Bible & Ancient Parallels

8/11/2019 Bible & Ancient Parallels

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ACCOUNTS FROM NON-JUDAEO-CHRISTIAN SOURCES THAT REFLECTBIBLICAL ACCOUNTS

Gen chapter 1, the creatin !"r#$ $h"in%, that the chatic e&e'ent$ prece#e# the %#$

an# a&& e&$e, are in %reen( "r#$ $h"in% "ater t )e *ir$t are in )&+e( "r#$ a)+t theri%in * the +nier$e in an e%% are in )r"n.

[Genesis ch. 1] is no imitation. Copies may have been made from it, more or less deformed, butthis is an original painting. The evidence is found in its simplicity, unity, and perfect consistency;hilst in all others the mar!s of the traditional derivation are to be detected. "verloaded additions,incongruous mi#tures, inharmonious touches, all prove that the e#ecution and the original design,the outline and the deformed or croded filling up, are from different and very dissimilar sources.Ta!e the $criptural representation of the original formlessness, the primeval dar!ness, thebrooding spirit, the going forth of the light, or the first mcrning, the uprising of the firmament, theemerging of the land from the aters, and compare it ith the Gree! fables derived from the%gyptian, and hich &esiod has given as the traditional cosmogony ' There is enough to shothat the Gree! or %gyptian cosmogony had its origin in this ante(historical, ante(mythical account,but no less clear is it that the pure, the holy, the consistent, the sublimely monotheistic narrative

as the most ancient, and that these deformities gre out of the nature(orship, hetherpantheistic or polytheistic, hich, in the course of human depravity, succeeded the earlier, moregrandly simple, and less assumingly philosophic idea of the orld and its one creator) *&o asthe Creative &istory +evealed) in Langevol. 1, p. 1-/.

E%/ptian. %gyptian 0yths, Tales, and 0ortuary Te#ts '2"T&%+ 3%+$4"2 "5 T&% C+%T4"267 T80[c. 9::: 6C%] ' 4 am tum hen 4 as alone in 2un*the ater of chaos, out of hichlife arose; ftn/ ' hen he as on the hill hich is in &ermopolis *mun(+e began his creationupon a primeval hilloc! arising out of the abysmal aters; ftn/' 4 am the great god ho cameinto being by himself< ' the father of the gods ' T&% +%=8>$42G "5 T&% ?+G"2 2? T&%C+%T4"2 [original te#t from @rd0. 6C%] ' The ll(>ord [the god +a] said, after he had come intobeingA ' Bhen 4 had come into being, being *itself/ came into being, and all beings came intobeing after 4 came into being. 0any ere the beings that came forth from my mouth, beforeheaven came into being, before earth came into being, before the ground and creeping things

had been created in this place. 4 put together *some/ of them in 2unas eary ones *There is aplay on the name 2un, the primordial aters in hich creation too! place, and nenuthe eary< 'those in inchoate pause; ftn/, before 4 could find a place in hich 4 might stand *"ther te#ts locatethe creation on a primeval hilloc! arising out the the aters of 2un; ftn/' 4 planned in my heart,and there came into being a multitude of forms of beings, the forms of children and the forms oftheir children. 4 as the one ho copulated ith my fist, 4 masturbated ith my hand. Then 4speed ith my on mouthA 4 spat out hat as $hu [god of air], and 4 sputtered out hat asTefnut [goddess of moisture] ' They brought to me my %ye ith them. fter 4 had oinedtogether my members, 4 ept over them. That is ho men came into being from the tears hichcame froth from my %ye ' 4 created all creeping things and hatever lives among them)*Ancient Textspp. @(D/.

mon as the $ole God ' The first to come into being in the earliest times, mon, ho came intobeing at the beginning ' 2o god came into being before him; there as no other god ith him '&e had no mother ' &e had no father ho had begotten him ' the divine being ho came intobeing by himself. ll *other/ gods came into being after he began himself ' &e is the great oneho is in &eliopolis *tum; ftn [meaning mon is the same as tum]/. &e is called ' mon hocame froth from 2un[the primeval aters]) *Ancient Textsp. @D/.

5+"0 =7+04? T%ET$ $=%>>D:: ' [CommentsA] The first lines invo!e the divine source of allmatter *tum/ in his evolution as the sun ' and the orld(space ithin the primeval aters'[Te#tA] Atum as the First things' Bhen you became high, as the high ground, hen you rose,as the benben * pyramidion or sFuat obelis! representing the primeval hill, first =lace to emerge


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at the creation/ in the =hoeni# %nclosure in &eliopolis, you sneeed $hu, you spat Tefnut< ) *COS1.-; vol. 1, p. H/.

4n the &eliopolitan system, !non from both the Pyramid Textsand later sources, the primevalgod as tum, one of the forms of the sun god +e. tum emerged from the initial chaos, hichas conceived of as a dar!, motionless ocean called 2un, and appeared on the primal mound tobeget the first pair of gods. 4n the Pyramid Texts, tum is actually identified ith the primeval

mound itself and bears its name I 6enben) *Eros on the Nileby Jarol 0ysliiec and Geoffrey >.=ac!er p. K, Cornell 8niversity =ress, 9::-/.

%volution of tum from the primieval atersA 5+"0 =7+04? T%ET$ $=%>>H1-A *The te#t opensith the universal aters as spea!er, but from here to the end of the spell the spea!er is tum;ftn/ [2un, the primieval atersA] 4 am the Bater, uniFue, ithout second. [tumA] That is here 4evolved, on the great occasion of my floating that happened to me. 4 am the one ho onceevolvedI Circlet *This and the folloing phrase refer to tum


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made daylight and nighttime dar!nessA 3erily, in the beginning this *universe/ as ater, nothingbut a sea of ater' a golden egg as produced ' 4n a yearLs time a man, this =ragapati, asproduced therefrom' t the end of a year he tried to spea!. &e said Lbhuh.B. Jing,>ondon, 1M:9, and other or!s; httpAQQ.cresourcei.orgQenumaelish.html;c. 19thC. 6C%/.

Concerning the epic this as ta!en from *also !non as %numa %lish,) hich are its openingords translated as Bhen on high)/, it has been notedA The story of the creation of the gods

psu and Tiamat out of primordial aters' The younger gods disturb Tiamat, and psu, herhusband, decides to destroy them. &oever, before he can act, he is !illed by the gods. Tiamat isenraged and gathers an army of monsters and demons and marches in revenge. The gods,gathered in assembly, at first are unable to face Tiamat. %ventually 0ardu!, a young god, stepsforard and offers to fight Tiamat, in return for the throne of heaven. The gods agree and 0ardu!

gathers his eapons. TiamatLs army is defeated and she is !illed. 5rom her body 0ardu! createsthe heavens and earth and, from the blood of a defeated giant, humans are created to serve thegods. The %pic as recited on the fourth day of the 2e 7ear 5estival in 6abylon, hich too!place in pril. "n this day the !ingLs right to rule as symbolically reneed by the gods. The storyprobably has its origin in the second millennium 6C, but as still !non in the fifth to si#thcenturies ?) *httpAQQ.thebritishmuseum.ac.u! under 0% J@-H@)/.

henician. The first principle of the universe he [a historian] supposes to have been air dar!ith cloud and ind, or rather a blast of cloudy air, and a turbid chaos dar! as %rebus [theunderorld]; and these ere boundless and for long ages had no limit. 6ut hen the ind, sayshe, became enamoured of its on parents, and a mi#ture too! place, that conne#ion as called?esire. This as the beginning of the creation of all thingsA but the ind itself had no !noledgeof its on creation. 5rom its conne#ion 0ot as produced, hich some say is mud, and others aputrescence of atery compound; and out of this came every germ of creation, and the

generation of the universe. $o there ere certain animals hich had no sensation, and out ofthem gre intelligent animals ' and they ere formed li!e the shape of an egg. lso 0ot burstforth into light, and sun, and moon, and stars, and the great constellations ' hen the air burstinto light, both the sea and the land became heated, and thence arose inds and clouds, andvery great donpours and floods of the aters of heaven. $o after they ere separated, andremoved from their proper place because of the sunLs heat, and all met together again in the airdashing together one against another, thunderings and lightnings ere produced, and at the rattleof the thunder the intelligent animals already described o!e up, and ere scared at the sound,
http://www.cresourcei.org/enumaelish.htmlhttp://www.cresourcei.org/enumaelish.htmlhttp://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/http://www.cresourcei.org/enumaelish.htmlhttp://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/


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and began to move both on land and sea, male and female *Prearation "or the 'osel1, 1:;Fuoting =hilo 6ibylus ho Fuotes $anchuniathon the =hoenician historian, b. 19th(1-thC. 6C%/.

Ba)/&nian. The same account by a 6abylonian priest of the -thC. 6C%, as transmitted by aGree! historian of the 1stC. 6C%A There as once a time, in hich everything as dar!ness andater. 4n those times, monstrous beasts ere born, ith strange appearances ' oman called"morca ruled over all these [creatures]; she is called Thalatth in the Chaldaean language, hich

is translated into Gree! as thalassa*the sea


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the earth, his blood the rivers, his flesh the soil, his beard the constellations, his s!in and hair theherbs and trees, his teeth, bones, and marro the metals, roc!s, and precious stones, his seatthe rain, and the insects creeping over his body human beings) *#yths and Legends o" Chinaby%.T.C. Berner pp. HD, HH, George G. &arrap S Co. >td., 2e 7or!, 1M99; - thC. C%/.

The legend above first appeared ritten in the @rdC. C%, but the folloing version as passeddon orally and may even be earlierA 4n the remotest ancient times, there as a hero called

ub niu# ' &e turned himself into a chrysalis and slept in it, &e as soundly asleep and couldnot a!e up, he sat and lay and slumbered there for a long time, he then changed into an egg of$hen niu# ' The egg of $hen niu# gave birth to a long(legged son, the long(legged son asstrong, he as given the name =angu' "ld grandpa =angu, he al!ed don from the %ast,brought a big a#e ith him, cutting to pieces of thin plan!. The to pieces bro!e up into to;heaven got one, the earth also got one ' Grandpa =angu ' his breath became the ind fromthe east, his tears converged into a stream, his hair turned to fireood and grass, he held upheaven for too long, his body fell into pieces, =angu died and became the hillside *Ancient #iaoSongtranslated by 7an 6ao pp. 1K(1D, 9-, @1, Guiyang, China, Guihou 2ationalities =ress,1MM@; translated in The Rhinoceros Totem and Pangu #yth% An Exloration o" the Archetye o"Pangu by Bu Eiaodong pp. @DD(@DH, @HD in Oral Tradition, vol. 1D, no. 9, 9::1/.

Gree0. "ceanus, from hom the gods are sprung ' the gods, that are for ever ' the river"ceanus, from hom they all are sprung) *(omer)liad1-, 9:1, 9--(9-D; 1:thC. 6C%/.

3erily at the first Chaos came to be, but ne#t ide(bosomed %arth['aia], the ever(surefoundation of all the deathless ones ho hold the pea!s of snoy "lympus, and dim Tartarus inthe depth of the idepathed %arth ' nd %arth first bare starry &eaven, eFual to herself, to coverher on every side, and to be an ever(sure abiding(place for the blessed gods. nd she broughtforth long &ills ' $he bare also the fruitless deep ith his raging sell ' 6ut afterards she layith &eaven and bare deep(sirling "ceanus [and 1: other gods] ' fter them as born Cronosthe ily, youngest and most terrible of her children, and he hated his lusty sire. nd again, shebare the Cyclopes ' one eye only as set in the midst of their foreheads ' nd again, threeother sons ere born of %arth and &eaven, great and doughty beyond telling, Cottus and6riareos and Gyes, presumptuous children. 5rom their shoulders sprang an hundred arms, not tobe approached, and each had fifty heads ' 5orthith [%arth] made the element of grey flint andshaped a great sic!le ' nd ' great Cronos ' siftly lopped off his on fatherLs [gential]members and cast them aay to fall behind him. nd not vainly did they fall from his hand; for allthe bloody drops that gushed forth %arth received, and as the seasons moved round she bare thestrong %rinyes and the great Giants ' nd again far(seeing Reus made yet another generation,the fifth, of men ho are upon the bounteous earth ' 5or no truly is a race of iron *Theogony)11D(1K; Bor!s and ?ays) 1DMc(d, 1H-(1HK in (esiod/.

?icit "rpheus; a principio ?eum ethera condidisse; etherem autem Chaos undiFue clu#isse;obscuram etiam caliginem omnia, Fuae sub ethere erant, cooperuisse ' Terram ' sub tenebrisinvisibilem acuisseA >ucem vero, ethere perrupto, terram omnemFue illam fabricam illuminasse' %# illa autem omnia proflu#isse, =rincipia nempe incorporea, $olem, >unam, =otestates, et

stra omnia, terram item, et mare, Fuae in illis visibilia sunt ac invisibilia omnia. ?e homine 'hunc, ipsius ?ei opera, e# terra efformatum) "rpheus says, 5rom the beginning God foundedthe ether ' and on every side of the ether as chaos; and gloomy night enveloped and obscuredall things hich ere under the ether ' The earth as invisible on account of the dar!nessA but

the light bro!e through the ether, and illuminated the earth, and all the material of the creation '6y this poer all things ere produced, as ell as incorporeal principles as the sun and moon,and their influences, and all the stars, and the earth, and the sea, and all things that are visibleand invisible in them. 0an ' the or! of this very God, as formed from the earth< ) *)oannis#alalae Chronograhia *Chronicles o" +ohn #alalas, edited by >udig ?indorf -, M1, p. H-, 6onn,Germany, %dard Beber, 1@1; DthC. C% historian Fuoting earlier "rphic ritings/.

2ra$trian. "f "hrmadLs creatures of the orld, the first as the s!y; the second, ater; thethird, earth; the fourth, plants; the fifth, animals; the si#th, man!ind ' 0atro ' and 0atroyao 'gre up from the earth ' and the breath ' ent spiritually into them ' nd, afterards,


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antagonism rushed into their minds, and their minds ere thoroughly corrupted ' nd [aftersinning] they had gone thirty days ithout food, covered ith clothing of herbage ' the tree theycall Gao!erena gre in the deep mud ithin the ide(formed ocean; and it is necessary as aproducer of the renovation of the universe, for they prepare its immortality therefrom. The evilspirit has formed ' a liard as an opponent in that deep ater, so that it may inure the &aoma[Gao!erena, the tree of life] ' "n the chieftainship of men and animals and every single thing itsays in revelation, that first of the human species Gayomard as produced ' before the comingof the destroyer, vegetation had no thorn and bar! about it; and, afterards, hen the destroyercame, it became coated ith bar! and thorny *6undahis) 1, 9; 1K, 9, K, , 1:; 1, 1; 9-, 1; 9H, 1in The Sacred oo.s o" the East% The undahis/ ahman 0ast/ and Shayast La-Shayasttranslated by %.B. Best, edited by 5. 0a# 0uller, vol. K, "#ford, The Clarendon =ress, 1:; M th(19thC. C%/. s to the age of even the oldest Roroastrian source for this accountA Roroastrianism' is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of prophet Roroaster ' 4t as probablyfounded some time before the Dth century 6C% in the eastern part of ancient Greater 4ran)*1i.iediaunder Roroastrianism)/.

Nr$e. There as in times of old ' nor sand nor sea, nor gelid aves; earth e#isted not, norheaven above, Ltas a chaotic chasm, and grass nohere. 6efore 6urLs sons raised up heavenLsvault, they ho the noble mid(earth shaped. The sun shone from the south over the structureLsroc!sA then as the earth begron ith herbage green. The sun from the south, the moonLs

companion, her right hand cast about the heavenly horses. The sun !ne not here she adelling had, the moon !ne not hat poer he possessed, the stars !ne not here they had astation. Then ent the poers all to their udgment(seats, the all(holy gods, and thereon heldcouncilA to night and to the aning moon gave names; morn they named, and mid(day, afternoonand eve, hereby to rec!on years ' the all(holy gods, and thereon held council, ho should ofthe darfs the race create, from the sea(giantLs blood and livid bones ' there in manLs li!enessthey created many darfs from earth) *The %lder %ddas of $aemundA 3oluspa, the 3alaondon, 2orroena $ociety, 1M:D; 1@thC. C%/.

The present orld as formed from rivers floing from a orld to the northA 0any ages beforethe earth as made ' as 2iflheim formed [in the north], in the middle of hich lies the springcalled &vergelmir, from hich flo telve rivers ' 6ut, first of all ' there as in the southernregion *sphere/ the orld called 0uspell ' Bhen the rivers that are called %livagar [from

2iflheim] had floed far from their sources ' the venom hich they rolled along hardened ' andbecame ice' in Ginnungagap ' [and] that part of Ginnungagap loo!ing toards 0uspellheimas filled ith gloing radiancy ' hen the heated blast met the gelid vapour it melted it intodrops ' these drops Fuic!ened into life, and too! a human semblance. The being thus formedas named 7mir ' 5rom him descend the race of the 5rost(giants ' 6or ' had three sons,"din, 3ili, and 3e ' the sons of 6or sle the giant 7mir ' "f 7mirLs flesh as formed the earth;of his seat *blood/, the seas; of his bones, the mountains; of his hair the trees; of his s!ull, theheavens; but ith his eyebros the blithe gods built 0idgard [the earth] for the sons of men,hilst from his brains the loering clouds ere fashioned) *The 7ounger %ddas of $turlesonA The?eluding of Gylfi) -( in )$id./.

Natie A'erican. Ma/a, 3+iche. 4n the beginning there ere heaven and ater, buteverything as stagnant and dar!. Gueumat, Tepeu and &ura!an held a council and createdthe orld, forming mountains, plains,and rivers. 5irst there appeared the vegetable, and later the

animal, !ingdom) *Ency Religion under Cosmogony and CosmologyA 0e#ican and $outhmerican)/.

Natie A'erican. Be as!ed [a >enape native merican], here he believed he came from &e' began to rite upon the floor. &e first dre a circle, a little oval, to hich he made four pas orfeet, a head and a tail. This,< said he, is a tortoise, lying in the ater around it,< and he moved hishand round the figure, continuing, This as or is all ater, and so at first as the orld or theearth, hen the tortoise gradually raised its round bac! up high, and the ater ran off of it, andthus the earth became dry.< &e then too! a little stra and placed it on end in the middle of thefigure, and proceeded, The earth as no dry, and there gre a tree in the middle of the earth,


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and the root of this tree sent forth a sprout beside it and there gre upon it a man, ho as thefirst male. This man as then alone, and ould have remained alone; but the tree bent over untilits top touched the earth, and there shot therein another root, from hich came forth anothersprout, and there gre upon it the oman, and from these to are all men produced< *+ournal o"+aser 3anc.aerts/ 4567-4589by Oasper ?anc!aerts, edited by 6artlett 6urleigh Oames and O.5ran!lin Oameson, translated by &enry C. 0urphy, p. H, 2e 7or!, Charles $cribnerenape native mericans] is shared by other 2ortheasternBoodlands tribes, notably the 4roFuois) *1i.iediaunder Borld Turtle)/. The tradition of the2ottoegui or 5ive 2ations [of the 4roFuois tribe] says, that in the beginning before the formationof the earth; the country above the s!y as inhabited by $uperior 6eings, over hom the Great$pirit presided. &is daughter having become pregnant by an illicit connection, he pulled up agreat tree by the roots, and thre her through the Cavity thereby formed; but, to prevent her utterdestruction, he previously ordered the Great Turtle, to get from the bottom of the aters, someslime on its bac!, and to ait on the surface of the ater to receive her on it. Bhen she had fallenon the bac! of the Turtle, ith the mud she found there, she began to form the earth, and by thetime of her delivery had encreased it to the e#tent of a little island. &er child as a daughter, andas she gre up the earth e#tended under their hands) *The +ournal o" #a:or +ohn Norton/ 4845edited by Carl 5. Jlinc! and Oames O. Talman p. , Toronto, Champlain $ociety, 1MH:/.

Gen chapter 1, e&+tinar/ e4p&anatin$ * creatin.

Common elements of ancient and modern theories of evolutionA 4nfinite time; infinite matter *seerefutation/; other realms here evolution occurs; creation from chance combinations of matter;survival of the fittest; primitive races of men; desire to be free of divine constraints.

Gree0. Teachings of ?emocritusA That the atoms ere infinite both in magnitude and number,and ere borne about through the universe in endless revolutions. nd that thus they producedall the combinations that e#ist; fire, ater, air, and earth; for that all these things are onlycombinations of certain atoms) *>ife of ?emocritus) p. @M- in 3iogenes; KthC. 6C%/.

R'an. The orld as produced by the or!ing of nature, ithout there having been any needfor a process of manufacture, and that hat your school declares to be capable ofaccomplishment only by means of divine intelligence is a thing so easy that nature ill produce,and is producing [creation from chance combinations of matter], and has produced orldsinnumerable [other realms here evolution occurs]. 4t is because you do not see ho nature canaccomplish this ithout the help of some !ind of mind that, li!e the tragic poets, in your inability tobring the plot to a smooth conclusion, you have recourse to a god. 7et you ould certainly feel noneed for his agency if you had before your eyes the e#panse of region, unmeasured and on everyside unbounded, upon hich the mind may fasten and concentrate itself, and here it mayander far and ide ithout seeing any farthermost limit upon hich to be able to rest. 2o inthis immensity of length and breadth and height there floats an infinite Fuantity of innumerableatoms [infinite time; infinite matter]hich, in spite of the intervening void, nevertheless ointogether, and through one seiing upon one, and another upon another, form themselves intoconnected holes, by hich means are produced those forms and outlines of the material orld

hich your school is of opinion cannot be produced ithout bellos and anvils. [creation fromchance combinations of matter] 7ou have therefore placed our nec!s beneath the yo!e of aperpetual tyrant, of hom e are to go in fear by day and night, for ho ould not fear a god hoforesa everything, considered everything, noted everything, and loo!ed upon himself asconcerned in everything,Na busy and prying god [desire to be free of divine constraints]) *Onthe Nature o" the 'ods 1, 9:, by Cicero, translated by O. 6. 0ayor; 1stC. 6C%/.

[6oo! 1A] Bherefore +eligion no is under foot, and us his victory [%picureus< teaching that

frees one from religion] no e#alts to heaven [desire to be free of divine constraints]'$ubstance is %ternal ' 2othing from nothing ever yet as born ' for the ll truly is nothing


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hich outside may bound ' thus rendering ' the hole an infinite [infinite time; infinite matter]' 5or of truth neither by counsel did the primal germs


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them being ust that one physical constant. Thus, in regard to things occurring that have aninfinitesimal chance in our universe, an appeal to an infinity of universes does not guaranteeanything at all.

Gene$i$ 5.6, 51, 55, ancient creatin acc+nt$ * 'an )ein% create#, in G#7$ i'a%e, *r'

the earth an# )ein% %ien )reath, an# "'an )ein% create# *r' ne * hi$ )ne$.S+'erian. %2J4 2? 2420& ' 4n those days, the days hen heaven and earth ere[created] ' The senior gods did oversee the or!, hile the minor gods ere bearing the toil 'the gods ere complaining about their *hard/ life ' Bhen you [%n!i, a $umerian ater(god] havefashioned a or!er comparable to the gods, may they rela# from their toilX ' %n!i ' said to hismother, 2ammu [the primeval mother] ' The to birth(goddesses shall nip ** piece$ * c&a/.Bhen you have given *it/ form, let 2inmah [the mother(goddess] serve as your helper ' let2inmah impose on him [the nely(created man] the burden [the gods ere bearing]


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E%/ptian. Jhnum ' asthe [%gyptain] deity ho*r'e# the ph/$ica&$+)$tance * eachin#ii#+a& &i0e a e$$e& *c&a/on a potterame Godmoulded clay in the li!eness of a modest maid [=andora]) *1or.s and 3aysD:(D9, DM(H1/.

=rometheus '+e# 'en +t * "ater an# earth) *Aollodorus1, H, 1/.

t =anopeus [Greece] ' t the ravine there lie to stones, each of hich is big enough to fill acart. They have the color of clay, not earthy clay, but such as ould be found in a ravine or sandytorrent, and they smell very li!e the s!in of a man. They say that these are remains of the c&a/+t * "hich the "h&e race * 'an0in# "a$ *a$hine#by =rometheus) *Pausanias1:, -, -/.

R'an. living creature of finer stuff than these [animals], more capable of lofty thought, oneho could have dominion over all the rest, as lac!ing yet. Then man as bornA hether the godho made all else, designing a more perfect orld, made man of his on divine substance, orhether the ne earth, but lately dran aay from heavenly ether, retained still some elements ofits !indred s!yNthat earth "hich the $n * &apet+$ :r'ethe+$; 'i4e# "ith *re$h, r+nnin%"ater, an# '+e# int the *r' * the a&&-cntr&&in% %#$. nd, though all other animalsare prone, and fi# their gae upon the earth, he gave to man an uplifted face and bade him standerect and turn his eyes to heaven. $o, then, the earth, "hich ha# )+t &ate&/ )een a r+%h an#


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*r'&e$$ thin%, "a$ chan%e# an# c&the# it$e&* "ith *r'$ * 'en )e*re +n0n"n'[Bords of ?eucalion, survivor of the ?elugeA] "h, ould that by my fatherLs [=rometheusondon, Billiam 0ac4ntosh, 1H:/.

Tahitian. very generally received Tahitian tradition is, that the first human pair ere made byTaaroa, the principal deity formerly ac!noledged by the nation ' fter Taaroa had formed theorld, he create# 'an +t * araea, re# earth' some relate that Taaroa one day called for theman by name. Bhen he came, he ca+$e# hi' t *a&& a$&eep, an# that, "hi&e he $&ept, he t0+t ne * hi$ ivi, r )ne$, an# "ith it 'a#e a "'an, "h' he %ae t the 'an a$ hi$

"i*e, and that they became the progenitors of man!ind ' Ii i$ an a)ri%ina& "r#, and not only$i%ni*ie$ a )ne, )+t a&$ a "i#") *Polynesian Researchesby Billiam %llis 9nd%dition, vol. 1,p. MD, 2e 7or!, O. S O. &arper, 1@@/.

Fa0a*. 5a!aofo, or 6oditch 4sland [$outh =acific] ' The natives there say that men hadtheir origin in a small stone on 5a!aofo. The stone became changed into a man called3asefanua. fter a time he thought of ma!ing a oman. This he did by collecting a Fuantity ofearth, and forming an earth model on the ground. He 'a#e the hea#, )#/, ar'$, an# &e%$ a&&* earth, then t0 +t a rib*r' hi$ &e*t $i#e an# thr+$t it in$i#e * the earth '#e&, "hen$+##en&/ the earth )eca'e a&ie, an# +p $tarte# a "'an n her *eet< He ca&&e# her Ii


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!Eeee, r rib, he t0 her t )e hi$ "i*e, and from them sprang the race of men *Samoa a(undred 0ears Ago and Long e"oreby George Turner pp. 9DH(9D, >ondon, 0ac0illan and Co.,1-/.

fter Fuoting these various =olynesian myths, a boo! s!eptical of the divine authorship of the6ible states, This ide diffusion of the story in =olynesia raises a doubt hether it is merely ' arepetition of the 6iblical narrative learned from %uropeans) *Fol.-Lorevol. 1, p. 1:/. %specially

interesting is the fact that the aboriginal ords for bone in the language of the 0aoris, Tahitians,and those on 5a!aofo *here it also refers to a oman ho is a ido/ are very similar to theord %ve.

Gen chapter 5, the %en a%e an# it$ en#.

S+'erian. The $umerian epic entitled Y%nmer!ar and the >ord of ratta) *91stQ9:thC. 6C%/A"nce upon a time there as no sna!e, there as no scorpion, there as no hyena, there as nolion, there as no ild dog, no olf, there as no fear, no terror, man had no rival. 4n thosedays, the lands of $ubur *and/ &amai, &armony(tongued $umer, the great land of the decrees ofprinceship, 8ri, the land having all that is appropriate, the land 0artu, resting in security, thehole universe, the people in unison To %nlil [the chief god] in one tongue [spo!e]) *The >a$elo" Tongues>% A Sumerian Versionby $.2. Jramer, 1MD, +ournal o" the American Oriental Society

vol. A p. 1:M/.

2o death among man!ind until man eats from a treeA $umerian myths ' %n!i and 2inhursagA a=aradise 0yth ' The land ?ilmun is clean, the land ?ilmun is most bright ' The lion !ills not,the olf snatches not the lamb, un!non is the !id(devouring ild dog, the sic!(eyed says not 4am sic!(eyed,< the sic!(headed *says/ not 4 am sic!(headed,< its old oman *says/ not 4 am anold oman,< its old man *says/ not 4 am an old man< ' The ailing priest al!s not around abouthim, the singer utters no ail, by the side of the city he *utters/ no lament [in funeral mourning] '%n!i [a $umerian ater(god] ' says to his messenger 4simud ' Bhat, pray, is this< ' &ismessenger 4simud ansers himA 0y [!ing], the tree)(plant,< he says to him; &e cuts it don forhim, he eats it ' [this is done to H other plants] ' *Thereupon/ 2inhursag [a mother(goddess,%n!i


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Gree0. 0an lived free from calamities and sic!ness until a oman touched something she asnot supposed toA 5or ere this the tribes of men lived on earth remote and free from ills and hardtoil and heavy sic!ness ' 6ut the oman [=andora] too! off the great lid of the ar ith herhands and scattered all these [calamites that ere therein] and her thought caused sorro andmischief to men [cf Gen @AD, 1H(1M]. "nly &ope remained [cf Gen @A1K] there in an unbrea!ablehome ithin under the rim of the great ar ' 6ut the rest, countless plagues, ander amongstmen; for earth is full of evils and the sea is full. "f themselves diseases come upon mencontinually by day and by night, bringing mischief to mortals silently' 5irst of all the deathlessgods ho dell on "lympus made a golden race of mortal men ho lived in the time of Cronoshen he as reigning in heaven. nd they lived li!e gods ithout sorro of heart, remote andfree from toil and griefA miserable age rested not on them; but ith legs and arms never failingthey made merry ith feasting beyond the reach of all evils. Bhen they died, it as as thoughthey ere overcome ith sleep, and they had all good things; for the fruitful earth unforced barethem fruit abundantly and ithout stint [cf Gen 9A1K, 1D;@A1H(1M]. They delt in ease and peaceupon their lands ith many good things, rich in floc!s and loved by the blessed gods) *1or.s and3aysM:(19:; c. H:: 6C%/

2or unto them as any res god ' nor Reus, the !ing of gods ' but only Jypris Fueen 'hom they ith holy gifts ere ont to appease, ith painted images of living things, ith costlyunguents of rich fragrancy, ith gentle sacrifice of taintless myrrh, not then ith unmi#ed blood of

many bulls as ever an altar stained; but among men tas sacrilege most vile to reave of lifeand eat the goodly limbs ' ll things ere tame, and gentle toard men, all beasts and birds,and friendship


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ind, neither old age nore death nor envy) *+am 7ast) @, 19(1@ in The Sacred oo.s o" theEast% The =end-A&esta translated by Oames ?armesteter, edited by 5. 0a# 0uller, vol. 9@, p.9K9, "#ford, The Clarendon =ress, 1@/.

Chine$e. Therefore, in an age hen virtue had been attained ' birds and beasts groupedtogether and vegetation flourished ' 4f the branch holding a birdLs nest as dran don it ouldbe merely to delight in loo!ing at it. $o, in an age hen virtue had been attained, all creatures

comfortably lived together, every species of living thing connected ith each other [cf Gen 9A1M,9:] ' 6eing simple and unadorned, people achieved their on nature [6oo! H] ' The people inancient times didnLt !no they ere supposed to cover their bodies ith clothing [cf Gen 9A9K]'They coe#isted in the places here deer made their homes. TheyLd plo the land and eat thefood they produced. TheyLd eave and stitch their on garments. They had no reason to causeharm to each otherLs hearts, and in that ay their virtues flourished unhampered ' fter thatpeople began to use strength to subugate the ea! and the poer of numbers to castigate thefe [6oo! 9M]) *=huang@i; -thC. 6C%/.

The ancients ' desire as controlled and passion mastered; and, in conseFuence, the spirit didnot ander into the e#traneous ' ?uring this period, the people ere in a state of rcadiansimplicityA they ate and rambled aboutA they smac!ed their stomachs and reoiced. ll togetherenoyed the blessings of heaven and ate of the fruits of the earth. They did not rangle in mutualrecriminations, nor dispute over rights and rongs. =eace and plenty e#isted. This may be called

the 4deal +ule ' The perfect man ' of ancient time stood in the very root and centre of being,the foundations of &eaven and %arth themselves, and andered at ill, unhasting and free, inthis central seat of being. &e cherished and diffused virtue, he en!indled the spirit of harmony ofe#istence and thus enabled creation to come to full maturity ' the daysNthe golden ageNof thelong past ' The activities of the mind or!ed artistically; action as correct ith benefit to things.Bords ere pried and in accord ith reason. ctions ere simple and direct, in accordance ithnature. The mind as contented and ithout cunning. ctions ere simple and ithoutostentation ' ll as bright and clear as the sun and moonA man as a fit mate of the Creator.&ence &eaven overshadoed them ith grace, and %arth sustained them ith life. The fourseasons did not lose their order, nor did the ind and rain fall ith violence ' The fattening desdescended; the floering bamboo came to ripeness; the yello ade appeared; the vermilliongrass shoed itself in the palace precincts ' 0enLs hearts ere free from secret craftiness andthe smartness of cunning. Bhen e arrive at the decadent age, e find that men ' melted brass

and iron; the hole of nature ithered under the e#ploitation. They ripped open the pregnant andsle the young, untimely *in order to get s!ins and furs/ ' the orld of life partially failed andthings miscarried so that the larger half of creation failed of fruition ' They laid foundations fortheir cities) *Tao/ The 'reat Luminant% Essays "rom the (uai Nan T@u by %van $. 0organ pp. @K(@D, $hanghai, 1M@@; Fuoting the (uainan@i 9 S ; c. 1@M 6C%/.

R'an. This as the Golden ge that, ithout coercion, ithout las, spontaneously nurturedthe good and the true. There as no fear or punishmentA there ere no threatening ords to beread, fi#ed in brone, no crod of suppliants fearing the udge


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6efore OoveLs day *i.e. in the Golden ge, hen $aturn reigned; ftn/ no tillers subdued the land.%ven to mar! the field or divide it ith bounds as unlaful. 0en made gain for the commonstore, and %arth yielded all, of herself, more freely, Bhen none begged for her gifts ' Then menfound ho to snare game in toils, to cheat ith bird(lime, and to circle great glades ith hounds.

nd no one lashes a broad stream ith casting(net, see!ing the depths, and another throughthe sea trails his dripping drag(net. Then came ironLs stiffness and the shrill sa(bladeN(for earlyman cleft the splitting ood ith edges then came divers arts. Toil conFuered the orld,unrelenting toil, and ant that pinches hen life is hard) *Georgics) 1, 19K(1-D in Virgiltranslatedby &. +ushton 5airclough, >oeb, 1M@:; 1stC. 6C%/.

Hin#+. Calanus [4ndian philosopher ho accompanied le#ander the Great, said,] ' 5ormerly,there as abundance everyhere of corn and barley, as there is no of dust; fountains thenfloed ith ater, mil!, honey, ine, and oil, but man!ind by repletion and lu#ury became proudand insolent. Oupiter, indignant at this state of things, destroyed all, and appointed for man a lifeof toil) *'eograhy1K, 1, D-; spo!en - thC. 6C%/.

That yuga [age] is called Jrita hen the one eternal religion as e#tant. nd in that best ofyugas, every one had religious perfection, and, therefore, there as no need of religious acts.

nd then virtue !ne no deterioration; nor did people decrease. 4t is for this that this age is calledJrita *perfect/ ' nd there as no buying and selling ' nd there as no manual labour. ndthen the necessaries of life ere obtained only by being thought of ' nd during that yuga, there

as neither disease, nor decay of the senses. nd there as neither malice, nor pride, norhypocrisy, nor discord, nor ill(ill, nor cunning, nor fear, nor misery, nor envy, nor covetousness '

nd although of different characteristics, all of them folloed a single 3eda; and they had onereligion ' the Treta 7uga [the ne#t age]. 4n this age, sacrifices are introduced, and virtuedecreaseth by a Fuarter. ' 4n the ?apara 7uga, religion decreaseth by one half ' nd inconseFuence of intellect having decreased, fe are established in truth. nd hen people fall offfrom truth, they become subect to various diseases; and then lust, and natural calamities ensue' "n the coming of the ?apara 7uga, men become degenerate, in conseFuence of impiety 'in the Jali 7uga a Fuarter only of virtue abideth ' nd the 3edas and the institutes, and virtue,and sacrifices, and religious observances, fall into disuse. nd *then/ reign ' disease, andlassitude, and anger and other deformities, and natural calamities, and anguish, and fear ofscarcity. nd as the yugas ane, virtue dindles. nd as virtue dindles aay, creaturesdegenerate. nd as creatures degenerate, their natures undergo deterioration) *The

#aha$harata o" rishna-3!aiayana Vyasatranslated by Jisari 0ohan Ganguli @, 1-, 1@(1MD; -thC. C%/.

The beings ho ere created by 6rahma, of these four castes, ere at first endoed ithrighteousness and perfect faith; they abode herever they pleased, unchec!ed by anyimpediment; their hearts ere free from guile; they ere pure, made free from soil, by observanceof sacred institutes ' and they ere filled ith perfect isdom ' fter a hile ' *time/ infusedinto created beings sin ' The innate perfectness of human nature as then no more evolved 'and these being enfeebled, and sin gaining strength, mortals ere afflicted ith pain, arising fromsusceptibility to contrasts, as heat and cold, and the li!e. They therefore constructed places ofrefuge, protected by trees, by mountains, or by ater; surrounded them by a ditch or a all, andformed villages and cities) *The Vishnu Puranatranslated by &orace &ayman Bilson 1, D,>ondon, Oohn 0urray, 1-:; -thC. C%/.

nother &indu legend calls the orld Oambudvpa, and states that trees there enable the peopleto live healthy lives for thousands of years, one tree in particular granting everlasting life. Thereis also a particular type of gold mentioned in connection ith this land *cf Gen 9A1:(19/.Oambudvpa ' is the name of the ' island< ' of the terrestrial orld, as envisioned in thecosmologies of &induism ' hich is the realm here ordinary human beings live) *1i.iediaunder Oambudvipa)/. Oamb\dvpa is immense and glorious ' That mountain 0eru ' There isa great divine ac!(tree there ' They drin! the uice of its fruits and live for ten thousand years '6y drin!ing the uice of the blac! mango all of them have perpetual youth ' There also is a great2yagrodha tree *holy fig tree/ ' They maintain themselves by drin!ing the uice of its fruits.Those highly fortunate ones live for eleven thousand five hundred years ' there is a great


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La.uca*bread fruit/ tree of si# tastes. 6y drin!ing the uice of its fruits, they live ithout ailments' "n the southern side of the 0eru and to the north ' there is an ancient eternal +ose(appletree ' The height of that noble(souled lordly tree is one thousand and one hundred 7oanas 'The uice of the fruits of that Oamb\ *+ose apple/ tree flos as a river ' Bhen the uice of theOamb\ is drun! neither old age nor hunger, neither eariness nor death nor languor oppressesthem ' type of gold named Omb\nada is produced there. 4t is a gloing ornament of the gods[TitleA] +am$Bd&la The indu La.esource o" the 'aDg% )ts "our streams *The rahmandaPuranatranslated by G.3. Tagare 1, 9, 1K, 19, -M, KK(KD, D1(DM; 1, 9, 1H, 9@(@:; 1, 9, 1, 1,?elhi, 4ndia, 0otilal 6anarsidass =ublishers, 9:::; H::(1::: C%/.

Gen .1-, Chine$e "ritin% character$.

This is Chinese for forbidden.The top is the character fortrees, it being to trees, andbelo it is an abbreviated formof a ord for 'od/plus anadded little hoo! hich changesthe meaning from 'odto 'odcommands. $o the ord"or$iddenmeans 'odcommands abouttrees.

The ord covetor desireconsists of characters meaninga !omanand t!o trees,mirroring the Genesis accountof %ve desiringthe fruit of thetreeof !noledge of good andbad and losing out on everparta!ing of the treeof life.

The ord for devilconsists of

characters for secret/ man/ andgarden. The de&il secretlyapproached manin the gardenof %den.

The ord for tempteris formedfrom de&il/ trees/ and co&er.The de&ilacted as temterunder the co&erof stealth andbeing man!ind


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recorded in the early chapters of Genesis< ' e have noted that the similarity beteen thethoughtsbehind many of the Chinese characters and the 6ible record of manativa, O. 6acmeister =ublishing, 1D/.


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This festival is being described according to its pagan roots, for the $amogitians remained paganlonger than any other national group in %uropeA $amogitia ' is one of the five ethnographicregions of >ithuania ' The region has a long and distinct cultural history ' 4n the 1Kth century,$amogitia as the last region in %urope to be converted to Christianity) *1i.iediaunder$amogitia)/.

Ce&ticGae&ic. $amhain ' is a festival held on "ctober @1I2ovember 1 in Gaelic cultures.

harvest festival ith ancient roots in Celtic polytheism, it ' continued to be celebrated in latemedieval times ' $amhain mar!ed the end of the harvest ' 4t as traditionally celebrated overthe course of several days ' 4t has some elements of a festival of the dead. The Gaels believedthat the border beteen this orld and the otherorld became thin on $amhain; because someanimals and plants ere dying, it thus alloed the dead to reach bac! through the veil thatseparated them from the living. 6onfires played a large part in the festivities. =eople and theirlivestoc! ould often al! beteen to bonfires [bone fires


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principale de la maisonA les membres de la famille sortaient ensuite au(devant des esprits,chacun portant une torche, et on les invitait entrer.) The 0i#tecs ' The honors that one paysto the dead do not cease ith the funeral. 4t is believed that the souls returned, once each year,to visit their families. This belief gave rise to a festival devoted e#clusively to the reception ofthese ghosts, and is observed in Rapotec, the telfth month of the year, corresponding preciselyto the 'nth * Ne')er. That day the houses are decorated the same as for the visit of aclose friend or of a distinguished guest. 4n the evening, each family prepares food and beveragesof all !inds, in accord ith their social position and ealth. ll this is put in large ars and placedon a table in the main room of the house. The members of the family, each carrying a torch, thenleave to meet the spirits, inviting them to enter the house) *(istoire de Nations Ci&ilisees du#exi?ue et de lGAmeri?ue-Centrale *(istory o" the Ci&ili@ed Nations o" #exico and Central

America,by 6rasseur ?e 6ourbourg vol. @, pp. 91, 9@, =aris, The Geographic $ociety, 1K/.

er+ian. [The ancient =eruvians] celebrated the solemn feast of the commemoration of thedead ith tears, lugubrious songs and plaintive music, and it as customary to visit thesepulchres of relations and friends, and leave in them food and drin!. 4t is orthy of remar!, thatthis feast as celebrated among the ancient =eruvians at the same period and on the same daythat the Christian solemnied the commemoration of the dead *5n# * Ne')er/) *Peru&ian

Anti?uitiesby 0ariano %dard +ivero and Oohn Oames 3on Tschudi p. 1@-, translated by 5rancis>. &a!s, 2e 7or!, George =. =utnam S Co., 1K@/.

&/ne$ian. Tn%an. +eligious ceremonies [of the Tongans] ' considered of mostimportance, or most sacred ' )nachi' the first fruits of the yam season. The obect of thisoffering is to insure the protection of the gods ' The time for planting most !inds of yams isabout the latter end of Ouly ' s soon as they have arrived at a state of maturity [in Oct)er-Ner')er] ' [the Tongan leader] ould appoint a day for the ceremonyA he generally fi#es onthe tenth day afterards ' %ach party brings its yams in a bas!et ' The procession begins tomove toards the grave of the last Tooitonga [chief] ' the chiefs and matabooles [highconsellors] are seated in a semi(circle before the grave, ith their heads boed don ' one ofthe matabooles ' seats himself before the grave ' &ere he addresses the gods generally, andafterards particularly ' &e returns than!s for their divine bounty ' and prays that theirbeneficence may be continued in future ' the men no ' rise ' and, after having paradedround to or three times before the grave, return bac!) *An Account o" the Nati&es o" the Tonga)slands% First American Editionby Billiam 0ariner and Oohn Ooseph 0artin pp. @:(@-, 6oston,

Charles %er, 19:/.

ll nations in =olynesia begin their year in Ne')er "ith a *e$tia& t the #ea#, and at thisseason the Tonga islanders, Ceylonese, and ?ya!s of 6orneo, fold their feast of f irst(fruits, called4nachi in 5ii, and 2ycapian in 6orneo) *The Ruling Races o" Prehistoric Times in )ndia/ South-!estern Asia and Southern Euroeby O.5. &eitt p. 19-, Bestminster, %ngland, rchibaldConstable and Company, 1M-/. There ere to Hinasieach year, that of the first yam crop 'Oune(Ouly ' and one for the subseFuent yam crop ' about "ctober(2overmber) *The E&olutiono" the Polynesian Chie"domsby =atric! 3inton Jirch p. 9@H, Cambridge, %ngland, Cambridge8niversity =ress, 1M-/.

A$ian. >a'p+chea. %n =htrbot *$eptembre("ctobre/ a lieu la grande fte des offrandesau# anctres ' partir du premier our del lune dcroissante, tous, mandarins, hommes,femmes se prparent activement cette fte ' le dernier our du mois, un local est prpar dans

lLintrieur de la maison; on y place des vivres, des gteau#, des sucreries, ainsi Fue les bougies,les baguettes odorifrantes allumes, et le tout est offert au# anctres Fue lLon invite en rptant trois fois cette invocation.) Cette fte est la fte des morts ' la fte ' a lieu Fuine oursaprs la prcdente, cLest((dire le dernier our de la lune croissante ' des petits bateau#, despetits radeau# en corce de bananier; on y met du ri, des gteau#, des vivres, FuelFuessapFues de inc, FuelFues bougies allumes, FuelFues baguettes odorifrantes Fui seconsument, puis on les place sur lLeau de la rivire en disant au# anctres ' lle au# pays, au#champs Fue vous habite ' alleX retourneX<


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Y[Cambodia *Jampuchea/A] 4n =htrbot *$eptember("ctober/ as held a great feast of offeringsto the ancestors ' 5rom the first day of the aning moon, all, public officials, men and omen,are actively preparing for this feast ' the last day of the month, a meal is prepared, in the interiorof the homes, of food, ca!es, and seets. There are also candles and burning incense stic!s, allbeing offered to the ancestors, ho ere invited three times by invocation.) YThis feast is the5east of the ?ead ' the feast held 1K days after [The 5east of the ?ead], that is to say, on theday of the full moon [the en# * Oct)er] ' small boats made of bar! and containing rice,ca!es, food, some small coins, a fe lit candles, and a fe incense stic!s, are placed on theater in the river, hile they say to their ancestors, Go to the country, the fields here you live.GoX +eturnX< ) *Notice sur le Com$odge *Notes on Cam$odia,by %. ymonier p. KM, =aris, %rnest>erou#, 1HK; Le uddhisme au Cam$odge *The uddhism o" Cam$odia,by dhemard >eClerep. @HK, =aris, %rnest >erou#, 1MM/.

Gen chapter$ -, the * an# ti'e$ prece#in% it.

S+'erian. flood ill seep over the cult(centers; to destroy the seed of man!ing ' is thedecision, the ord of the assembly of the gods ' the flood seeps o&er the cult-centers[cfGenDAH, 1@] ' fter, for seven days *and/ seven nights, the flood had s!et o&erthe land, *nd/ thehuge boat had been tossed about by the indstorms on the great aters ' Riusudra opened a

!indo! o"the huge boat [cfGen DA1D]' Riusudra ' The !ing !ills an o#, slaughtersa sheep [cfGen A9:, 91] 'Anu IandJ Enlil[gods] cherishedRiusudra, >ife li!e *that of/ a god they $ringdo!nfor him ' Thereser&er o" the name o" &egetation IandJof the seed of man!ind, in theland of crossing, the land of ?ilmun, the place here the sun rises they [the gods] caused todell) * $umerian 0yth, the ?eluge,)Ancient Textspp. -9(--; c. 9::: 6C%/. ?ilmun asconsidered the original site of man


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and its name shall be =reserver of >ife) ' ceil *it/ ith a mighty cover. [4nto the ship hich] thoushalt ma!e, [thou shalt ta!e] the beasts of the field, the fol of the heavens< [cf Gen DA1@(91] '2%"($$7$+42 3%+$4"24 [Mth(HthCenturies 6C%] ' [spo!en by god %a to trahasisA] at thestated time of hich 4 ill inform t[hee], enter [the ship] and close the door of the ship. board her[bring] thy grain, thy possessions, thy goods, thy [ife], thy family, thy relations, and thecraftsmen. 6easts of the field, creatures of the field, as many as eat herbs, 4 ill send to thee andthey shall guard thy door< ' tra[hasis] opened his mouth to spea!, [say]ing to %a [god of aterand building], [his] lordA 4 have never build a ship ' ?ra a design [of it on the gr]ound that,seeing the [des]ign, 4 may [build] the ship.< [%]a dre[ the design] on the ground [cf Gen DA1@(91])*Ancient Textspp. 1:-(1:D/.

Cronus appeared to Eisuthrus in a dream and revealed that ' man!ind ould be destroyed by agreat flood ' he as to build a boat and board it ith his family and best friends. &e as toprovision it ith food and drin! and also to ta!e on board ild animals and birds and all four(footed animals ' 4ts length as five stades [one !ilometer] and its breadth to [-:: m]. [cf GenDA1@(91] &e boarded the finished ship, eFuipped for everything as he had been commanded,ith his ife, children, and closest friends. [cf Gen HA1@(1D] fter the aters of the Great 5loodhad come and Fuic!ly left, Eisuthrus freed several birds. They found neither food nor a place torest, and they returned to the ship. fter a fe days, he again set free some other birds, and theytoo came bac! to the they ship, but they returned ith clas covered ith mud. Then later for a

third time he set free some other birds, but they did not return to the ship. Then Eisuthrus !nethat the earth had once again appeared. [cf Gen AH(19] &e bro!e open a seam on a side of theship [cfGen A1@] and sa that the ship had come to rest on a mountain. [cf Gen A-]&edisembar!ed, accompanied by his ife and his daughter together ith the steersman. &eprostrated himself in orship to the earth an set up an altar and sacrificed to the gods [cfGenA1(9:] ' The place here they had come to rest as the land of rmenia [cf Gen A-] ' Tothis day a small part of the ship that came to rest in rmenia remains in the Gordyenian0ountains in rmenia and some people go there and scrape off pieces of pitch to !eep them asgood luc! charms) *a$ylonian (istoryby 6erossus, frag. -, K-(KK, translated by G.= 3erbruggheand O.0. Bic!ersham; c. 9H 6C%; same inEuse$iusG Chronicle ArmenianH/.

There is a boo! about Eisut


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n 4ndian legend ith persons saved aboard a ship, ith arning being given to enter the shipH days before the flood occursA The >ord [3ishnu], too! the form of a $Laphari fish ' [andappeared to] a certain great royal rishi [sage], called $atyavrata ' the son of 3isvasvat ' Thegod replies [to him] ' "n the seventh day after this ' Bhen the universe is dissolved in thatocean, a large ship, sent by me, shall come to thee. Ta!ing ith thee the plants and variousseeds, surrounded by the seven rishis, and attended by all e#istences, thou shalt embar! on thegreat ship, and shalt ithout alarm move over the one dar! ocean, by the sole light of the rishis.Bhen the ship shall be vehemently sha!en bythe tempestuous ind, fasten it by the greatserpent to my horn for 4 shall come near. $o long as the night of 6rahma lasts, 4 shall dra theeith the rishis and the ship over the ocean< ' Then the sea, augmenting as the great cloudspoured don their aters, as seen overfloing its shores and everyhere inundating the earth.0editating on the inunctions of the deity, $atyavrata beheld the arrival of the ship, on hich heembar!ed ith the 6rahmans, ta!ing along ith him the various !inds of plants) *Original Sans.ritTexts o" the (istory and Origin o" the Peole o" )ndia Second Edition Volume 4translated by O.0uir pp. 9:M(91:, >ondon, Trubner S Co., 1D; Fuoting the &indu te#t haga&ata Purana, 9-,H; MthQ1:thC. C%/.

%vidently, 2oah as deified as the &indu god 3ishnuA The name of the &indu god 3ishnu,ithout the digamma [3


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is a Gree! one, Thebes in 6oeotia, founded by Jing "gygus ' before the deluge hich ta!es itsname from "gygus ' some 9,1:: years old [c. 91@: 6C%]) *VarroOn Agriculture @, 1, 9(@/.

t least one poet made this flood much greater than in other accountsA "gygosmade proof ofthe first roaring deluge, as he cut the air through the highclimbing aters, hen all the earth ashidden under the flood, hen the tops of the Thessalian roc!s ere covered, hen the summit ofthe =ythian roc! near the clouds on high as bathed in the sno(cooledflood *6ecause it rose so

high that it sept aay the sno from the mountain(tops; ftn/. There as a second deluge, hentempestuous aters covered the circuit of the round earth in a furious flood, hen all mortal menperished, and ?eucalion alone ith his mate =yrrha in a hollo ar! cutting the sirling flood ofinfinite deluge ent on his eddying voyage through the air turned ater) *Nonnus@, 9:K(91-/.

De+ca&in. )nd hen Reus ould destroy the men of the 6rone ge, ?eucalion by the adviceof =rometheus [a Titan] constructed a chest [cf Gen DA1@(1D], and having stored it ith provisionshe embar!ed in it ith [his ife] =yrrha [cf Gen HA1@]. 6ut Reus by pouring heavy rain fromheaven flooded the greater part of Greece, so that all men ere destroyed, e#cept a fe ho fledto the high mountains in the neighborhood. 4t as then that the mountains in Thessaly parted,and that all the orld outside the 4sthmus and =eloponnese as overhelmed [cf Gen HA1H(9@].6ut ?eucalion, floating in the chest over the sea for nine days and as many nights, drifted to [0t.]=arnassus, and there, hen the rain ceased, he landed [cf Gen A@, -] and sacrificed to Reus,

the god of %scape [cf Gen A1(9:]) *The Libraryby Apollodorus of Alexandria 1, 7, 2, translated

by James Frazer; 2ndC. BCE).

The present race of men as not the first to be created. The first generation perished to a man;the present is a second creation. This generation became a vast multitude, oing to ?eu!alion."f the men of the original creation they tell this taleA they ere rebellious, and ilful, andperformed unholy deeds, disregarding the sanctity of oaths and hospitality, and behaving cruellyto suppliants; and it as for these misdeeds that the great destruction fell upon them [cf Gen DA1(K, 11, 19]. $traightay the earth discharged a vast volume of ater, and the rivers of heavencame don in streams and the sea mounted high. Thus everything became ater, and all menperished [cfGen HA11, 19, 1H(9:]; ?eu!alion alone as saved for another generation, on thescore of his isdom and piety [cf Gen DAM, 1H(91]. The manner of his salvation as as follosA &eplaced his children and his ives in an ar! of vast sie, and he himself also entered in. 2o,hen he had embar!ed, there came to him ild boars and horses, and generations of lions and

serpents, and all the other beasts hich roam the earth, all in couples [cf Gen HA11(1D];. &eelcomed them all. 2or did they harm him; and friendship remained amongst them as Reushimself ordained. These, one and all, floated in this ar! as long as the flood remained. This is thelegend of ?eu!alion as told by the Gree!s) *Syrian 'oddess19/.

The mythologists tell us that the dove hich ?eucalion sent out of his ar!, returning bac! again,as to him a certain sign of the storm not ceased; but of serene and fair eather, hen she fleFuite aay) *Bhich re the 0ost Crafty, Bater(animals "r Those Creatures That 6reed 8pon the>and) 1@ inPlutarch#orals 1stQ9ndC. C%/.

A&&e%rica& $i'i&aritie$. The flood legend is referred to in an allegorical manner in some Gree!mythsA The deep(floing river $ty# corresponds to the springs of the atery deep< that added tothe floodaters of the deluge *Gen HA19/, herein the giant 2ephilim and rebellious people eredestroyed. Gree! legend connects these together, as it does divine oaths being made in

connection ith ater and a rainboA nd $ty# the daughter of "cean ' bare ' 2i!e *3ictory/' lso she brought forth Cratos *$trength/ and 6ia *5orce/, onderful children ' Reus ' calledall the deathless gods to great "lympus, and said that hosoever of the gods ould fight ith himagainst the Titans [giants], he ould not cast him out from his rights, but each should have theoffice hich he had before amongst the deathless gods. nd he declared that he ho asithout office or right under Cronos, should be raised to both office and rights as is ust. $odeathless $ty# came first to "lympus ith her children ' nd Reus honoured her, and gave hervery great gifts, for her he appointed to be the great oath of the gods ' Terrible $ty# ' +arelydoes the daughter of Thaumas, sift( footed 4ris [goddess of the rainbo], come to her ith amessage over the seaLs ide bac!. 6ut hen strife and Fuarrel arise among the deathless gods,
http://oll.libertyfund.org/#chapter_92470http://oll.libertyfund.org/#chapter_92470http://oll.libertyfund.org/#chapter_92470http://oll.libertyfund.org/#chapter_92470


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and hen any of them ho live in the house of "lympus lies, then Reus sends 4ris to bring in agolden ug the great oath of the gods from far aay, the famous cold ater ' 5or hoever of thedeathless gods that hold the pea!s of snoy "lympus pours a libation of her ater is forsorn,lies breathless until a full year is completed ' and a heavy trance overshados him. 6ut henhe has spent a long year in his sic!ness, another penance and an harder follos after the first.5or nine years he is cut off from the eternal gods) *Theogony) @@(-::, HHD(:@ in (esiodtranslated by &ugh G. %velyn(Bhite, Loe$, 1M9:; c. H:: 6C%/.

Reus caused oaths to be sorn by the ater of $ty#, hich flos from a roc! in &ades,bestoing this honour on her because she and her children had fought on his side against theTitans) *Aollodorus1, 9, K; 9ndC. 6C%/.

further similarity beteen Gree! legend and the flood account is that Cronos is succeeded bythe "lympian gods, in particular three gods ho divide beteen themselves the earth, the sea,and the underorld, Reus, =oseidon, and &ades. The glorious $ha!er of %arth [=oseidon, godof the sea] spa!e ' 5or three brethren are e, begotten of Cronos, and born of +hea,NReus,and myself, and the third is &ades, that is lord of the dead belo. nd in three(fold ise are allthings divided, and unto each hath been apportioned his on domain. 4 verily, hen the lots eresha!en, on for my portion the grey sea to be my habitation for ever, and &ades on the mur!ydar!ness, hile Reus on the broad heaven amid the air and the clouds) *(omer)liad 1K, 1-(1/. >i!eise, 2oah


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aves [cfGen DAD, H, 1@, 1H]' nd no the land and sea are not distinct, all is the sea, the seaithout a shore [cf Gen HA1(9:]' 0ount =arnassus lifts its tin steep summits to the stars, itspea!s above the clouds ' ?eucalion and his ife landed here in their small boat, everyhereelse being droned by the aters [cf Gen A-] ' 2o one as more virtuous or fonder of usticethan he as, and no oman shoed greater reverence for the gods [cf Gen DAM] ' [Oupiter]scattered the clouds and mist, ith the north ind [cf Gen A1], and revealed the heavens to theearth and the earth to the s!y ' 2o the sea has shorelines, the brimming rivers !eep to theirchannels, the floods subside, and hills appear. %arth rises, the soil increasing as the ater ebbs,and finally the trees sho their na!ed tops [Gen A@(K, 1:, 11]) *O&id#etamorhoses1, 11@(@-H;1stC. 6C%/.

Commenting on "vidondon, O. 6arfield, 1:-; also found in ?rioedd7nys =rydain) [Triads of the 4sle of 6ritain)] 1@, MH in The #y&yrian Archaiology/ eing aCollection o" (istorical 3ocuments and Ancient #anuscrits% Volume ))/ Prosepp. KM, H1,>ondon, >. +ousseau, 1:1; DthC. C%/.

Me4ican. The nations of ' 0e#ico ' believe ' historybegins by the ?eluge of Co#co#, or the fourth destructionof the orld, hich ' terminates ' the age o" !ater'"f the different nations that inhabit 0e#ico, paintingsrepresenting the deluge of Co#co# are found among the

tec!s, the 0istec!s, the Rapotec!s, the Tlascaltec!s,

and the 0echoacanese ' 2oah ' is called Co#co#,Teo(Cipactli, or Tepi. &e saved hmself conointly ithhis ife, EochiFuetal, in a bar!, or according to othertraditions, on a raft of ahuahuete *cupressus disticha[cypress]/ ' The people of 0echoacan preserved atradition, according to hich Co#co#, hom they calledTepi, embar!ed in a spacious acalliith his ife, hischildren, several animals, and grain, the preservation ofhich as of importance of man!ind. Bhen the greatspirit ' ordered the aters to ithdra, Tepi sent outfrom his bar! a vulture ' hich ' did not return onacccount of the great number of carcases, ith hich theearth, recently dried up, as streed. Tepi sent outother birds, one of hich, the humming bird alone,

returned, holding in its bea! a branch covered ithleaves; Tepi, seeing that fresh verdure began to clothethe soil, Fuitted his bar! near the mountain of Colhuacan*Researches Concerning the )nstitutions and #onumentso" the Ancient )nha$itants o" Americaby le#ander ?e&umboldt, translated by &elen 0aria Billiams, vol. 9, pp.1D(1H, 9@, D@(DK, >ondon, >ongman, &urst, +ees, "rmeS 6ron, O. 0urray, S &. Colburn, 11-/.

The draing to the right is from Code# 3aticanus *M6M8;


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at +ome/ that as copied in 1KDD by a ?ominican mon!from tec draings. 4t pictures the deluge at the end ofthe fourth age of the orld, here the goddess of aterdescends toards the earth and Tepi and his ife areseated in a trum! of a tree covered ith leaves, andfloating on the aters.

Nicara%+an. 2icoragua [the native !ing of an area of 2icaragua, ho had ust recently met the$paniards] as!ed his guest hat as thought in the !ingdom of the poerful sovereign hosevassal he had become, of the cataclysm hich, according to the ancient tradition of hisforefathers, had salloed up the entire earth ith all its inhabitants and animals. 4 believe thesame,< said %gidius [the $panish general]. Bhen as!ed hether he thought that another similarcatastrophe as to be e#pected, [%gidius] anseredA 6y no means; but ust as menLs crimes, andparticularly their unnatural lusts, ere once pimished by this flood hich destroyed all livingcreatures ith but a fe e#ceptions, so after a period of time un!non to men, fire ill descendfrom heaven and reduce the universe to ashes< *3e Or$e No&o *A$out the Ne! 1orld,% TheEight 3ecades o" Peter #artyr 3GAnghera translated by 5rancis ugustus 0ac2utt D, -, vol. 9, pl991, 2e 7or!, G.=. =utnamondon,&a!luyt $ociety, 1H@/.

Ha"aiian. 4n the &aaiian group ' "ne legend relates that in the time of 2uu, or 2ana(nuu 'the flood ' came upon the earth, and destroyed all living beings; that 2uu, by command of hisgod, built a large vessel ith a house on top of it, hich as called and is referred to in chants as

' the royal vessel, in hich he and his family, consisting of his ife, >ilinoe, his three sons andtheir ives, ere saved. Bhen the flood subsided ' &e ' found himself on the top of 0aunaJea *the highest mountain on the island of &aaii/ ... 2uu left the vessel in the evening of the dayand too! ith him a pig, cocoanuts, and aa as an offering to the god Jane ' Jane descendedon the rainbo and spo!e reprovingly to 2uu, but on account of the mista!e [of orshipping themoon] 2uu escaped punishment) *(a!aiian Fol. Tales/ A Collection o" Nati&e Legendsby Thos.G. Thrum, Chicago, 1M:H/.

Gen 11.1-, ther ancient acc+nt$ * the T"er * Ba)e&.

S+'erian. The $umerian epic entitled Y%nmer!ar and the >ord of ratta) *91stQ9:thC. 6C%/A"nce upon a time ' The hole universe, the people in unison to %nlil [a chief deity in $umerianreligion] in one tongue [spo!e] ' *Then/ %n!i 'the leader of the gods ' changed the speech in

their mouths, [brought] contention into it, into the speech of man that *until then/ had been one)*The >a$el o" Tongues>% A Sumerian Versionby $.2. Jramer, 1MD, +ournal o" the AmericanOriental Society vol. A pp. 1:(11/. "thers translate this as a prophecy and not as past historyAYt such a time ' the hole universe ' may they all address %nlil together in a single languageX' %n!i ' the e#pert of the gods ' shall change the speech in their mouths ' so the speech ofman!ind is truly oneY *httpAQQetcsl.orinst.o#.ac.u!Qunder Y%nmer!ar and the >ord of rattaATranslation,) lines 1@-(1KK/.

A$$/rian. fragment of an ancient ssyrian cuneiform te#tA gainst the father of all the godsas ic!ed ' his heart as evil ' 6abylon brought to subection, [small] and great he
http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/


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confounded their speech ' their strong place *toer/ all the day they founded; to their strongplace in the night entirely he made an end. 4n his anger ' thus he poured outA [to] scatter abroadhe set his face, he gave this command, their counsel as confused) *The Chaldean Account o"'enesisby George $mith pp. 1D:, 1D1, 2e 7or!, $cribner, rmstrong S Co., 1HD/.

later translation of hat is ust aboveA >%G%2? "5 T&% T"B%+ "5 66%>' *The thoughts/ ofhis heart ere evil ' 6abylon corruptly to sin ent ' Their *or!/ all day they founded; to their

stronghold in the night entirely an end he made. 4n his anger also the secret counsel he pouredout; to scatter *abroad/ his face he set; he gave a command to ma!e strange their speech ' theirprogress he impeded ' 4n *that day/ he ble ' 3iolently they fronted against him. &e sa themand to the earth *descended/ ' 3iolently they ept for 6abylon; very much they ept) *>egendof the Toer of 6abel) translated by B. $t. Chad 6oscaen 1, 9(K; 9, M(1K; -, 1(9, H(, 1@(1- ina$ Litpp. 9@@(9@-/.

L6ut there are some ho say that the men ho first arose out of the earth, being puffed up bytheir strength and great stature, and proudly thin!ing that they ere better than the gods, raised ahuge toer, here 6abylon no standsA and hen they ere already nearer to heaven, the indscame to the help of the gods, and overthre their structure upon them, the ruins of hich erecalled 6abylon. nd being up to that time of one tongue, they received from the gods a confusedlanguage) *O" Assyrian (istoryby bydenus [@rdCentury 6C% Gree! historian] Fuoted inPrearation "or the 'osel M, 1-; also inEuse$ius Chron Latinp. @-/.

The royal archives in 2ineveh ' [a scholar of a =ersian !ing] e#amined all the boo!s and foundone in Gree! ' This boo!, hich contains the authentic account of the ancients and ancestors,as translated at the command of le#ander from the Chaldean langage into Gree! ' man!ind.5rom them branched off the race of giants ' ho ' gave birth to the impious plan of building thetoer. To that very tas! they had fallen hen a fearful and divine ind, aroused by the anger ofthe gods, ble don and scattered the construction; they imparted mutually incomprehensiblelanguages to men and brought upon them tumultuous confusion. "ne of these [men] as &ay![hom 0oses of Choreneputs as the Kthgeneration from 2oah, but the 6ible as the -th, hereas2imrod as the @rd]) *#oses o" Chorene1, M, p. @/.

Je"i$h. L%upolemus [9ndC. 6C% Oeish historian] in his boo! Concerning the +e!s o" Assyriasays that the city 6abylon as first founded by those ho escaped from the ?eluge; and that theyere giants, and built the toer renoned in history. 6ut hen this had been overthron by the

act of God, the giants ere dispersed over the hole earth) *O" the +e!sby le#ander =olyhistor,[1stCentury 6C% Gree! riter] Fuoted in Prearation "or the 'oselM, 1H/.

Bhen in ssyrian land they build a toer; ( *nd they all spo!e one language, and resolved tomount aloft into the starry heaven; but on the air the 4mmortal straightay put a mighty force; andthen inds from above cast don the great toer and stirred mortals up to rangling ith eachother; therefore men gave to that city the name of 6abylon/; ( no hen the toer fell and thetongues of men turned to all sorts of sounds, straightay all earth as filled ith men and!ingdoms ere divided *[This] is one of the oldest portions of the $ibyllines; ftn/) *The Si$yllineOraclestranslated by 0ilton $. Terry @, 11H(19M, 2e 7or!, 1MM; 9ndC. 6C% I KthC. C%/Oosephus Fuotes this also inAnti? o" +e!s1, -, @.

%usebius seems to Fuote this same account ust above, for he says it to be the ords of theSi$ylA Bhen all man!ind ere of one language, some built a very lofty toer, intending by it to

mount up to heaven. 6ut the gods sent inds against the toer and overthre it, and gave toeach man a peculiar language, and for this reason it came to pass that the city as called6abylon) *Prearation "or the 'oselM, 1K/.

henician. %usbeius rote of &estiaeus *before 1stC. C%/ as being among the compilers of=hoenician history,) and ent on to say nd the plain hich is called $ennaar [$hinar] in thecountry of 6abylonia is mentioned by &estiaeus, ho spea!s thusA 6ut those of the priests hoescaped too! the sacred things of Reus %nyalios, and came to $ennaar in 6abyloniaA afterardsthey ere scattered thence, and everyhere formed their communities from spea!ing the same


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language, and too! possession of the land hich each lighted upon< *Prearation "or the 'oselM, 1@ S 1K/.

Gree0. lso noting the first human ruler to be living at the time of the confusion of languages isan author of the 1stC. C%A =horoneus ' is said to have been the first of mortals to rule. 0en formany centuries before lived ithout ton or las, spea!ing one tongue under the rule of Oove.6ut after 0ercury had e#plained the languages of men *hen he is called ermeneutes,

interpreter,< for 0ercury in Gree! is called &ermes; he too, divided the nations/, then discordarose among mortals, hich as not pleasing to Oove. nd so he gave over the first rule to=horoneus) *5ables) 1-@ in (yginus/.

Natie A'erican. $panish historian, first riting in 1KHM, recorded an 4ndian legend about thebuilding of the huge pyramid at CholulaA Gigantes de deforme estatura ' no aliando remediopara poder llegar al sol, enamorados de su lu y hermosura, determinaron de edificar una torretan alta Fue llegase su cumbre al cielo; y llegando materiales para el efecto, hallaron un barro ybetn muy pegadieo, con el cual, mucha priesa empegaron edificar la torre, y auiendolasubido lo mas Fue pudieron, Fue dicen parecja llegar al cielo, enoado el $ekor de las alturas diodios moradores del cieloA ueis notado cmo los de la tierra han edificado una alta y soberbiatorre para subirse ac, enamorados de la lu del sol y de su hermosuraX 3enj y confundmoslos,porFue no es usto Fue los de la tierra, viviendo en la carne, se meclen con nosotros.< >uego enaFuel punto salieron los moradores del cielo por las cuatro partes del mundo, asj como rayos, y

les derribaron el edificio Fue auian edificado; de lo cual, asombrados los gigantes y llenos detemor, se dividieron y derramaron por todas las partes de la tierra.)

8ngainly giants ' 2ot !noing ho to reach the sun, and charmed ith its light and beauty,they decided to build a toer so high that its top should reach the s!y. 4n their search for materialsith hich to carry out their design they found a clay and a very stic!y bitumen ith hich theybegan in a great hurry to build the toer. Bhen they had reared it as high as they could, so highthat it is said to have seemed to reach the s!y, the lord of the heights as angry and said to theinhabitants of heaven, &ave you seen ho the inhabitants of the earth have built a toer so highand so proud to climb up here, charmed as they are ith the light and beauty of the sun Come,let us confound them; for it is not meet that the people of the earth, ho live in bodies of flesh,should mi# ith us.< 4n a moment, the inhabitants of heaven, setting out toards the four Fuartersof the orld, overthre as by a thunderbolt the edifice hich the men had built. fter that, thegiants, scared and filled ith terror, separated and scattered in all directions over the earth)*(istoria de las )ndias de Neu&a-Esana y )slas de Tierra Firme *(istory o" the )ndians o" Ne!Sain and the )slands o" Tierra del Fuego, by ?iego ?uran vol. 1, pp. D(H, 0e#ico, O.0. ndradeand 5. %scalante, 1DH; Fuoted in translation in Fol.-lore in the Old Testamentby Oames George5raer vol. 1, p. @:(@1, >ondon, 0ac0illan and Co., >imited, 1M1M/.

The Toltec indians of 0e#icoA Tornaron a multiplicar los hombres de unos pocos Fue escaparondes esta destruccion dentro de un ' rca cerrada; y como despues multiplicandose los hombreshicieron un Racualli muy alto y fuerte, Fue Fuiere decir la Torre altisima, para guarecerse en elcuando se tornase a destruir el segundo mundo. l meor tiempo se les mudaron las lenguas, yno entendiendose unos a otros, se fueron a diversas partes del mundo.) 0en returned andmultiplied from the fe ho escaped from this destruction inside of a closed ar!. nd afterards,as they ere increasing in number, men made a =acualli, hich is a very high and strong, hichthey ere desirous of calling The To!er o" Sureme (eight, in order to ensure their survival hen

the orld as destroyed again. t the crucial moment their languages ere changed, and asthey did not understand one another, they ent into different parts of the orld) *O$ras (istoricasde 3on Fernando de Al&ara )xtlilxochitl The *(istorical 1or.s o" 3on Fernando o" Al&ara)xtlilxochitl,, vol. 1, p. 19, 0e#ico City, "ffice of the $ecretary of ?evelopment, 1M1/.

The uiches of Guatemala told of a time, in the early ages of the orld, hen men lived togetherand spo!e but one language, hen they invo!ed as yet neither ood nor stone, and rememberednaught but the ord of the Creator, the &eart of heaven and of earth. &oever, as years ent onthe tribes multiplied, and leaving their old home came to a place called Tulan. 4t as there,according to uiche tradition, that the language of the tribes changed and the diversity of tongues


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originated; the people ceased to understand each other


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(omer Bor!s by &omer, Gree! poet; Iliad: (omer% The )liadtranslated by .T. 0urray,>oeb,1M9-; Odyssey: (omer% The Odysseytranslated by .T. 0urray, >oeb,1M-K; 1:thC. 6C%

(yginus The #yths o" (yginustranslated by 0ary Grant. >arence, Jansas, 8niversity ofJansas =ress, 1MD:; 1stC. 6C% I 1stC. C%

+astro! A 3ictionary o" the Targumim/ the Talmud a$li and 0erushalmi/ and the#idrashic Literatureby 0arcus Oastro, 2e 7or!, G.=. =utnamange, translated by =hilip$chaff, %dinburgh, $cotland, T. S T. Clar!e, 1H9

Latin 3ict Etym An Etymological 3ictionary o" the Latin Language by 5.%.O. 3alpy, >ondon, .O.3alpy, 1@

Loe$ 3arious volumes published as part of Loe$ Classical Li$rary, >ondon, Billiam&einemann >td *or 2e 7or!, G.=. =utnameslie Bheeler, 1M@M

Pausanias 3escrition o" 'reeceby =ausanias, translated by B.&.$. Oones; 9ndC. C%

Philocalian )nscritiones Latinae Anti?uissimae *The #ost Ancient Latin )nscritions, editedby Theodor 0ommsen pp.9KD(9H, 6erlin, 1M@; list of consuls from #onumenta'ermaniae (istorica 2 Chronica #inora Saec )V-V)) *Records o" 'erman

(istory 2 #inor Chronicles o" the Q

th

-6

th

Centuries, edited by Theodor0ommsen, vol. 1. pp.K:(D1, 6erlin, 1M9

Plato The 3ialogues o" Plato translated into English !ith Analyses and )ntroductions by6. Ooett/ "#ford 8niversity =ress, 1M9; -thC. 6C%

Plutarch 3arious or!s by =lutarch; !ives. PlutarchGs Li&estranslated by 6ernadotte=errin, >oeb,1M1-(1M9D; Morals.PlutarchGs #orals Translated "rom the 'ree.$y Se&eral (ands Corrected and +evised by Billiam B. Goodin/ 6oston, >ittle,


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6ron, and Co., 1H; "ymposiacs: Symosiacsby =lutarch,e6oo!sdelaide,9::-;1stQ9ndC. C%

Pre 'osel The 5ifteen 6oo!s of The =reparation for the Gospel of Euse$ius=amphiliustranslated by %.&. Gifford, "#ford, "#ford 8niversity =ress, 1M:@

Reason Reasoning "rom the Scritures by the Batchtoer 6ible and Tract $ociety, 2e7or!, 1MM

Suda Suda edited by da dler, >eipig, 6.G. Tuebner, 1M9(1M@; translation athttpAQQ.stoa.orgQsolQ ;6yantine encyclopedia of MthC. C%

Syrian The Syrian 'oddesseing a Translation o" LucianGs 3e 3ea Syriaby &erbert .$trong and Oohn Garstang, >ondon, Constable S Company >td, 1M1@ Goddess

Varro 3e Re Rustica *On Agriculture, translated by B. ?. &ooper and &. 6. sh, >oeb,1M@-; 3arroA On the Latin Languagetranslated by +oland G. Jent, >oeb

1 The 1atchto!er by the Batchtoer 6ible and Tract $ociety of 2e 7or!

1i.iedia 1i.iedia, httpAQQ.i!ipedia.org

1or.s Bor!s and ?ays)in (esiod% The (omeric (ymns and (omericatranslated by&ugh G. %veyln(Bhite,>oeb, 1M9:; c. H:: 6C%and 3ays

=end-A&esta The Rend(vesta) translated by Oames ?armesteter and >.&. 0ills in TheSacred oo.s o" the East Volumes Q/

Bible & Ancient Parallels

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