Beaney
-
Upload
ivan-gavriloff -
Category
Documents
-
view
212 -
download
0
Transcript of Beaney
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
1/43
Draft 01/04/02
Carnaps Conception of Explication:
From Frege to Husserl?
Michael Beaney
The task of making more exact a vague or not quite exact concept used in everydaylife or in an earlier stage of scientific or logical development, or rather of replacingit y a ne!ly constructed, more exact concept, elongs among the most importanttasks of logical analysis and logical construction" #e call this the task ofexplicating, or of giving an explicationfor, the earlier concept """ $%arnap 1&4', ()&"*
1 Introduction
+udolf %arnap is a key figure in the history of analytic philosophy, for he not only
played a central role in the !ork of the ienna %ircle in the decade from 1&2- to
1&.-, ut he also, in his susequent move to the nited tates !ith the rise of ai
3ermany, marked the shift in the centre of gravity of analytic philosophy from a point
in the orth ea to the mid)tlantic" %arnap !as influenced y 5rege, +ussell and
#ittgenstein, the three main founders of the analytic tradition, and in turn !as a
crucial influence on 6uine, 3oodman and other ma7or thinkers in merica" 8ut
although in many !ays %arnap !as the archetypical 9analytic: philosopher, he !as
also influenced y philosophers outside the analytic tradition" ;n recent years the neo)
usserl" ?y aim in this paper is to explore some of these
influences and relationships y considering %arnap:s methodology, and in particular,
the development of his vie!s on analysis"
The idea of explication is central to an understanding of %arnap:s
methodology= yet the term 9explication: itself did not appear in %arnap:s !ork until
1&4- $in 9The T!o %oncepts of @roaility:*, and the idea did not receive a full
discussion until 1&-0 $in the first chapter of theLogical Foundations of Probability*"3iven that %arnap:s notion of explication ears a striking resemlance to the
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
2/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication 2
conception of analysis that 5rege articulated in his 1&14 lectures on 9Aogic in
?athematics:, !hich !e kno! %arnap attended, and !hich %arnap himself mentions
in his 9;ntellectual utoiography: in discussing 5rege:s influence on him, this
deserves explanation" #hy did it apparently take %arnap over thirty years of active
!ork in philosophy to reflect upon the central methodological conception that, it
seems, he took over from 5regeB nd !hy did %arnap choose the term 9explication:
$9Cxplikation:*B ;f his o!n remarks are to e elieved, it !as motivated y usserl:s uses of the term" et his o!n use seems very different from either of theirs"
o did %arnap move from a 5regean to a >usserlian conception of analysisB Er
should he e seen as offering some kind of synthesis of othB Er does %arnap:s
mention of >usserl simply reveal their common neo)ere he examined critically some of the customary conceptions and formulations inmathematics" >e deplored the fact that mathematicians did not even seem to aim at theconstruction of a unified, !ell)foundedsystemof mathematics, and therefore sho!ed alack of interest in foundations" >e pointed out a certain looseness in the customaryformulation of axioms, definitions, and proofs, even in !orks of the more prominentmathematicians" s an example he quoted #eyerstrass: definitionJ H numer is aseries of things of the same kindI $H" " " eine Reihe gleichartiger DingeI*" >e criticiedin particular the lack of attention to certain fundamental distinctions, e"g", thedistinction et!een the symol and the symolied, that et!een a logical concept and
1%arnap:s notes on these t!o courses have no! een pulished, edited y 3ottfried 3ariel, inistory and Philosophy of Logic, 1&&'= see 5rege !""
2%f" 5rege #$= and for a discussion of this,
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
3/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication .
a mental image or act, and that et!een a function and the value of the function"nfortunately, his admonitions go mostly unheeded even today" $1&F., F"*
%learly, !hat takes centre stage here is 5rege:s critique of mathematicians:
conceptions of their discipline, and the !ider philosophical implications of 5rege:so!n reconstructive activities !ere not, at least in %arnap:s eyes, addressed" This is
confirmed in the paragraph that immediately precedes the one 7ust quotedJ
lthough 5rege gave quite a numer of examples of interesting applications of hissymolism in mathematics, he usually did not discuss general philosophical prolems";t is evident from his !orks that he sa! the great philosophical importance of the ne!instrument !hich he had created, ut he did not convey a clear impression of this to hisstudents" Thus, although ; !as intensely interested in his system of logic, ; !as not
a!are at that time of its great philosophical significance" Enly much later, after the first!orld !ar, !hen ; read 5rege:s and +ussell:s ooks !ith greater attention, did ;recognie the value of 5rege:s !ork not only for the foundations of mathematics, utfor philosophy in general" $1&F., F"*
This is reinforced later on in the autoiography, !hen %arnap !rites that H#hereas
5rege had the strongest influence on me in the fields of logic and semantics, in my
philosophical thinking in general ; learned most from 8ertrand +ussellI $1&F., 1.*"
5rege may have provided the logical instrument for %arnap:s o!n !ork, then, ut it
!as +ussell !ho !as credited more !ith its philosophical motivation"
This suggests an ovious ans!er to our question" The notion of explication that, ineffect, is adumrated in 5rege:s 9Aogic in ?athematics: lectures !as simply not
appreciated y %arnap at the time= and it took many years of his o!n reconstructive
activities, utilising 5regean logic, efore he reached the point at !hich a conception of
explication could e adequately conceptualised" 8ut could !e then argue that there
!as a delayedinfluence, prompted perhaps y the later $re*reading of 5rege:s !orks
that %arnap mentionsB 3iven that the 9;ntellectual utoiography: !as pulished in
1&F., !ell after the discussion of explication, the ans!er might again seem to elargely negative, for %arnap does not mention 5rege:s influence in this regard" ;n any
case, 5rege:s 9Aogic in ?athematics: lectures remained unpulished, and although
%arnap:s notes on these lectures have survived, there seems to e no evidence that
%arnap later reread these 9!ith greater attention:" $; return to this in the next section"*
>o!ever, !hether or not there !as any direct influence of 5rege:s conception
of analysis in 9Aogic in ?athematics: on %arnap:s later notion of explication, there is
still a striking similarity, !hich suggests that a deeper explanation is required" ;n KK 4
and - !e !ill examine %arnap:s early notions of 9rational reconstruction: and 9quasi)
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
4/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication 4
analysis:, efore turning to his account of explication in KF" 5irst, ho!ever, !e must
outline the conception of analysis that 5rege articulates in his 1&14 lectures"
! Freges Conception of "nalysis
Ene !ay to approach the conception of analysis that 5rege offers in his 1&14 lectures
on 9Aogic in ?athematics: is y considering the response he provides there to !hat is
essentially the paradox of analysis" The paradox of analysis is often associated !ith
the !ork of 3"C" ?oore, and the name 9paradox of analysis: !as indeed first used, y
%">" Aangford $1&42*, in discussing ?oore:s !ork" 8ut the prolem itself has a much
longer history, and really goes ack to the paradox of inquiry formulated in @lato:s
Meno" 8ut even in its linguistic form, it can e found articulated long efore it !as
named as such, appearing explicitly, for example, in 5rege:s o!n !ritings" The
paradox can e stated as follo!s" %onsider an analysis of the form 9%is C:, !here%is
the analysandum $!hat is analysed* and C the analysans $!hat is offered as the
analysis*" Then either 9%: and 9C: have the same meaning, in !hich case the analysis
expresses a trivial identity= or else they do not, in !hich case the analysis is incorrect"
o no analysis can e oth correct and informative"
o! the ovious response to this is to disamiguate the notion of 9meaning:,so that an analysis can e deemed correct at one level of meaning and informative at
another" This is 7ust !hat 5rege did in the first t!o of the three responses that can e
discerned in his !ork, corresponding to his early, middle and late philosophy" ;n his
early !ork, taken as including his"egriffsschriftand &rundlagen, 5rege distinguished
et!een 9content: $9;nhalt:* and 9mode of determination: of content" %onsider 5rege:s
key example in KF4 of the &rundlagenJ
$Da* Aine ais parallel to line b"
$D* The direction of line ais identical !ith the direction of line b"
ccording to 5rege, $Da* and $D* have the same 9content:, ut 9split up: that content
in different !ays" This is seen as analogous to the relationship et!een the follo!ing
t!o propositionsJ
$a* The conceptFis equinumerous to the concept &" $There are as many o7ectsfalling under conceptFas under concept &, i"e", there are 7ust as many Fs as
&s"*
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
5/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication -
$* The numer ofFs is equal to the numer of &s"
The equivalence et!een these t!o propositions, asserted in !hat has come to e
kno!n as 9>ume:s @rinciple:, underlies 5rege:s logicism" Gust as $Da* is offered as a
!ay of contextually defining direction terms, through its equivalence to $D*, so $a*
is offered as a !ay of defining numer terms, through its equivalence to $*"
lthough 5rege came to re7ect contextual definitions themselves, >ume:s @rinciple
!as retained, eing underpinned in his later !ork y his notorious xiom , in !hich
an analogous equivalence !as asserted" The equivalences involved here, at the time of
the &rundlagen, !ere understood as involving sameness of 9content:" En this early
vie!, then, the follo!ing response can e given to the paradox of analysis" n
analysis of the form 9% is C: is correct if 9%: and 9C: have the same content, andinformative if they 9determine: or 9split up: that content in different !ays"
;n his Philosophie der %rithmetik, >usserl o7ected to 5rege:s &rundlagen
definitions on the grounds that !hilst they may e extensionally equivalent, they !ere
not identical in 9content: $9;nhalt:*, !hich >usserl understood intensionally $1(&1,
122*" There is some 7ustification for this vie!J since $Da* and $D* involve different
concepts, it !ould seem that they cannot e intensionally equivalent" The amiguity
in the notion of 9content: that this suggests, ho!ever, had already een recognised y
5rege in dra!ing his distinction et!een 9inn: and 98edeutung:" This distinction first
appears in 95unction and %oncept: $FC*, !hich !as given as a lecture on & Ganuary
1(&1= and in his letter to >usserl of 24 ?ay 1(&1, he states explicitly that this is a
disamiguation of his earlier notion of 9content:". ;n his 1(&4 revie! of >usserl:s
ook, he then uses this distinction in responding to >usserl:s criticism" ;n articulating
the criticism, he provides a clear statement of the paradox of analysis itselfJ
;f !ords and cominations of !ords refer to LbedeutenM ideas, then for any t!o of themthere are only t!o possiilitiesJ either they designate the same idea or they designatedifferent ideas" ;n the former case it is pointless to equate them y means of adefinitionJ this is 9an ovious circle:= in the latter case it is !rong" These are also theo7ections the author raises, one of them regularly" definition is also incapale ofanalysing the sense, for the analysed sense 7ust is not the original one" ;n using the!ord to e explained, ; either think clearly everything ; think !hen ; use the definingexpressionJ !e then have the 9ovious circle:= or the defining expression has a more
3'", &'/FR, 1-0= cf" C(, 1&(/FR, 1(F" 5rege:s letter to >usserl of 24 ?ay 1(&1 makes clear that
5rege did not kno! of >usserl:s !ork until >usserl sent him a copy ofPhilosophie der %rithmetik,!hich happened sometime in pril/?ay 1(&1" $>usserl:s preface is dated pril 1(&1, so it cannot haveoccurred efore then"* ;t !as not >usserl:s criticism, then, that had prompted 5rege:s distinction"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
6/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication F
richly articulated sense, in !hich case ; do not think the same thing in using it as ; do inusing the !ord to e explainedJ the definition is then !rong" $R, .1&/FR, 22-"*
;n reply, 5rege argues that for the mathematician N as opposed to the
9psychological logician: N it is only"edeutung, i"e", 9the thing itself:, that matters" o9coincidence in extension: is all that a definition need captureJ neither the senses of
the relevant expressions nor the ideas evoked y them are relevant $R, .1&)20/FR,
22-)F*" 5rege:s second response to the paradox of analysis can thus e stated as
follo!s" n analysis of the form 9% is C: is correct if 9%: and 9C: have the same
"edeutung, and informative if 9C: has a 9more richly articulated sense: than 9%:
$something that is not, strictly speaking, of concern to the mathematician*"
;n essence, ho!ever, 5rege:s second response is the same as his firstJ adistinction is dra!n et!een t!o notions of meaning" 9%ontent: has ecome
98edeutung:, and 9mode of determination of content: has ecome 9sense:" o is
5rege:s second response etterB The ans!er is 9o:, for analyses and definitions must
capture more than 7ust sameness of"edeutung" %onsider the follo!ing t!o examplesJ
$%>* cordate is a creature !ith a heart"
$%* involves sameness of sense N on some conception of 9sense: N and
not 7ust sameness of"edeutung" o too in the case of 5rege:s o!n definitions and
axioms, sameness of sense and not 7ust sameness of"edeutungis required" ;n some
places, 5rege seems to ackno!ledge this" ;n 95unction and %oncept:, for example, he
remarks that !hat, in effect, are instances of the t!o sides of xiom 9express the
same sense, ut in a different !ay: $FC, 11/FR, 1.F*" This sounds more like the9content:/9mode of determination of content: distinction, !ith 9content: no! eing
understood as 9sense:" ;n the &rundgeset)e itself, 5rege talks of the t!o sides of
xiom eing 9gleichedeutend: $&&, ;, K./FR, 21.)4*, ut !hat he means in this
case is sameness of "edeutung and sense, as his later use of the term
9gleichedeutend: sho!s $&&, ;, K2'/FR, 220*" Cven 5rege, then, !as a!are that
analyses and definitions require sameness of sense and not 7ust sameness of
"edeutung" 8ut if this is so, then the response to the paradox of analysis that is
suggested in his reply to >usserl is inadequate"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
7/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication '
;n his 1&14 lectures on 9Aogic in ?athematics:, 5rege makes his most
sustained attempt to resolve the issues involved here= and !e can regard these lectures
as offering his third and final response to the paradox of analysis" >e egins y
distinguishing et!een 9constructive: $9aufauende:* and 9analytic: $9erlegende:*
definitions" %onstructive definitions simply stipulate, for areviatory purposes, that a
ne! sign is to have the same sense as !ell as the same"edeutungas a more complex
sign" nalytic definitions analyse the sense of a sign 9!ith a long estalished use:= and
it is here that the prolems arise" ;f !e take an analytic definition of the form 9%is C:,
then there are t!o cases to consider" ;n the first case, 9%: and 9C: oviously have the
same sense, ut here, 5rege notes, !e should really talk of axioms, encapsulating !hat
Hcan only e recognied y an immediate insightI $LM, 22'/FR, .1F*" ;n the second
case, 9%: and 9C: do not oviously have the same sense" 8ut !hat !e do here, 5rege
argues, is introduce a ne! term 9": to replace9%:, !here 9": is defined in the !ay !e
!ant, y means of 9C:" ince 9"is C: is a constructive definition, !e in effect bypass
the question as to !hether 9%: and 9C: have the same sense" >aving done this, !e can
then reintroduce the sign 9%: if !e !ish, as long as !e understand that it is to e
treated H as an entirely ne! sign !hich had no sense prior to the definitionI" $LM,
22')(/FR, .1'"*
This strategy looks attractive as a response to the paradox of analysis" 5or ifthe original sense drops out of consideration in our constructive activities, then thereis no longer an issue aout capturing it" %onsider, for example, 5rege:s definition of90:J
$C0* The numer 0 is the extension of the concept 9equinumerous to the conceptnot identical *ith itself:" $%f"FR, 11("*
;t is clearly asurd to suggest that the ordinary person kno!s this definition" 8ut given
the amount of confusion that there has een aout our concept of ero, it !ould seem
equally asurd to expect an analysis to capture our ordinary understanding" ll that is
necessary for such definitions to count as oth correct and informative is that they
allo! us to derive Hthe !ell)kno!n properties of numersI, as 5rege put it in the
&rundlagen$K'0*"
>o!ever, this strategy merely avoids rather than solves the paradox" Cven ifour ordinary understanding is deficient, it still acts as a constraint on our constructiveactivitiesJ there remains something to !hich our analyses are ans!erale" t the veryleast, the paradox of analysis simply re)emerges at the level of the system as a !hole,
as 5rege:s appeal to the 9!ell)kno!n properties of numers: indicates" 5rege admits toa residual !orry here, ut according to him, !hat constraints there may e operate
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
8/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication (
purely at the pre+theoreticallevel" Eur grasp of the senses of simple terms is oftenconfused, as if seen Hthrough a mistI, and the aim of logical analysis is to articulatethose senses clearly, in preparing the uilding stones for the susequent !ork ofconstruction $cf"LM, 22(/FR, .1')(*" 8ut again, this merely seems to displace ratherthan resolve the paradox of analysis"4
;t should e clear 7ust ho! close 5rege:s conception of analysis is to %arnap:slater conception of explication" 3iven that %arnap attended the lectures in !hich
5rege elaorated it, the ovious suggestion is that %arnap simply took over his
conception from 5rege" >o!ever, although %arnap:s notes on 5rege:s lectures have
survived, there are not, unfortunately, any interpolations or marginalia to indicate that
%arnap !as inspired y 5rege:s conception"-8ut even if there !ere, it !ould e to
miss the real point here" 5or !hat is important is the tension that underlies any
reconstructive pro7ect" En the one hand, the !ork of analysis is to elicit and clarify!hat !e already kno!, and !e cannot depart too radically from our ordinary
understanding, on pain of clarifying nothing at all" En the other hand, there must e a
certain amount of reconstruction and revision, since our ordinary understanding is
frequently confused and unreliale" 3iven that %arnap follo!s 5rege in using logic in
a programme of philosophical reconstruction, it is not surprising that the tension
underlies his thought too, and that it should eventually prompt him to reflect
45or further discussion of 5rege and the paradox of analysis, see 8eaney 1&&F, KK -"4, -"- and ("-"55or the record, here are %arnap:s notes on the relevant part of 5rege:s lecturesJ
Die Definition ist logisch OerflOssig, psychologisch !ertvoll"Die Definition hilft nicht nur aufauen, sondern auch, das Pusammengesette u erlegen, "8" umdie Pahl der xiom u verringern" Cine solche Perlegung lQsst sich nicht e!eisen= nur fOhlen,dass man das +ichtige getroffen hat, und e!ahren"CxacterJ #ir auen von neuem auf, indem !ir das Crgenis unserer Perlegung enuten" Pu!eilen!ird auch in einer Definition der inn eines schon frOher lQngst gerauchten Peichens festgesett"Dies kann man nicht e!eisen= es muss einleuchten= es ist keine !illkOrliche 5estsetung, sondernein xiom"Cs sei das alte Peichen= !ir nehmen an, ein estimmtes, usammengesettes Peichen stimmeOerein mit dem inn von " #enn !ir es nicht genau !issen, so verfahren !ir soJ !ir seten
!illkOrlich fest, 8 soll den inn des usammengesetten Peichens haen" #ar dann die 1"Definition richtig, so muss der inn von mit dem von 8 Oereinstimmen" #ir vermeiden dasPeichen , und auen das gane ystem noch einmal auf, unter 8enutung nur von 8" #enn derufau des ystems gelingt, so kRnnen !ir aus P!eckmaessigkeitsgrOnden auch !ieder das altePeichen einfOhren= nur mOssen !ir es als neu eingefOhrt etrachten, als o es vor der Definitionkeinen inn gehat hQtte"Cin!andJ #ie kann es Oerhaupt !eifelhaft sein, o der inn eines usammengesetten PeichensOereinstimmen mit dem inn eines schon lQngst ange!andten Peichens, dessen inn schon lQngstfest steht" Ga, !enn dies der 5all istS er !enn !ir es nur H!ie durch einen eel erlickenIS$%arnap:s notes, 111)10)0., F)'"*
; am grateful to 8rigitte hlemann of the @hilosophisches rchiv der niversitQt
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
9/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication &
systematically on his methodology in 7ust the !ay that 5rege did in his o!n later
!ork"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
10/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication10
# Carnaps Early $or%: &ational &econstruction
%arnap may not have introduced the term 9explication: until 1&4-, ut the central idea
that that term gave expression to !as present in some form from %arnap:s very
earliest !ork, and in particular, !as encapsulated in his conception of 9rational
reconstruction: $9rationale achkonstruktion:*, !hich formed the underlying
motivation of his first ma7or ook, Der logische %ufbau der 'elt, !hich !as
pulished in 1&2(" The connection et!een 9explication: and 9rational reconstruction:
!as made very clear in %arnap:s preface to the second edition of the%ufbau, !hich
appeared in 1&F2" fter noting that he !ould no longer put things in quite the !ay he
had earlier, he goes on to endorse the philosophical orientation of the ookJ
This holds especially for the prolems that are posed, and for the essential features ofthe method !hich !as employed" The main prolem concerns the possiility of therational reconstruction of the concepts of all fields of kno!ledge on the asis ofconcepts that refer to the immediately given" 8y rational reconstruction is here meantthe searching out of ne! definitions for old concepts" The old concepts did notordinarily originate y !ay of delierate formulation, ut in more or less unreflectedand spontaneous development" The ne! definitions should e superior to the old inclarity and exactness, and, aove all, should fit into a systematic structure of concepts"uch a clarification of concepts, no!adays frequently called HexplicationI, still seemsto me one of the most important tasks of philosophy, especially if it is concerned !ith
the main categories of human thought" $1&F1, v"*
%arnap:s call for ne! definitions of old concepts echoes 5rege:s famous passage in
the &rundlagen $vi)viii* !here he re7ects the 9historical: approach to understanding
our concepts and advocates precisely that conceptual systematisation that is here
called 9rational reconstruction:" 8ut !hat also deserves note is the lack of any mention
of the prolems concerning the relationshipet!een the old and the ne! concepts,
!hich %arnap:s later discussion of explication did at least attempt to address"
The %ufbau opens !ith a quote from +ussellJ HThe supreme maxim in scientific
philosophising is thisJ #herever possile, logical constructions are to e sustituted
for inferred entities"IF#e have already noted %arnap:s +ussellian motivation, and it is
clear that %arnap himself sa! his !ork as extending the +ussellian programme as he
understood it" ;n his 9;ntellectual utoiography:, he explicitly mentions the influence
of +ussell:s (ur ,no*ledge of the External 'orld, !hich he read in 1&21, and
endorses the !ords !ith !hich +ussell dra!s that ook to a conclusionJ Hthe study of
6+ussellR#P, 11-= cf"L%, .2F"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
11/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication11
logic ecomes the central study in philosophyJ it gives the method of research in
philosophy, 7ust as mathematics gives the method in physics"I'nd after quoting
+ussell:s impassioned call for a 9ne! eginning:, %arnap commentsJ H; felt as if this
appeal had een directed to me personally" To !ork in this spirit !ould e my task
from no! onS nd indeed henceforth the application of the ne! logical instrument for
the purposes of analying scientific concepts and of clarifying philosophical prolems
has een the essential aim of my philosophical activity"I $1&F., 1."*
8ut +ussell:s maxim is notoriously amiguous" Does it entail a programme of
ontological eliminati-ism, or 7ust of epistemological reductionismB +ussell:s theory of
descriptions lies at the root of the maxim, ut even if !e agree that +ussell:s theory
sho!s ho! definite descriptions may form part of a meaningful sentence !hilst
lacking meaning in themselves, this does not imply that the definite descriptions
9analysed a!ay: do nothave a referent" 8ut it is clear that %arnap himself interpreted
+ussell:s maxim epistemologically rather than ontologically, as permitting rational
reconstruction rather than ontological deconstruction" %arnap !as famously
dismissive of ontological endeavours, and it !as the pro7ect of conceptual
clarification !ith the help of modern logic that %arnap really sa! as important"
The fact, ho!ever, that %arnap attempts to reduce our kno!ledge to a 9given:
that is understood phenomenalistically has often led to %arnap eing interpreted as
more +ussellian than he !as" 5or it also true that %arnap offers the possiility of a
reduction to a physicalistic ase= and the possiility of alternati-e9reductions: sho!s
that 9rational reconstruction: is not regarded as part of an ontological enterprise N to
see !hat kinds of things are 9really: or 9ultimately: there" s %arnap himself explicitly
said in commenting on his%ufbaupro7ectJ H#ith respect to the prolem of the asis,
my attitude !as " " ontologically neutral" 5or me it !as simply a methodological
question of choosing the most suitale asis for the system to e constructed, either a
phenomenalistic or a physicalistic asis" The ontological theses of the traditional
doctrines of either phenomenalism or materialism remained for me entirely out of
consideration"I $1&F., 1("*
7+ussell (,E', 24.= quoted y %arnap 1&F., 1." +ussell goes on to sayJ H;t !ill generally e foundthat all our initial data, all the facts that !e seem to kno! to egin !ith, suffer from vagueness,confusion, and complexity" %urrent philosophical ideas share these defects= it is therefore necessary to
create an apparatus of precise conceptions as general and as free from complexity as possile, eforethe data can e analysed into the kind of premisses !hich philosophy aims at discovering"I $(,E',24-"* This too !ould have struck a strong chord in %arnap"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
12/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication12
#hat, then, is the point of 9rational reconstruction:, if not to engage in a
pro7ect of ontological pruning or sortingB @art of the point !as precisely to sho! the
futilityof ontological disputes, and this goes ack to %arnap:s first !ork, his doctoral
dissertation, Der Raum $1&21*, !hich had attempted to reconcile the different
conceptions of space of mathematicians, philosophers and physicists, y
distinguishing et!een formal space $understood as an astract logical system*,
intuitive space $interpreted in a
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
13/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication1.
the human mind are not only necessary in the sense of eing universal ut are also
constitutive of the !orld as !e experience it, i"e" the phenomenal !orld $!hich is
!hat opens up the possiility of the synthetic a priori*" 8ut !ork in the 1&th century
on the foundations of geometry, in particular, had cast dout on
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
14/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication14
9+ational reconstruction:, then, might e etter named 9rational reconstitution:,
although the term 9rational: certainly suggests an epistemological rather than
metaphysical motivation" The point !as not to 9reconstruct: the !orld ut to
9reconstitute: our kno!ledge of it, and the aim of this !as to elucidate thestructureof
our kno!ledge to demonstrate its o7ectivity"12 The importance of structure can e
rought out if !e ask !hat the relationship is et!een 9ordinary: and 9reconstituted:
kno!ledge" #hat, more specifically,/ustifiesa rational reconstructionB %arnap:s later
principle of tolerance might suggest that anything goes, ut there must clearly e
some constraints on the adequacy of a reconstruction" ;n descriing his%ufbaupro7ect
in his 9;ntellectual utoiography:, %arnap !ritesJ Hlthough ; !as guided in my
procedure y the psychological facts concerning the formation of concepts of material
things out of perceptions, my real aim !as not the description of this genetic process,
ut rather its rational reconstruction N i"e", a schematied description of an imaginary
procedure, consisting of rationally prescried steps, *hich *ould lead to essentially
the same results as the actual psychological processI $1&F., 1-= italics added*" 8ut
!hat does %arnap mean y 9the same results:B The only example he gives is that of
material things, Husually immediately perceived as three)dimensional odiesI, ut to
e Hconstructed out of a temporal sequence of continually changing forms in the t!o)
dimensional visual fieldI $iid"*" The !ay that film and television !ork illustrates
very !ell !hat %arnap has in mind here, ut it is unclear ho! to generalise from this
case, and 9the same results: still needs further specification" >o!ever, if !e focus on
the role ofstructure, then an ans!er can e given" 5or if it is structure that !e are
primarily concerned to reveal, then preservation of structure must operate as the
essential criterion of correctness for rational reconstruction"
Ef course, 9preservation of structure: itself still needs further specification, ut at the
time of the%ufbau, %arnap did not suppose that there could e alternative logical
structures, and it is logical structure that is essentially at issue here" ;f !e recognise
once again the
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
15/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication1-
content" 3iven that the actual content $the intuitive 9;nhalt:* of human experience may
vary from person to person, or indeed from one time to another !ithin the life of a
single individual, then it is shared form or structure to !hich !e must appeal in
elucidating the intersu7ectivity that underlies the o7ectivity of our conceptual
practices"
To the extent that %arnap:s early conception of logical analysis, then, can e
characterised as involving 9rational reconstruction:, !e can extract from his early
thought a relatively clear ans!er to the paradox of analysis" %arnap may not have
explicitly addressed the issue in the !ay that 5rege did in his 1&14 lectures, ut his
!ork suggests ho! 5rege:s response might e refined" +ational reconstructions can e
regarded as correct in so far as they preserve structure, and informative to the extent
that, y astracting from content, the structure they reveal elucidates the o7ectivity of
our scientific practices"
' Carnaps Conception of (uasi)"nalysis
;n !hat !ay does rational reconstruction 9astract from content:B 3iven that in his
main $phenomenalistic* sketch of a 9
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
16/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication1F
N understood in the decompositional sense N could not yield these qualities, precisely
ecause they !ere not seen as constituentsof the elementary experiences $KF(*"14
%arnap:s ans!er !as that they are 9constructed: $in the sense of 9constituted:* 1- y
!hat he called 9quasi)analysis:, a method that mimics analysis in yielding 9quasi)
constituents:, ut !hich proceeds 9synthetically: rather than 9analytically: $KK F&, '4*"
;n essence, %arnap:s method of quasi)analysis is 7ust that method of contextual
definition or logical astraction that 5rege had introduced in the &rundlagen"1FThis
!as the example that 5rege had given to motivate his logicist 9constructions: $see K.
aove*J
$Da*Aine ais parallel to line b"
$D* The direction of line ais identical !ith the direction of line b"
line, !e might suggest, is also an 9indivisile: unit $at least in so far as it is intuited,
i"e", !here it is not seen as 9composed: of an infinity of points, or smaller lines*" et it
too has properties that can e ascried to it on the asis of the relations it has to other
geometrical figures" ;n particular, !e can talk of its 9direction:, !hich, !hilst not
literally a 9constituent: of it arrived at y $decompositional* 9analysis:, can
nevertheless e introduced contextually, y means of the relation of parallelism" otoo in the case of >ume:s @rinciple, !e have an equivalence relation holding et!een
things of one kind $concepts* eing used to define N or 9construct:, as %arnap !ould
put it N things of another kind $numers*J
$a* The conceptFis equinumerous to the concept &"
$* The numer ofF:s is identical !ith the numer of &:s"
umers too are not constituentsof the concepts to !hich they are ascried, ut are9constructed: from the appropriate equivalence relation"
>o!, then, does %arnap apply the method of astractionB lthough he
distinguishes et!een analysis and quasi)analysis, !hat he actually gives to explain
14; say more aout the decompositional sense of 9analysis: elo!"
153iven the !idespread use of 9construct: in this context, from no! on ; shall use it as synonymous!ith 9constitute:, unless other!ise indicated" 8ut it is to e understood that 9construct: does not mean9uild up out of parts:"
16%arnap himself talks of the 5rege)+ussellian 9principle of astraction: in KF&, and in K'. mentionsits source in 5rege:s &rundlagen" ;t should e noted, though, that 5rege did not himself see it as aprinciple of abstraction" %f" 8eaney 2000, K4"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
17/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication1'
the operation of quasi)analysis is an example of analysis, involving colours, !hich at
least normally are thought of as properties rather than 9quasi)properties: of o7ects
$K'0*"1'The simplest case can e seen as ased on the follo!ing $seemingly trivial*
contextual definition, the term 9is equicoloured to: areviating 9has the same colour
as: $to ring out its connection !ith the examples 7ust given*J1(
$5a*E7ect1is equicoloured to o7ect 2"
$5* The colour of1is identical !ith the colour of 2"
ccepting such a definition as unprolematic,1&and given that eing 9equicoloured: is
an equivalence relation, !e can immediately proceed to form the equivalence classes,
!ithin the relevant domain, from !hich to $structurally* define the constituentcolours"
%onsider, for example, a domain of o7ects numered 1 to F, each of !hich
possesses one and only one of three colours, lue, green and red, symolised y 9:,
9g: and 9r:, respectively, as represented in the follo!ing taleJ20
ob/ect 1 2 . 4 - Fcolour g r r
*a+le 1
;magine, ho!ever, that !e do not kno! !hat these o7ects are $all !e kno! is that
there are six o7ects, !hich !e have numered simply for reference*, nor !hat colours
they have $or even ho! many colours there are*" 8ut !hat !e do have is the complete
list of 7udgements concerning the sameness of colour of each pair of o7ects,
kno!ledge that is exhiited in the form of a list of ordered pairs for !hich the
equivalence relation holdsJ21
173iven %arnap:s avo!ed ontological neutrality, it might seem surprising that %arnap presupposesthat colours are properties rather than quasi)properties" ; return to this shortly"
188oth the term 9equicoloured: used here and the term 9simicoloured: used elo! are my o!n"
19; take up the question of %arnap:s precise understanding of $5* shortly"
20;n !hat follo!s, ; dra! on the detailed discussions of quasi)analysis offered y 3oodman $1&'',ch" -* and +ichardson $1&&(, ch" 2*, from !hom the examples $!ith 7ust one minor change* are taken"
21; here follo! +ichardson $1&&(, --* in giving an orderedpair list" ince !e are dealing !ith an
equivalence relation $a relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive*, it might seem redundant togive e"g" oth 1, 2U and 2, 1U= ut in the case of the actual primitive relation that %arnap chooses forhis phenomenalistic construction, namely, 9recollection of similarity: et!een elementary experiences,
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
18/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication1(
1, 1U= 1, 2U= 1, .U=2, 1U= 2, 2U= 2, .U=., 1U= ., 2U= ., .U=4, 4U=-, -U= -, FU=
F, -U= F, FU"
lthough this may e all !e kno!, it is easy to derive from this the equivalence
classes, the classes of o7ects that have the same colourJ
V1, 2, .W= $4W= V-, FW"
%arnap calls these classes thecolour classes$K'0*" The first corresponds to the colour
lue, the second to green and the third to red, and !e can regard the colour of an
o7ect as eing structurally defined as the property that the o7ect has in virtue of
eing a memer of the relevant equivalence class" 5urthermore, one can see ho! such
a result is independent of !hether such properties are indeed genuine or merely
9quasi: constituents of the o7ects" #e have achieved the required division in the
domain of o7ects, according to their colour, y proceeding from the ordered pair list"
%learly, if every o7ect has one and only one colour, and !e are dealing !ith
an equivalence relation, then it is very easy to determine the colour classes from the
ordered pair list" 8ut !hat if every o7ect has one or more coloursB %onsider, for
example, the case represented in the next tale $!hich is the same as the previous
case, except that more colours have een added to some of the o7ects*J
ob/ect 1 2 . 4 - Fcolour r g g r gr
*a+le
;n this case, !e have to make use not of an equivalence or identity relation ut of a
similarityorpart identityrelation"22T!o o7ects are 9simicoloured:, let us say, if they
share at least one colour" The relevant ordered pair list !ould then e as follo!sJ
1, 1U= 1, 2U= 1, .U= 1, -U= 1, FU=2, 1U= 2, 2U= 2, .U= 2, FU=
the order of the terms is important, since the relation is asymmetric" ;t might also seem redundant tonote the pairs that indicate reflexivity, e"g" 1, 1U, ut this is nevertheless important for deriving any
equivalence classes that are unit classes, e"g" V4W in this case"22%arnap does not discuss first the simpler case of an equivalence relation, ut immediately gives theexample of the relation of 9colour kinship: $95arver!andtschaft:*, as defined here $cf" K'0*"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
19/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication1&
., 1U= ., 2U= ., .U= ., 4U= ., FU=4, .U= 4, 4U= 4, FU=-, 1U= -, -U= -, FU=F, 1U= F, 2U= F, .U= F, 4U= F, -U= F, FU"
8ut ho! do !e get from this to the individual colour classesB En %arnap:sconception, a colour class must fulfil oth of the follo!ing conditions $K'0*J2.
$1*Cvery o7ect in the class stands in the relevant relation to every other o7ect in theclass"
$2* o o7ect outside the class stands in the relevant relation to every o7ect in the
class $i"e", the class is the maximalclass*"
5rom the first line of the list, !e might hypothesise the follo!ing classJ V1, 2, ., -, FW"
8ut this violates the first condition, since 2, -U and ., -U are not on the list"
Dropping -, !e might then suggest V1, 2, ., FW" This does satisfy the t!o conditions=
and !e have our first colour class $corresponding to the colour lue*" Dropping 2 and
. yields V1, -, FW, !hich forms another colour class $corresponding to the colour red*"
ince the second line of the list also yields V1, 2, ., FW, if !e then consider the third
line, similar reasoning yields oth this class yet again, dropping 4, ut also the further
colour class V., 4, FW, dropping 1 and 2 $corresponding to the colour green*" o ne!
colour classes can then e found, and !e have our three classes corresponding to the
three colours"
There is no dout that %arnap:s procedure here is ingenious, and if it !orks,
then it certainly opens up the possiility of defining all properties on the asis of a
similarity relation otaining et!een the o7ects of the chosen domain" The task is
then to choose the right o7ects and the right relation" s !e have noted, the o7ects
%arnap chooses are 9elementary experiences:, and the relation he chooses is that of
9recollection of similarity:, from !hich he then proceeds to 9rationally reconstruct: our
other notions" o! the details of this construction need not e given here= 24!hat !e
23The conditions must otain not 7ust for colour classes, ut for any 9similarity circle:, to use thegeneric term that %arnap introduces here N since !e are not necessarily talking of equivalence classes,and !e no! have a case !here transitivity fails" #e should also note that !hen the similarity relationinvolved ecomes not apart identityut a similarity relation that allo!s of degreesof similarity$!ithin a defined limit*, then a gap opens up et!een the similarity circles and the colour classes,requiring further manoevres to ridge $cf" K'2*" ince my main concern is !ith the underlying method,; do not discuss these complications here, ut for detailed accounts, see Cerle 1&'-= 3oodman 1&'',
ch" -= +ichardson 1&&(, chs" 2).= and +unggaldier 1&(4, chs" 11)1."245or further discussion, see 3oodman 1&'', ch" -= +ichardson 1&&(, chs" 2).= +unggaldier 1&(4,@art ;;"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
20/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication20
are primarily interested in is the method itself" %an it actually !orkB The ans!er is
that it only !orks if certain circumstances obtain, as %arnap himself recognises $K'0*"
To see this, consider the follo!ing case that differs from the last case solely in that
o7ect - is lue as !ell as redJ
ob/ect 1 2 . 4 - Fcolour r g g r gr
*a+le !
The tale suggests that !e ought to e ale to form the colour class V1, -, FW,
representing red, ut this class violates the second condition, since there is at least oneo7ect outside the class $e"g", 2* that is simicoloured to every o7ect in the class"
3oodman calls this the 9companionship difficulty: $1&'', 11'*, since it arises
!henever one of the colours $here red* is al!ays accompanied y another colour $here
lue*, though the latter may occur separately"
second difficulty arises if !e consider the follo!ing alternative case, !here o7ect 2
is red as !ell as lue and o7ect - is green as !ell as redJ
ob/ect 1 2 . 4 - Fcolour r r g g gr gr
*a+le #
This tale suggests that !e ought to e ale to form oth the classes V1, 2, ., FW,
representing lue, and V1, 2, -, FW, representing red, ut oth violate the second
condition" The class !e can form is V1, 2, ., -, FW N every o7ect is related to everyother o7ect, and there is no o7ect outside the class related to every o7ect in the class
N ut this is not !hat !e !ant" 3oodman calls this the 9difficulty of imperfect
community:, ecause in the latter class, there is no one quality that all its memers
share"2-
%learly, !hat these difficulties sho! is that there may e no one)one correspondence
et!een the qualities to e represented and the constructed classes" ;n the case of the
25Cven if !e allo! 9dis7unctive: properties, e"g", red)or)lue, !e have still failed to represent red andlue individually"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
21/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication21
companionship difficulty, there are classes that !e !ant to form ut !hich cannot e
formed, and in the case of the second difficulty, there are classes that can e formed
ut !hich !e do not !ant to e formed" ;n the first case, there is a property for !hich
there is no corresponding class= and in the second case, there is a class for !hich there
is no corresponding quality" This latter !ay of putting it suggests that there are t!o
further possiilities hereJ that there is a property for !hich there is more than one
corresponding class, and that there is a class for !hich there is more than one
corresponding property" 3iven that classes are extensional entities $if t!o classes have
the same o7ects, then they are the same class*, the first possiility is ruled out= ut the
second possiility !ould arise in a case of !hat might e called 9mutual
companionship: N !here t!o properties al!ays accompany one another" The class that
!e may e ale to form !ould represent oth properties $7ust ecause classes are
extensional entities*"2F
;n response to the companionship difficulty $!hich !e can here understand in oth its
forms*, %arnap suggests that the more o7ects there are and the smaller the average
numer of colours that an o7ect possesses, the less likely this difficulty !ill arise
$K'0*" 8ut as he himself also recognises, this presupposes that there are no systematic
connections et!een colours, and as 3oodman remarks $1&'', 11'*, this threatens to
make the ruling out of 9unfavourale circumstances: circular N %arnap:s method is to
e restricted to those cases !here it !orks" >o!ever, in defence of %arnap,
+ichardson has argued that the companionship difficulty is only a prolem if the
method of astraction is used in analysis rather than quasi)analysis $1&&(, -&)F4*" ;n
quasi)analysis, !here there are no actual constituents to pick out, there is no
independent reality against !hich to 7udge the resulting constructions" ;f it is only
structural properties !ith !hich !e are concerned, then these are indeed only
ans!erale to the relations on !hich the constructions are ased"
This defence is clearly in keeping !ith the neo)
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
22/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication22
constructions not arising N e-en in the case of 0uasi+analysis" >o!ever, almost as an
afterthought, he concludes this section as follo!sJ
a more detailed investigation, !hich !e have to omit for lack of space, sho!s that theseinterferences in the concept formation through quasi analysis can occur only ifcircumstances are present under !hich the real process of cognition, namely, theintuitive quasi analysis !hich is carried out in real life, !ould also not lead to normalresults" $K(1"*
#hat %arnap seems to e suggesting here is that similar 9interferences: occur in actual
psychological processes, so that it is to the credit of his account of quasi)analysis that
room is made for them" The difficulties, in other !ords, can e turned to his o!n
advantage" 5urthermore, this only reinforces the neo)e does not explicitly take the neo)
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
23/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication2.
$5* The colour $constituent* of1is equal to the colour $constituent* of 2"
5or if analysis yields constituents rather than quasi)constituents, and the !holes of
!hich the constituents are parts are themselves distinct $i"e", the o7ects 1 and 2 in
this case*,2' then the t!o colour constituents of 1and 2cannot, strictly speaking, e
identical ut only equal, in the relevant respect" o !hilst quasi)analysis can e seen
as yielding $5*, analysis should e thought of as yielding $5*"
>o!ever, if this account of analysis is right, then an infinite regress threatens" 5or if
t!o constituentsare uncovered, then there !ill e some similarity relation holding
et!een them, in !hich case the method of astraction $contextual definition* can e
applied again to uncover further constituents" o either !e need some different
account of constituent, !hich %arnap does not supply, or !e no longer have a cleardistinction et!een analysis and quasi)analysis" ll !e really have is quasi)analysis=
and this in any case might seem to e all !e have in $9pure: uses of* the method of
astraction, !hich, after all, is seen more as a 9constructive: process"
Ef course, if there is no viale distinction et!een analysis and quasi)analysis,
!here oth are seen as involving the method of astraction, then this might seem to
support the neo)is position !as inherently
unstaleJ he !as in the process of freeing himself from the +ussellian programme that
had to some extent inspired him, !hilst allo!ing his more neo)ere is one characteristic passage, in !hich %arnap summarises his vie! ofquasi)analysisJ
the analysis or, more precisely, quasi)analysis of an entity that is essentially anindivisile unit into several quasi)constituents means placing the entity in severalkinship contexts on the asis of a kinship relation, !here the unit remains undivided"$K'1"*2(
27This rules out iamese t!in cases, !here one or more constituent parts are shared y t!o larger!holes" gain, this reveals ho! ontological assumptions may underlie conceptions of analysis"
28The 3erman readsJ Hdie nalyse, richtigerJ 6uasianalyse, eines 3eildes, das seinem #esen nach
eine unerlegare Cinheit ist, in mehrere 6uasiestandteile edeutet die Cinordnung des 3eildes inmehrere er!andtschaftsusammenhQnge auf 3rund einer er!andtschaftseiehung, !oei dieCinheit unerteilt leit"I ; have slightly altered the standard Cnglish translation $y +olf " 3eorge*,
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
24/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication24
%ompare this !ith %arnap:s characterisation of logical analysis in his 1&.4 paper,
9Die ?ethode der logischen nalyse:J
The logical analysis of a particular expression consists in the setting)up of a linguisticsystem and the placing of that expression in this system" $1&.F, 14."*2&
fter the pulication of the %ufbau, %arnap never talks of 9quasi)analysis: again,
except in referring to the ideas of the %ufbauitself, and !e can see !hy" 5or in the
contrast it suggests !ith 9analysis:, there !ere realist undertones of an ontological
kind that %arnap !as later keen to purge" ;t !ould e tempting to conclude y saying
that %arnap:s distinction et!een analysis and quasi)analysis turned out to e only a
quasi)distinction= ut it !ould e more accurate to say N as far as %arnap !asconcerned N that it !as only a pseudo)distinction, a residue of unreconstructed
metaphysical thinking"
, Carnaps -ater $or%: Explication
8et!een the %ufbauand the introduction of the term 9explication:, %arnap:s ideas
developed in important !ays" ;n 9The Climination of ?etaphysics through Aogical
nalysis of Aanguage:, !hich appeared in 1&.2, %arnap outlined a conception of
logical analysis in !hich metaphysical thinking !as not merely aandoned ut
explicitly repudiated" The aim of logical analysis !as, on the positive side, to clarify
the concepts of empirical science, and, on the negative side, to sho! that metaphysical
statements !ere meaningless 9pseudo)statements:" Aogic !as seen as the onlymethod
of philosophy, and as %arnap argued in his second ma7or !ork, .he Logical #yntax of
Language $1&.4*, this entailed the identification of philosophy !ith the logic of
scienceJ
The aim of logical syntax is to provide a system of concepts, a language, y the help of!hich the results of logical analysis !ill e exactly formulale" Philosophy is to be
!hich renders 9eines 3eildes, das seinem #esen nach eine unerlegare Cinheit ist: simply as 9of anessentially unanalyale entity:, !hich does not do full 7ustice in this context to the meaning of9unerlegar: and its echo in the use of 9unerteilt: that follo!s" ;t is !orth noting here that in an earlydraft of !hat ecame the%ufbau, %arnap did indeed talk of 9Perlegung: and 96uasierlegung: ratherthan 9nalyse: and 96uasianalyse:, !hich reinforces the suggestion that analysis !as originallyunderstood more in the decompositional sense"
29HDie logische nalyse eines estimmten usdrucks esteht in der ufstellung eines prachsystemsund in der Cinordnung des usdrucks in dieses ystem"I The paper !as !ritten for a conference in@rague in eptemer 1&.4, ut !as not pulished until 1&.F"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
25/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication2-
replaced by the logic of scienceN that is to say, y the logical analysis of the conceptsand sentences of the sciences, for the logic of science is nothing other than the logical
syntax of the language of science" $1&.', xiii"*
;n his susequent !ork, %arnap came to recognise that logical syntax needed to e
supplemented y semantics, and it !as the aim of the t!o volumes of his #tudies in
#emantics$1&42, 1&4.* to provide this supplementation" There is a great deal to say
aout these developments, and their relationship to the !ork of other philosophers and
logicians, most notaly, #ittgenstein, 3Rdel and Tarski".0 8ut there remained an
underlying methodological unity in these developments, and for the purposes of the
present paper, !e can concentrate on the more systematic account of methodology
that %arnap later provided"
The term 9explication: first appears in %arnap:s !ork, in print, in Gune 1&4-, in
a paper entitled 9The T!o %oncepts of @roaility:" %arnap makes clear in the
opening paragraph that his main goal is to offer explicationsof our pre)scientific
conceptions of proaility, although he concentrates in this paper on providing
9clarifications: of the t!o explicanda that he claims to find in ordinary language" $The
detailed explications !ere to e pulished in 1&-0*" %arnap also pulished another
paper on a related topic in pril 1&4-, 9En ;nductive Aogic:, !hich, though it refers to
his forthcoming Gune paper in a footnote, makes no mention of explication" This may
not in itself signify that %arnap did not have the concept of explication in mind !hen
he !rote the paper, except that, in the final section of this paper, he does indeed offer
some methodological reflections, in terms not of 9explication: ut of 9rational
reconstruction:, !hich, as !e have seen, !as his original term for his philosophical
method" o !e can conclude that at some point et!een the !riting of 9En ;nductive
Aogic: and 9The T!o %oncepts of @roaility:, !hich !ere pulished in pril 1&4-
and Gune 1&4-, respectively, though oviously !ritten earlier, %arnap introduced theterm 9explication:"
;n his 9;ntellectual utoiography:, %arnap !rites that H5rom 1&42 to 1&44 ; had a
research grant from the +ockefeller 5oundation" During this time, !hich ; spent near
anta 5e, e! ?exico, ; !as first occupied !ith the logic of modalities and the ne!
semantical method of extension and intension" Aater ; turned to the prolems of
proaility and induction"I $1&F., .F"* The former resulted inMeaning and $ecessity,
305or discussion of %arnap:s development in this period, see %offa 1&&1, chs" 1-)1'= %reath 1&&&=5riedman 1&&&, @art Three= ?ormann 2000, chs" -)'= +icketts 1&&F= eel 1&&2, ch" -"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
26/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication2F
pulished in 1&4', and the latter in Logical Foundations of Probability, pulished in
1&-0" ;n the preface to the first edition of Meaning and $ecessity, %arnap confirms
that HThe investigations of modal logic !hich led to the methods developed in this
ook !ere made in 1&42, and the first version of this ook !as !ritten in 1&4.,
during a leave of asence granted y the niversity of %hicago and financed y the
+ockefeller 5oundationI $1&4', iv*" 3iven that the underlying idea of rational
reconstruction !as already in place at this time, !hat can have stimulated talk of
9explication:B T!o particular pulications are relevant hereJ firstly, the appearance in
1&42 of the volume on ?oore in 9The Airary of the Aiving @hilosophers: series,
edited y @aul chilpp, in !hich %" >" Aangford has a paper on the paradox of
analysis= and secondly, the pulication also in 1&42 of the Dictionary of Philosophy
edited y Dagoert +unes, in !hich %arnap himself makes a numer of contriutions"
Aet us consider their possile influences y turning to the t!o main pulications that
presented %arnap:s !ork in the period from 1&42"
The notion of explication is introduced very early in Meaning and $ecessity"
;n K2 %arnap !ritesJ
The task of making more exact a vague or not quite exact concept used in everyday life
or in an earlier stage of scientific or logical development, or rather of replacing it y ane!ly constructed, more exact concept, elongs among the most important tasks oflogical analysis and logical construction" #e call this the task of explicating, or ofgiving an explicationfor, the earlier concept= this earlier concept, or sometimes theterm used for it, is called the explicandum= and the ne! concept, or its term, is called anexplicatumof the old one" $1&4', ()&"*
t this point there is then the follo!ing footnoteJ H#hat is meant here y
9explicandum: and 9explicatum: seems similar to !hat Aangford means y
9analysandum: and 9analysans:= see elo!, n" 42, p" F."I $1&4', (, fn" '"* 5ollo!ing
up this further footnote, !e find a reference to Aangford:s paper on ?oore and the
paradox of analysis, at the point in %arnap:s o!n ook !here he offers his conception
of intensional structure as a solution to the paradox of analysis" s !e have noted,
Aangford:s paper !as pulished in 1&42= and the ovious suggestion is that it !as this
paper that prompted not only %arnap:s o!n response to the paradox of analysis, as
illustrating his conception of intensional structure, ut also his conception of
explication, as modelled on Aangford:s conception of analysis"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
27/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication2'
;n illustrating his conception of explication in K2 ofMeaning and $ecessity,
%arnap takes the example of 5rege:s and +ussell:s logicist 9explication: of numer
terms such as 9t!o: N Hthe term 9t!o: in the not quite exact meaning in !hich it is
used in everyday life and in applied mathematicsI, and their different explications of
phrases of the form 9the so)and)so:" 8ut %arnap:s introduction of the idea of
explication precedes his discussion of 9A)truth:, !hich is offered Has an explicatum
for !hat philosophers call logical or necessary or analytic truthI $1&4', '*, and other
such 9A)concepts:" >o!ever, %arnap says little aout !hat constraints there may e
on the adequacy of an explication" >e does indeed say that explication Hconsists in
laying do!n rules for the use of corresponding expressions in language systems to e
constructedI $1&4', (*, ut on the relation et!een the explicandum and the
explicatum, all he says is thisJ H3enerally speaking, it is not required that an
explicatum have, as nearly as possile, the same meaning as the explicandum= it
should, ho!ever, correspond to the explicandum in such a !ay that it can e used
instead of the latter"I $;id"*
%arnap provides a much fuller discussion of explication in the first chapter of
Logical Foundations of Probability, pulished in 1&-0" Ene of %arnap:s main aims in
this ook is to clarify our various conceptions of proaility" ince these conceptions
have only a vague articulation in everyday life, %arnap sees his task as that of making
these conceptions more precise, that is, of providing an explicationfor them $cf" 1&-0,
1)2*" >e thus first offers some general methodological remarks concerning
explication" ince these also develop, to a considerale extent, the rief remarks he
makes aout explication in 9The T!o %oncepts of @roaility:, !hich, revised,
formed the second chapter ofLogical Foundations of Probability, ; shall concentrate
on the fuller discussion here"
K2 of %arnap:s first chapter is entitled 9En the %larification of an
Cxplicandum:, and after offering a characterisation of explication similar to that
provided inMeaning and $ecessity$quoted aove*, %arnap goes onJ
The term 9explicatum: has een suggested y the follo!ing t!o usages"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
28/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication2(
#hat ; mean y 9explicandum: and 9explicatum: is to some extent similar to !hat %">"Aangford calls 9analysandum: and 9analysans:J Hthe analysis then states an appropriaterelation of equivalence et!een the analysandum and the analysansI L1&42, .2.M= hesays that the motive of an analysis His usually that of supplanting a relatively vagueidea y a more precise oneI L1&42, .2&M"$@erhaps the form 9explicans: might e considered instead of 9explicatum:= ho!ever, ;think that the analogy !ith the terms 9definiendum: and 9definiens: !ould not e useful
ecause, if the explication consists in giving an explicit definition, then oth thedefiniens and the definiendum in this definition express the explicatum, !hile theexplicandum does not occur"* The procedure of explication is here understood in a!ider sense than the procedures of analysis and clarification !hich usserl, andAangford have in mind" The explicatum $in my sense* is in many cases the result ofanalysis of the explicandum $and this has motivated my choice of the terms*= in othercases, ho!ever, it deviates delierately from the explicandum ut still takes its place insome !ay= this !ill ecome clear y the susequent examples"
#hat !e have here is a reference oth to Aangford:s paper on the paradox of analysis,
and also to usserl:s notions of explication as %arnap found them
descried in a dictionary of philosophy pulished in 1&42".2 usserl:s
conceptions, ho!ever, are quite different" 5or usserl:s notion is much closer to
%arnap:s, as involving a precisification of an everyday concept" ;ndeed, %arnap
recognises in the second paragraph that there is an important difference here, in
distinguishing et!een 9analysis: in !hat is clearly the usserl scholar, readsJ H$3er"%uslegung* ;n>usserlJ ynthesis of identification et!een a confused, non)articulated $internally indistinct,unseparated* sense and a susequently intended distinct, articulated, sense" The latter is the explicate$Explikat* of the former"I nder 9Cxplicative 7udgment:, !ritten y ernon G" 8ourke, !hichimmediately follo!s, !e readJ H$Aat" explicatio, unfolding* mental action !hich explains a su7ect y
mentally dissecting it= $
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
29/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication2&
9Aogic in ?athematics: lectures*" 8ut !e clearly need to say something aout the
explicandum if the explication is to e understood at all, and it is here that 9analysis:
in the sense of 9clarification: takes place" Cven though the terms to e explicated may
e imprecise, %arnap !rites, Hthere are means for reaching a relatively good mutual
understanding as to their intended meaning" n indication of the meaning !ith the
help of some examples for its intended use and other examples for uses not no!
intended can help the understanding"I $1&-0, 4"* #hat is required is 9elucidation:
$9CrlQuterung:* rather than explication proper, !hich requires a theoretical system in
!hich rules for the use of the corresponding expressions are laid do!n $cf" 1&-0, .,
-*"..
ccepting, then, that an everyday concept has een 9elucidated: sufficiently to engage
in explication, !hat are the criteria of adequacy for explicationB ;n K., %arnap lays
do!n four requirements for a concept to e an adequate explicatum for a given
explicandumJ
$1* similarity to the explicandum=
$2* exactness=
$.* fruitfulness=
$4* simplicity"
s far as the first is concerned, %arnap !ritesJ HThe explicatum is to e similar to the
explicandumin such a !ay that, in most cases in !hich the explicandum has so far
een used, the explicatum can e used= ho!ever, close similarity is not required, and
considerale differences are permittedI $1&-0, '*" s an example, %arnap takes the
case of a iologist explicating our pre)scientific concept of a fish, replacing it y the
iologically defined concept, !hich %arnap suggests !e call 9piscis: to avoid
confusion" ?ost of !hat !e used to call 9fishes: still come out as 9pisces:, ut !hales
are oviously one exception" There is enough similarity, even though there are
important divergences"
o !hat 7ustifies the divergences from ordinary languageB The ans!er, of
course, lies in the advantages of the scientific system in !hich the explicatum is
located, and this is !hat is rought out y the other three requirements that %arnap
formulates" s far as the second is concerned, %arnap !ritesJ HThe characteriation of
the explicatum, that is, the rules of its use $for instance, in the form of a definition*, is
33gain, there is an echo here of the distinction et!een elucidations and definitions that 5rege dre!in his 9Aogic in ?athematics: lectures=LM, 224/FR, .1."
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
30/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication.0
to e given in an exactform, so as to introduce the explicatum into a !ell)connected
system of scientific conceptsI $iid"*" The requirement of exactness lay at the core of
the idea of rational reconstruction, and talk of 9!ell)connectedness: here highlights
once again the importance of a clearly revealed structure in the system that is
constructed"
#ell)connectedness also lies at the asis of the third requirement" HThe
explicatum is to e a fruitful concept, that is, useful for the formulation of many
universal statements $empirical la!s in the case of a nonlogical concept, logical
theorems in the case of a logical concept*"I $;id"* nd in explaining this, %arnap
!ritesJ H scientific concept is the more fruitful the more it can e rought into
connection !ith other concepts on the asis of oserved facts= in other !ords, the
more it can e used for the formulation of la!sI $1&-0, F*" Taking %arnap:s example
once again, fishes as scientifically defined $pisces* have more properties in common N
have more connections !ith one another N than fishes as pre)scientifically understood
$animals living in !ater*, allo!ing more general statements to e formulated $iid"*".4
The requirement of fruitfulness that %arnap formulates here is a clear echo of the
emphasis that 5rege placed on the fruitfulness of definitions in his early !ork, and in
the &rundlagen, in particular" ccording to 5rege, the definitions of numer that he
offers are fruitful precisely to the extent that they allo! him to derive 9the !ell)kno!n
properties of numers: $see K. aove*= and here too, !e might say, the value of the
reconstructed system lies in the connections that it exhiits et!een the concepts
defined and the statements formulated".-
%arnap:s final requirement is simplicityJ HThe explicatum should e as simple as
possile= this means as simple as the more important requirements $1*, $2*, and $.*
permitI $1&-0, '*" The simplicity of a concept is to e measured, %arnap states,
according to the form of its definition and the forms of the la!s connecting it !ith
other concepts, ut he rightly emphasises that any simplicity considerations are
suordinate to the other three considerations $iid"*"
The central example that %arnap discusses to elucidate his account of
explication is the concept of temperature, !hich %arnap offers as an explicatum for
the concept of !armth" %arnap first distinguishes et!een classificatory, comparati-e
34>ere there is an analogy !ith the use of colour classes, in !hich every o7ect is related to every
other o7ect, to define colours in the%ufbau"35%f" 5rege, &L, K2J HThe aim of proof is not only to place the truth of a proposition eyond alldout, ut also to afford insight into the dependence of truths on one anotherI $FR, &2*" %f" &L, ix"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
31/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication.1
and 0uantitati-econcepts" To concentrate on the simplest cases $monadic properties
and dyadic relations*, classificatory concepts, such as *arm, classify things into t!o
mutually exclusive kinds $*arm and not+*arm*= comparative concepts, such as
*armer, express a relation et!een t!o things ased on a comparison, given in the
form of a 9more $in a certain respect*: statement= !hilst quantitative concepts, such as
that of temperature, descrie things y the ascription of numerical values $cf" 1&-0, ()
&*" %arnap !ritesJ H%lassificatory concepts are the simplest and least effective kind of
concept" %omparative concepts are more po!erful, and quantitative concepts still
more= that is to say, they enale us to give a more precise description of a concrete
situation and, more important, to formulate more comprehensive general la!s"I
$1&-0, 12"* The concept of temperature, %arnap then argues, may e regarded as an
explicatum for the comparative concept *armer, in that it makes more precise !hat
the latter expresses" Things may indeed e ordered y means of the relation *armer
than, and therey assigned a numer representing their position in the series, ut
assigning them a numer representing their temperature grants them some more
9asolute: value"
>o! then does the explication of 9!armth: y means of 9temperature: satisfy
%arnap:s four requirementsB #e may readily grant that the explicatum is exactJ there
are clear rules governing the use of the concept of temperature, and a thermometer, for
example, can e easily used to measure temperature" The explicatum is fruitful, as
there is indeed a !ell)connected scientific system in !hich the concept of temperature
plays a central role in the formulation of la!s and general statements" The explicatum
is also relativelysimpleJ it is oth easily defined $or at least permits straightfor!ard
measurement* and readily incorporated into scientific la!s" ll three requirements
concern the nature and role of the explicatum !ithin the scientific theory" The
interesting N and prolematic N philosophical question concerns the relation et!een
the explicatum and the explicandum, precisely the question raised y the paradox of
analysis" ;f 9considerale differences are permitted: $cf" 1&-0, '*, then !hat constraint
at all does the requirement ofsimilarityimposeB
;n the present example, %arnap interprets the requirement of similarity as
follo!sJ HThe concept Temperature is to e such that, in most cases, ifx is !armer
thany$in the prescientific sense, ased on the heat sensations of the skin*, then the
temperature of x is higher than that of yI $1&-0, 12*" To see the connection !ith5rege:s examples of 9fruitful: definitions, particularly as given as contextual
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
32/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication.2
definitions in the &rundlagen$and xiom of the &rundgeset)ehas the same form*,
and %arnap:s o!n use of the method of astraction in the %ufbau, let us set this out as
follo!sJ
$Ta* xis !armer thany"
$T* The temperature ofxis higher than the temperature ofy"
$Tc* There are numerical values nand d, !here dU 0, such thatxhas a temperatureof $nXd*Y andyhas a temperature of nY"
Gust as in 5rege:s examples, an equivalence relation holding et!een o7ects of one
kind is offered as a !ay of defining an identity statement concerning o7ects of a more
astract kind, so too here a comparative relation holding et!een t!o o7ects,
expressed in $Ta*, is used as the starting)point for an explication that involves a more
theoretical concept, captured in $T*".F $Tc* 7ust makes explicit the quantitative
measurement that the appeal to temperature allo!s" ;n each case, there is at least a
hope that the definiens and the definiendum, or the explicandum and the explicatum,
are 9equivalent: in some appropriate sense= ut in so far as one relies on ordinary
language and the other uses concepts precisely defined !ithin a scientific system,
there may e cases !here discrepancies arise" %arnap himself descries a case in
!hich a discrepancy occursJ
uppose ; enter a moderately heated room t!ice, first coming from an overheated roomand at a later time coming from the cold outside" Then it may happen that ; declare theroom, on the asis of my sensations, to e !armer the second time than the first, !hilethe thermometer sho!s at the second time the same temperature as at the first $or evena slightly lo!er one*" Cxperiences of this kind do not at all lead us to the conclusionthat the concept Temperature defined !ith reference to the thermometer is inadequateas an explicatum for the concept #armer" En the contrary, !e have ecome accustomedto let the scientific concept overrule the prescientific one in all cases of disagreement"
;n other !ords, the term 9!armer: has undergone a change of meaning" ;ts meaning !asoriginally ased directly on a comparison of heat sensations, ut, after the acceptanceof the scientific concept Temperature into our everyday language, the !ord 9!armer: isused in the sense of 9having a higher temperature:" $1&-0, 12)1."*
The example is instructive" 5or it is not 7ust that !e can allo! the odd
discrepancy !ithout invalidating the explication, ut that the explication may actually
have value to the extent that it opens up and explains discrepancies N and indeed, not
36There are also differences here, particularly !ith regard to the direction of explanation" 5or 5rege,in the numer case, $a* is offered as a !ay of defining $*" 5or %arnap, $T* is used to explicate$Ta*"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
33/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication..
only discrepancies et!een our ordinary language and the scientific language, ut
also !ithin ordinary language" T!o people may disagree over !hether the room, say,
is !armer or colder than it !as a fe! minutes ago, and an appeal to the thermometer
reading may settle the question" nd furthermore, as %arnap points out, our ordinary
use of language may change as a result, and ecome more refined in its o!n
application" t the very least !e !ill ecome more sensitive to possile discrepancies,
and all these advantages may e seen as contriuting to the value of the explication"
Cxplications, !e might say N and !e might see this as revealing a further usserl !as highly sensitive"
. Husserls Conception of Explication
s !e sa! in the last section, according to %arnap himself, his introduction of theterm 9explication: !as partly motivated y >usserl:s talk of 9explication: as Hthe
synthesis of identification et!een a confused, nonarticulated sense and a
susequently intended distinct, articulated senseI $%arnap, 1&-0, K2*" lthough it
seems that %arnap:s kno!ledge of >usserl:s conception !as derived solely from
Dorion %airns: definition in +unes:Dictionary of Philosophy$1&42*, and no genuine
influence can e detected, it is instructive to compare %arnap:s conception !ith
>usserl:s"
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
34/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication.4
>usserl:s most sustantial discussion of explication occurs in chapter 2 of @art
; ofExperience and 3udgement, a !ork that !as edited $!ith >usserl:s authority* y
Aud!ig Aandgree and pulished in 1&.&, the year after >usserl died" >usserl here
distinguishes et!een 9simple: or 9immediate: apprehension $9schlichte Crfassung:*
and 9explication: $9Cxplikation:*, and does indeed talk of a 9synthesis of
identification: $K22*" >is concern is !ith the different levels of reflective perception
of an o7ect" 9imple apprehension: is the lo!est level, !hen all !e are a!are of is the
o7ect 9as a !hole: $iid"*" 8ut as >usserl had explained earlier in the ook $K(*, every
experience of a thing has its 9internal horion:, delimiting an area of possile
kno!ledge eyond that core that constitutes our immediate apprehension" Cxperience
has a 9retentional: and 9protentional: structureJ in oserving an o7ect, our experience
is informed y our existing kno!ledge and expectations" #e may recall previous
perceptions or already have in mind a type that the o7ect instantiates, for example,
and !e may imagine !hat the o7ect !ould look like from a different angle or
anticipate ho! it might change" t the second level, then, our kno!ledge is enriched
as !e elucidate further aspects of the o7ect" This is explication"
Explication is penetration of the internal hori)on of the ob/ect by the direction of
perceptual interest4 ;n the case of the unostructed realiation of this interest, the
protentional expectations fulfill themselves in the same !ay= the o7ect reveals itself inits properties as that !hich it !as anticipated to e, except that !hat !as anticipatedno! attains original givenness" more precise determination results, eventually
perhaps partial corrections, or N in the case of ostruction N disappointment of theexpectations, and partial modaliation" $E3, K22"*
;n so far as this process reveals aspects of the o7ect that are there to e
revealed, talk of 9explication: seems appropriate N appropriate, that is, if something
like the
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
35/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication.-
o7ect of explication need not e 9intuitively given: $K2F*" 98rother: can e analysed
as 9male siling:, for example, !ithout any rother eing present= ut it is not
conceptual analysis that >usserl has in mind" Cxplication is an enrichmentof sense
operating throughout *ithinthe domain of intuition" evertheless, >usserl does allo!
that our expectations may e disappointed, and that partial corrections may occur, and
this rings him closer to %arnap" %arnap may conceive of rational reconstruction or
explication as abstracting from intuitive content, ut oth >usserl and %arnap see
explication as a process of precisification, y means of !hich our ordinary
understanding is refined, and if necessary, transformed"
s !e have seen, ho!ever, %arnap is not particularly concerned !ith the
relationship et!een the explicandum and explicatum, requiring merely that they e
9similar:" 5or >usserl, on the other hand, it is the movement of explication itself that
is of central concern, and he descries its essential structure in K24" Taking an o7ect
#, !ith internal properties or 9determinations: $98estimmungen:* 5, 6, etc", >usserl
characterises explication as a process in !hich the determinations are referred to a
9sustrate: !hich serves as the locus for the 9synthesis of identification:"
The process of explication in its originality is that in !hich an o7ect given at first handis rought to explicit intuition" The analysis of its structure must ring to light ho! a
t*ofold constitution of sense L#inngebungM is realied in itJ Ho7ect as sustrateI andHdetermination 5ZI= it must sho! ho! this constitution of sense is realied in theform of a process !hich goes for!ard in separate steps, through !hich, ho!ever,extends continuously a unity of coincidenceN a unity of coincidence of a special kind,
elonging exclusively to these sense)forms" $E3, K24a"*
Cxplication not only reveals properties of an o7ect, ut also opens up the very
distinction et!een 9sustrate: and 9determination: on !hich the integrity of the
process depends $K24*" s >usserl !rites, Hfter the explication of the 5, the #
ecomes #5= after the emergence of the 6, $#5*6, and so onI $K24c*" The movement ofexplication consists in Ha continuous internal transformationI, !herey the properties
of the o7ect that are precipitated out are rooted in Ha permanent synthesis of
coincidenceI $iid"*"
>usserl goes on to discuss various complications, in further explication of theprocess itself, ut the essential conception is clear" lthough >usserl focuses onreflective perception of an o7ect, the account can e readily extended to other casessuch as the mathematical and scientific ones that occupied 5rege and %arnap" >ereexplication involves opening up not 7ust logical distinctions such as that et!een
su7ect and predicate ut also function)argument forms, causal structures, and so on";ndeed, !e can regard the !hole panoply of science as a tool in opening up the
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
36/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication.F
structures of experience in 7ust that enrichment of our understanding that >usserl !asso concerned to conceptualise"
Developing this >usserlian account offers a !ay of supplementing andpartially correcting the 5regean)%arnapian conception of reconstructive explication"To see this, let us return to the paradox of analysis, and consider ho! it might e
resolved y ringing together elements from 5rege:s, %arnap:s and >usserl:s thought";f !e egin !ith 5rege:s first t!o responses, then !e can agree that a good analysismust 9split up content: in a 9more richly articulated: !ay, ut there is no single
ifurcation of meaning that provides a general ans!er" Cxplication may open up morethan 7ust one distinction= the full resources of a roader conceptual frame!ork ormore po!erful theoretical system may e required" #e can agree !ith all three that ananalysis should not e regarded as simply trying to capture our pre)existingconceptions, confused as they often are, although our ordinary understanding does actas a constraint, at the level of structure" The aim of analysis is to elucidate thisstructure, and to refine rather than replace our ordinary conceptions, !hich does notrule out revising them !herever necessary"
This can e illustrated y taking a simple example from chemistry, involving
the analysis of a process rather than an o7ectJ
$#* alt dissolves in !ater"
$>* 2>2E X a%l >.EX X %l X aX X E>"
$#* represents a familiar process $an everyday phenomenon of our 9life)!orld:*, and
$>*, !e could say, provides its 9chemical analysis: $a translation into the language of
science*" There is also a sense in !hich, for the purposes of chemistry, $>* does
replace $#*, in that it is this equation that represents the reaction and that plays its
part in more complex analyses of chemical processes" evertheless, in no sense does a
chemist discard its informal characterisation, as captured in $#*" #hatever
manipulation of chemical formulae a chemist may perform, the informal
characterisations remain in the ackground, presupposed in our scientific activity" ;n
offering $>* as the analysis of $#*, then, the chemist is refining rather than
replacing ordinary language, for certain scientific purposes"
There is an extent to !hich correct and informative analyses do involve
9splitting up content: differently" #hat makes $>* a correct analysis of $#*, for
example, is that they oth refer to the same 9content: N in this case, the same chemical
process" >o!ever, even this requires qualification" 5or 9!ater: as !e ordinarily
understand it N the !ater that !e drink and !ash in N is not 7ust > 2E, ut also
contains 9impurities:= and 9salt: too can refer to more than 7ust a%l" o the 9content:
of $>* is itself an idealised refinement of the 9content: of $#*" 8ut !hat tends to
-
8/11/2019 Beaney
37/43
Draft 01/04/02Carnaps Conception of Explication.'
happen in such cases is ad7ustment of our ordinary notions to reinforce the analysis"
$>* makes us interpret $#* as Hodium chloride dissolves in 9pure: !aterI= and
once the ad7ustment is made, then !e do have sameness of 9content:" ameness of
9content: is indeed a constraint on the adequacy of an analysis, ut this is not to say
that the 9real: content of the sentence of ordinary language is properly grasped prior to
understanding the theory in !hich the analysis is offered" >usserl talks of the results
of explication as 9precipitates: $9iederschlQge:*, and the metaphor is apt" 5or
contents or senses too should e seen as crystallised outin analysisJ the material is
already there in the fluid of our everyday life, ut it needs the seed of a theoretical
concern to precipitate them out".';n the end, !hat makes an analysis a good one is its
success, as part of some overall theory, in convincing us that our ordinary discourse is
indeed imprecise, and requires refinement for scientific purposes"
>o! informative an analysis is !ill depend on !hat !e learn in this process"
ltimately, there is no ahistorically positioned ans!er as to !hether an analysis is
oth correct and informative" 8efore the theory is developed in !hich the analysis is
offered, the analysis, if it is understood at all, !ill seem incorrect= and after it is
developed, !ith the necessary transformation in our understanding effected, it !ill e
correct ut uninformative" To talk of 9correctness: is to make a move *ithina system=
yet informativeness arises in the process of developing, learning and using a system"
n analysis is 9informative:, in other !ords, y eing transformati-e" 5rege and
%arnap may have developed systems in !hich 9correctness: !as located, ut it !as
>usserl !ho reco