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Transcript of behavior theories of learning
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3 Proponents of Behaviourism
J.B. Watson (1878 1958)
E.L. Thorndike (1874 1949)
B.F. Skinner (1904 1990)
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Conditioning
Conditioning involves forming associationsbetween environmental stimuli and responses:
Two types of conditioning are:
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Unlike other theories Behaviorism omits themental processes from explanation of human
behavior.
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Watson: Classical Conditioning
Watson showed that emotions could be
learned by conditioning
Watsons work was inspired byPavlovs experiment on classical
conditioning
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Pavlovs Apparatus
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Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov
(NS)
Conditioning can be used to initiate an intended response
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Generalisation
Discrimination
Extinction
Extension of Pavlovs experimentExtension of Pavlovs experiment::
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Extinction
If after, conditioning, the conditionedstimulus is repeatedly present without theunconditioned stimulus the conditioned
response will eventually disappear. Extinction the weakening and eventual
disappearance of a learned response; in
classical conditioning. It occurs when theconditioning stimulus is not longer pairedwith the unconditioned stimulus
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Stimulus Generalization
After conditioning, the tendency to respond to a
stimulus that resembles one involved in the
original conditioning; in classical conditioning, it
occurs when a stimulus that resembles theConditioned Stimulus (CS) elicits the Condition
Response (CR)
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Stimulus Generalization
After conditioning, the tendency to
respond to a stimulus that resembles one
involved in the original conditioning; in
classical conditioning, it occurs when a
stimulus that resembles the Conditioned
Stimulus (CS) elicits the Condition
Response (CR)
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Exercise
Name the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned
stimulus, and conditioned response in this situations.
Five-year-old Ahmad is watching a storm from her window A hugebolt of lightning is followed by a tremendous thunderclap, and
Ahmad jumps at the noise. This happens several more times.There is a brief lull and then another lightning bolt. Ahmad jumps inresponse to the bolt.
US ___________
UR ___________
CS ___________
CR ___________
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Name the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,
conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response in thissituations.
Naveens mouth waters whenever he eats anything withlemon in it. One day, while reading an ad that show abig glass of lemonade, Naveen notices his mouth
watering.US ___________
UR ___________
CS ___________
CR ___________
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Little Albert Experiment by Watson
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BEFORE CONDITIONING
White Rat(Unconditioned Stimulus)
No fear(Unconditioned Response)
DURING CONDITIONING
White Rat(Unconditioned Stimulus)
Loud Noise(Conditioning Stimulus)
Albert cries and avoidtouching Fear
(Unconditioned Response)
AFTER CONDITIONINGWhite Rat(Conditioned Stimulus)
Fear
(Conditioned Response)
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Watsons Experiment
Albert had LEARNED to fear the white rat
because of its association with the loud noise.
Watsons experiment indicated that our
emotional reactions can be rearranged through
classical conditioning
Watson had no chance to help Albert toovercome his fear.
If you were Watson, how would you help
Albert?
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Thorndikes
S-R THEORY
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Thorndike Connectionism (S-R Theory)
Learning is the result of associations (connections)between STIMULUS (S) and RESPONSE (R).
E.g. Pressing the lever (S) Door opening (R)
The associations (habits) become strengthened orweakened by the nature & frequency of pairings.
E.g. A particular S-R connection was establishedbecause pairings happened many times
The basic form of learning is trial and error learning in
which certain responses come dominate others due torewards.
E.g. A particular S-R connection was established if itwas rewarded (i.e. escape from box & food)
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Thorndikes Theories of Learning
The Law ofReadiness
One will act if one is ready. When one is ready to act, to do so is
satisfying while not doing so is annoying
The Law ofExerciseS-R connection is strengthened with practice but weakened when
practice is discontinued.
The Law ofEffect
The strength of S-R connection is influenced by the consequence. Ifthe response is followed by a pleasant consequence, the strength is
increased. If the response is followed by an unpleasant
consequence, the strength is decreased.
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Implications for Teaching
Intelligence is the function of the number of S-R
connections formed.
Complex ideas should be broken down into pre-requisite
concepts. Positive reinforcement should be applied asthese concepts are learned.
Transfer of Learning
- The degree of transfer between initial and later learning
depends on the match/similarity between elements
across two events
- Transfer is specific, never general.
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BF Skinner (1904-1990)
Operant Conditioning
Behavior operates on the
environment, which in turn
operates on the person
Picture courtesy of B. F. Skinner Foundation
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Skinner Operant Conditioning
We choose to behave in a certain way because of the
consequences of the particular behaviour. Our behaviour
is determined by the pleasant or unpleasant
consequence of that behaviour.
A behaviour reinforced by a pleasant
consequence increases the probability of
that behaviour occurring in the future
A behaviour no longer followed by a
pleasant consequence results in a
decreased probability of that behaviour
occurring in the future.
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Skinner (Operant) Box
Behavior
Consequence
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In operant conditioning, the animal is
active. It presses the bar to get the food.Its own behaviour (i.e. pressing the bar)
brings about the consequence (i.e. food).
The consequence further reinforces the
behaviour.Pressing the bar
Food
Reinforcement
Food as an
reinforcement
Frequency of bar-
pressing increases
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Principles ofOperant Conditioning
(Reinforcement Theory)
REINFORCEMENT
PUNISHMENT
Positive
Negative
Implications for teaching Provide feedback
Use programmed instruction
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Reinforcement
Process of providing consequences that
increase or maintain a behavior
Criteria for reinforcement
Behavior must have a consequence Behavior must increase in strength (occur more
often)
This increase in strength must be the result of the
consequence
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Positive (+) Reinforcement
Response is followed by the appearance of a
stimulus or event that increases or maintains
the frequency of a behavior
Stimulus or event is called positive reinforcer (SR)
R-SR (response, reinforcing stimulus)
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Examples of positive reinforcement
After feeding a dog a treat for shaking hands,it will be more likely to shake hands in thefuture
Getting paid at work makes it more likelyyoull continue to work there
Nicotine high provides reinforcement forsmoking
Laughing at my jokes is positively reinforcing
Winning a trophy following a race reinforcesracing behavior
Rat pressing lever for food
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Negative (-) reinforcement
Response is followed by the removal or
decrease in intensity of a stimulus (negative
reinforcer), with the effect of increasing or
maintaining the frequency of a behavior
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Cognitive Theories of Learning
Describe and explain the mental processes
involved in learning
Proponents of Cognition: Gestalt Psychologists (e.g. Kohler, Wertheimer, etc)
Jean Piaget
Albert Bandura
Ausubel
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Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organisation
Principle of closure
We have a tendency to complete incompleteexperiences
Principle of proximity
We tend to organise elements close together asseparate units or groups
Principle of foreground & backgroundWe tend to see things in relation to theirsurroundings.
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Problem Solving by Insight (Kohler)
Our brain is an active information receiver and storer. The brain acts
on the information coming from the environment by making it more
meaningful and organised.
Based on the above principle, Kohlers (1890 1940) conducted
experiments on problem solving by Chimpanzees. The experiments
indicated that Chimpanzees could see the structure of a situation and
recognise interconnections, thereby gaining INSIGHT into the solution
of a problem. Learning therefore occurs with a realization of
a new relationship.
Implication for Teaching: Teachers should arrange learning situationsso that students will make their own discoveries (i.e. developing
INSIGHT) as they engage in class discussion.
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COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES
COGNITION is the act of knowing or
acquiring knowledge.
COGNITIVE PROCESSES are mentalprocesses involved in the act of knowing.
It includes perceiving, attention, reasoning,
judging, problem-solving, self-monitoring,
remembering and understanding
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GESTALT THEORIES OF
LEARNING The whole is different from the sum of its parts Experiences are added that is not contained in
what we see or perceive
The Law of Pragnanzstates that when an
organism sees or experiences something that is
disorganized in the physical environment, the
organism will impose order on what it sees or
experiences.
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PROBLEM SOLVING BY INSIGHT
Problem solving is a cognitive phenomenon
When confronted with a problem, a state of cognitive
disequilibrium is set up and continues until the problem
is solved. A problem can exist in only two states: unsolved and
solved
Successful problem solving comprises:
a. Getting a whole consistent pictureb. Seeing the structure of the whole in relation to parts
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Characteristics of insightful learning
The transition from pre-solution to solution is
sudden and complete
Performance bases on a solution gained by
insight is usually smooth and free of errors
A solution to a problem gained by insights is
retained for a considerable length of time
A principle gained by insight is easily applied toother problems
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Piagets Theory of Learning
Schema:
mental or cognitive structures which enable a
person to adapt and organise theenvironment. Schemas can become moredifferentiated and refined.
Assimilation
The process by which a person takesmaterial into their mind from theenvironment, which may mean changing theevidence of their senses to make it fit.
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Is the cognitive process of integrating new
information or experiences into existing or
readily available schema
It is a quantitative change
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Accommodation
Is the creation of new schema or the
modification of old schema
It is a qualitative change as more schemes are
created
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Stages of Cognitive
Development Sensori-motor :(Birth-2 yrs)Differentiates self from objects
Recognises self as agent of action and begins toact intentionally: e.g. pulls a string to set mobilein motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise
Achieves object permanence: realises that thingscontinue to exist even when no longer present tothe sense
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Pre-operational
(2-7 years)
Learns to use language and to representobjects by images and words.
Thinking is still egocentric: has difficultytaking the viewpoint of others
Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g.groups together all the red blocksregardless of shape or all the square blocks
regardless of colour
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Concrete operational: (7-11 years)
Concrete operational: (7-11 years)
Can think logically about objects andevents.
Achieves conservation of number (age 6),mass (age 7), and weight (age 9)
Classifies objects according to severalfeatures and can order them in series
along a single dimension such as size.
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Formal operational
(11 years and up)
Can think logically about abstract
propositions and test hypotheses
systematicallyBecomes concerned with the hypothetical,
the future, and ideological problems.
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Reflection of the theory
Piaget's Stage Theory gave educators, a
new way of thinking about teaching and
learning as it allowed them to match the
content of (science) curricula to children's
spontaneous intellectual development
(Bliss, 1995)
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According to Herron (1975), Piagetdevelopmental level is one which actually
refers to students' intellectual developmentand not to psychomotor development.
A concrete operational student may or maynot be good with his hands. The distinction
is in the reasoning that the student uses andhis or her ability to go beyond actualexperience to reason in terms of what hasnot been experienced.
Piaget has popularized the notion thatlogical reasoning cannot be taught (Linn,1980).
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Piaget as cited by Driscol (2000) considered threeprocesses as being critical to development ofchildren passing the above quoted stages.
They are assimilation, accommodation andequilibration.
Assimilation occurs when a child perceives newobjects or events in terms of existing schemes or
operations. For instance, infant who puts thing inhis mouth, grasping and throwing or shaking, aremeans of assimilating information about theobjects. Piaget had emphasized the functionalquality of assimilation. That is, children and adults
alike tend to apply any mental structure that isavailable to assimilate a new event, and they willactively seek to use a newly acquired structure.
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Accommodation is considered to haveoccurred when existing schemes oroperations must be modified to account fora new experience.
For example, Driscoll mentions that solvinga conservation task requires a shift in
thinking for all salient aspects of the task tobe accommodated. Hence it becomes clearthat accommodation influences assimilationand vice versa and an inadequate attemptto assimilate some new event into existing
schemes or operations may result in someadjustment of those schemes or operationsthus accommodating the event.
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The third process of development as identified byPiaget (cited in Driscoll, 2000) is equilibration.
To Piaget, equilibration is the master ofdevelopmental process, encompassing bothassimilation and accommodation. Equilibrationcharacterizes the child's transition from one stageof development to the next.
Within each stage, children operate from a set oflogical structure that, for their purposes, work quitewell. But toward the end of a stage, they maybecome aware of shortcomings in their way ofthinking. Anomalies of experience create a state of
disequilibrium which can only be resolved when amore adaptive, more sophisticated mode of thoughtis adopted.