84, 85violent conflict, 6, 64, 149,

156, 161vulnerable groups, 9, 94

WWalid Jumbulatt, 110war crimes, 44, 46, 77war ethnic reconciliation, 87warlords, 72warring factions, 70, 77war zones, 63Washington, 130weapons, 24, 31, 32, 59n15, 77, 78,

85, 94West, 12, 79, 105, 111, 115, 117West Africa, 105, 115, 117West Beirut, 111Western allied forces, 76women empowerment, 99n6women in peace activism, 98women in reconciliation, 87women panel, 88women parliamentarians, 159women peace, 88women spearhead unions Women’s

Advisory Board, 158women’s rights, 92, 159World War II, 1, 63, 85

YYemen, 3, 16, 18, 125, 127, 141, 149,

151, 155Yugoslavia, 29, 33–5, 38, 46, 145n7

Zzaims, 36