Reading Material

BEHAVIOUR BASED SAFETY MANAGEMENT

NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL PLOT NO. 98A, INSTITUTIONAL AREA,

SECTOR 15, CBD BELAPUR, NAVI MUMBAI – 400 614 Phone : 022 - 2757 9924 E-mail : nsci@giasbm01.vsnl.net.in Website: www.nsc.org.in Fax : 022 - 2757 7351

C O N T E N T S

Page no.

1. Total Safety Culture and Behaviour - Based Safety Management

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2. Understanding ABC Model & Conducting Analysis 7

3. Work Environment and Its Impact at Workplace 10

4. Human Error and its Prevention 20

5. Behaviour Analysis : Intra & Inter-Personal Barriers 29

6. Creative Thinking to Make Methods Safe 33

7. Behaviour Analysis & Attitudes 34

8. Observation & Communication to Correct Unsafe Behaviour

39

9. Safety Coaching & Active Listening 41

10. Motivating For Safe Behaviour at Workplace 43

11. Behavioural Adjustment to Frustration 48

12. Behavioural Qualities of Managers 50

13. Implementation of Behaviour Based Safety In the organization

51

14. Training of observers 64

Additional Reading Material

1. Behavioural Management of Safety 78

2. Improving Safety Performance with Behaviour-Based Safety

91

3. Beyond Behaviour Change 98

4. Bibliography 106

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Safety Policy, Procedures, Rules & Regulations, Manufacturing & Management Systems & Techniques, Organisational set-up, Financial Position etc.

TOTAL SAFETY CULTURE AND BEHAVIOUR - BASED SAFETY MANAGEMENT

(I) Total Safety Culture : Developing safety culture in an organisation requires manager's special attention to two aspects such as (i) environmental factors like equipments, tools, machines, systems, workplace etc. and another (ii) people factors like abilities, job skills, attitudes and behaviour etc. These factors have influence on safety culture in an organisation. Total safety culture is built-up on the premises that safety awareness at all levels of management including workers depend upon how organizational & human aspects are managed. In developing total safety culture, management policies, systems, procedures, equipment, machinery, material and such material resources are required to be considered. Similarly safety culture also depends upon psycho-social and economic factors of people working in the organisation. Total safety culture encompasses all these aspects which are diagrammatically shown below:

TOTAL SAFETY

CULTURE

ORGANISATIONAL MATERIAL RESOURCES

PEOPLE RESOURCE

Machines,Equipment including PPE, Instruments, Space, Tools, Raw material, Products, Bldgs. etc.

Psysho-social Skills, Working Team, Attitudes, Life Styles, Technical Knowledge

& Skill, Health, Family Background, Personality, Group Norms & Ethics etc.

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If people at workplace achieve desired output or results safely, it contributes positively to develop safety culture in an organization. Many companies are making efforts to develop safety culture by adopting traditional safety methods. The traditional methods, which are generally followed, are given below:

(a) Engineering revision; (b) Instructions; (c) Personnel adjustments; and (d) Discipline

a) Engineering revision: Guarding of machines and tools, isolation of

hazards, revision of procedures and process, illumination, ventilation, colour and colour contrast, provision of personal protective devices, substitutions of safer tools, etc., replacement and repair, and a wide variety of similar steps of a mechanical or physical nature and eliminate most of the flaws in improper mechanical or physical environment.

b) Instructions: Persuasions and appeal, training as well as instruction and

reinstruction. Through the motivating characteristics of persons (shop psychology), visual as well as oral approaches, safety education and safety organization with all its many activities, an individual can be persuaded to act accordingly to the safety norms and eliminate the lack of knowledge of skill in an individual.

c) Personnel adjustment: Selection and placement with regard to the

requirements of the job and the physical and mental suitability of the worker, medical treatment and advice, can eliminate or adjust as far as physical unsuitability is concerned.

d) Discipline: Mild admonishment, expression of disappointment, fair

insistence, statement of past record, transfer to other work, and penalties (discipline of a penalty nature is a last resort, an indication of supervisory failure and should never be applied except in full accord with management policy), etc., are some of the actions to iron out indiscipline such as improper attitude, etc., among the workers.

(II) Behaviour-Based Safety Management (BBSM): Though above traditional methods have given results in improving safety standards, there is a need to find and apply newer methods to reach the target of zero accidents. This need to improve further with some new ways of managing safety has prompted safety professionals to find another approach. In the recent past, safety professionals developed Behaviour-Based Safety approach. This new approach is based on successive years of research which showed that about 80% of accidents at the workplace are caused by unsafe behaviours. The main purpose of Behaviour-Based Safety Management is therefore, to influence people for safe work habits. In this respect, Geller E.S.(2001) has noted that “Behaviourism has effectively solved environmental, safety & health problems in organizations and communities”.

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It is proactive approach to genuinely help people to follow safe work practice on the job. In this approach, Behaviour is a Base for improving safety performance because it is observable, definable & measurable also. Behaviours on the job are indicators of probable injuries and safety performance. Similarly, behaviours are often symptoms of problems of intra & inter-personal psychological factors besides other problems within the management system. BBSM therefore focuses on Behaviour and is defined as “a process of involving people in observing unsafe behaviour as well as Listening verbal response indicating undesirable or unfavourable attitude towards safety with a view to correct behaviour by giving feed-back so that accidents and injuries are prevented”. In this approach, unsafe behaviour is observed and causes of behaviour within people are identified to correct unsafe acts. In order to achieve better results, a few organizations are endeavoring to follow BBS method. In this method, the following steps are suggested to reduce unsafe behaviours and motivate people to follow safe practices at workplace. Step 1: Define safe behaviours & prepare check list Each job at workplace is required to be carried out systematically in a particular sequence. This requires proper tools, equipment, instrument, machinery and material etc.). Similarly, it ‘also becomes’ necessary to safeguard the worker and workplace. In order to do that use of Personal Protective Equipments (PPEs) and certain safety precautions are required on the part of worker while carrying out job. It is also necessary to make sure that working conditions including layout, machinery etc. are reasonably safe. These job requirements for safe practice at workplace can be defined in measurable terms and can be noted in order to prepare a check-list. The check-list is generally in the form of columns which give observable precautionary behavioural requirement such as Body Posture, reaching, stretching etc. for every stage of a job in sequence. In addition, the check-list also indicates type of PPEs, instruments and other observable precautionary actions such as use of space, machine guards / speed-feed etc. The list also provides columns to note whether these are at risk, or at high risk or safe. Once the check-list is prepared, this forms the basis for observation of behaviours. Step 2: Observe behaviours & give feed-back During day-to-day management of work in department, managers / supervisors have to observe, guide, communicate correct and control any deviations from safe practice. If undesirable unsafe behavioural actions are noticed, managers or supervisors are required to correct them to prevent accidents and injuries. In practice, not all behaviours can be observed because many organisations do not have sufficient resources. It is, therefore, suggested that a sample of behaviours which has been identified as critical to the safety performance be considered in the beginning. There is no one best way to perform observations. Techniques and methods depend on the organisation systems and the existing safety culture. These are to be tailored to particular needs and type of human resource. However, the following general guidelines may be useful for observations.

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(i) Select specific behaviours to observe as derived from the critical

behaviour requirement of particular job. (ii) Develop procedure for using noted observation to give feed-back later. (iii) Have a trial run for fine-tuning of observation check-list and observation

process. (iv) Note observations with the knowledge of worker who is being observed. (v) Enlist co-operation of concerned people before commencing

observations. The observed behaviours on the job are required to be informed to the worker and discussed for correction. Disclosing one’s thinking about how another person’s unsafe behaviour is affecting; is often called feed-back for correction of unsafe behaviour. However, observing behaviour at work and giving feed-back requires skill. It has to be carried out skillfully and carefully. The purpose of feed-back is to provide constructive information to help another person become aware of facts which lead to unsafe act. It is important to give feed-back in a non-threatening way to minimize defensiveness. Skill in giving feed-back can be acquired by practicing principles given below:

(i) Focus feedback on behaviour rather than the person. It is important that you refer to what a person does rather than comment on what you imagine he is. To focus on behaviour implies that you use adverbs (which relate to actions) rather than adjectives (which relate to qualities) when referring to a person. Thus you might say a person “talked considerably in this meeting”, rather than that this person “is a loudmouth”.

(ii) Focus feedback on observations rather than inference. Observations

refer to what you can see or hear in the behaviour of another person, while inferences refer to interpretations and conclusions which you make from what you see or hear.

(iii) Focus feedback on description rather than judgement. The effort to

describe represents a process for reporting what occurred, refers to an evaluation in terms of good or bad, right to wrong, nice or not nice. Judgement arises out of a personal frame of reference or value system, whereas description represents neutral (as far as possible reporting).

(iv) Focus feedback on behaviour related to a specific situation,

preferably to the “hear and now”, rather than on behaviour in the abstract, placing it in the “there and then”. What you and I do is always related in some way to time and place. We increase our understanding of behaviour by keeping it tied to time and place. When observations or reactions occur, feedback will be most meaningful if you give it as soon as it is appropriate to do so.

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(v) Focus feedback on the sharing of ideas and information rather than

on giving advice. By sharing ideas and information you leave the other person free to decide for himself, in the light of his own goals in a particular situation at a particular time how to use the ideas and the information. When you give advice, you tell him what to do with the information. Insofar as you tell him what do, you take away his freedom to determine for himself what the most appropriate course of action is for him.

(vi) Focus feedback on what is said rather than why it is said. When you

related feedback to the what, how, when, where, of what is said, you relate it to observable characteristics. If you relate feedback to why things are said, you go from the observable to the preferred bringing up questions of “motive” or “content”.

Step 3: Decide Behavioural Action Plan and Implement: As far as possible this has to be decided jointly in cooperation with worker. Commitment to corrective action is crucial in this step. Action may relate to Engineering revision or changing of behaviour pattern with specific time limit or managerial aspects and involve other persons also for implementation. This may sometimes require written down statements of decision for record and follow-up. Implementation of Action Plan may encounter certain difficulties. Some common examples of such difficulties are given below:

(i) Lack of planned, on-going feed-back to measure the effectiveness of the behavioural approach.

(ii) Treating behavioural safety as a separate programme. (iii) Over-emphasis on results especially injury measurements. (iv) People are punished for failure to behave safely. (v) Failure to conduct regular feed-back sessions. (vi) Lack of on-going management support.

(III) Conclusion: Experience and research verify the potency of behavioural safety and demonstrates its value. McSween T. (1998) in his literature “Culture: A Behavioural Perspective” mentions that Behavioural Safety is the only approach that has routinely produced significant reductions in incidents in well designed research studies.

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For successful behavioural safety effort, numerous factors have to be worked together in harmony. It is also necessary to see that the following features are present in the Behaviour-Based Safety Management process in order to achieve success in reducing accidents and injuries.

(i) Management should be visibly committed to BBS. (ii) There should be significant participation of people. (iii) BBS activity should be well planned in advance. (iv) Training and communication should be adequate for all levels to posses

necessary skills. (v) All levels of personnel should be involved in BBS. (vi) BBS should consider safety issues (hazards) existing in the environment

and risks that occur in working situations. (vii) Recognition for safe behaviour and safety-related achievements should

be integrated into daily work culture.

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UNDERSTANDING ABC MODEL & CONDUCTING ANALYSIS (I) ABC MODEL:- BBS requires a Manager or Supervisor to observe behaviour of a person working on the job and conduct analysis to identify causes of unsafe acts as well as further suggest corrective actions or measures to prevent accidents and injuries. The diagram given below depicts a Model which helps to carry out analysis to know why people behave the way they behave taking high risk.

A B C

In the above model, individual‘s behaviour is activated by varying factors in the situation which is outside an individual to which he is exposed. Activators such as “Do’s & ‘Don’ts” mentioned on a machine, faulty instrument or safety equipment, instructions by supervisor or manager, type of layout, type of material being used etc. are perceived differently by different individuals. Though the activators are same in a situation for say four different individuals, their perceptions will differ due to various intra-personal factors within each of the four people. Their personal factors such as assumptions, attitudes, skills, knowledge of safety rules etc. differ which causes their perceptions to be different say P1, P2, P3, P4. Thus activators have different perceptual effect on people which lead to different behaviours say B1, B2, B3, B4. Each behaviour leads to certain consequences. The consequences of each behaviour may be same in actual practice or differ as C1, C2, C3, C4, etc. for the four individuals. Perceptual differences of individuals are mainly because people differ from each other from various aspects. The example of a few factors of individual differences are shown below

ACTIVATORS In situation at work place; e.g. working conditions, systems, procedure etc. as perceived by individual. P1, P2, P3, P4 …… etc.

BEHAVIOURS Caused B1, B2, B3, B4 …… etc. e.g. High risk, bye passing procedure, breaking Safety rules, taking precautions, etc.

CONSEQUENCES of behaviours C1, C2, C3, C4 …...etc. e.g. personal injury, property damage, save time, avoid punishment, accident or no accident etc.

INDIVIDUAL

Etc

Type of Experience

Belief

Education

Health

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(II) Conducting Analysis: - If we understand basic theory of ABC Model, we can carry out analysis of behaviour considering situational factors and personal factors. Analysis as per ABC model helps in generating ideas for corrective actions. In this model, all types of activators are also called antecedents. These antecedents are listed while analyzing because these are probable causes of particular behaviour. For example, a worker has newly joined and has less experience of working on a particular machine, observes his experienced colleague working on nearby similar machine with high risk behaviour. The new worker, who internally knows about his main intra-personal factor of less knowledge and less skill, will perceive differently than his experienced colleague and will not behave with high risk. The experienced worker because of his dominant intra-personal factor of overconfidence will perceive situation as easy going and behave with high risk. The new worker follows safe practice whereas the other worker does not. The consequence of both the behaviours may be same i.e. say “no accident”. But high risky behaviour is likely to result into an accident and hence corrective action is necessary. In the above example, many alternative corrective actions are possible to help both the workers. Since manager is responsible for not only safety but also for production target, he can coach new worker to increase his skill and also encourage him to continue his safe behaviour. During the process of development of job skill through practice of safe behaviour, manager can observe the new worker at intervals and give feed back. He can also discuss difficulties in integrating desired safe practice with production target and come out with positive suggestion. Similarly, for the experienced worker also, manager can observe and note high risky behaviour which can be used for giving feed-back as well as correcting the behaviour by means of Transactional Analysis (TA) technique. (III) Using ABC analysis for success: - There are multiple factors within a person as well as outside an individual (i.e. situational) which contribute to unsafe behaviour. Study of behaviour as per ABC model points out many activating factors which prompt an individual to take high risk or take precautions in preventing accident depending upon perception of internal and external factors. If one wants to take corrective action then one can try to change or safeguard factors revealed through analysis. In this respect, activators which are related to working conditions are easier to control or change. But personal factors which are intra-personal are difficult to control or change since it requires patience, tact and psycho-social skills on the part of manager / supervisor. However, manager can acquire the skill in corrective behaviour through inculcating in him certain virtues / qualities as well as practicing certain managerial principles which becomes part of manager’s character at workplace. Some of the important managerial qualities, principles & practices for success in corrective behaviour are given below.

i. Display optimism by encouraging people with positive suggestions.

ii. Be self-disciplined in following safety rules and safety requirement to set a good example to others.

iii. Be duty conscious with love towards job and genuine interest in helping people for safe practice.

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iv. Understand what right behaviour is rather than who is right without assumptions or prejudice to make feed-back impersonal.

v. Discuss ideas which are based on facts with open mind.

vi. Discriminate between safe behaviour and unsafe behaviour.

vii. Have faith in people that they do not deliberately act unsafely or misbehave.

viii. Adopt positive approach consistently and follow-up with helping attitude.

ix. Be honest and truthful in communicating and interacting with people.

x. Have self-control and patience in changing undesirable unsafe behaviour.

Game Objective : (i) To bring out various intra-personal factors which interact

with ACTIVATORS to cause safe or unsafe behaviours. (ii) To bring out BBSM concept and principles.

Title and outline in brief

: (i) Member Test Game A message in writing is given to participants to count number of ‘F’ letters in the message. The perceptual difference reveals various intra-personal factors such as attitudes, assumptions, fixity etc. which lead to safe or unsafe behaviours. (ii) Game of Three Minute Test A paper pencil test is administered to bring out mental-blocks which are responsible for safe or unsafe behaviours. (iii) Picture Game A series of pictures are shown to participants and their perceptions are discussed to evolve BBSM concept and principles.

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WORK ENVIRONMENT AND ITS IMPACT AT WORKPLACE 1. Introduction The ‘man-machine-environment’ relationship is an important aspect of work system. If there is any imbalance in this relationship, the consequences are signified in higher rate of accidents, general ill health, occupational diseases and decrease in productivity. Section 7-A of the Factories Act, 1948 has placed general duties on occupiers. One of the duties is provision, or maintenance or monitoring of such work environment in the factory for the worker that is safe and without risk to health. The work environment comprises lighting, noise and vibration, dust, fumes and other noxious gases, temperature, humidity, air circulation. This paper briefly discusses only the three aspects of the work environment with reference to heat, noise and lighting. 2. Heat Heat is a form of energy. The sources of heat in factories are (i) process heat, (ii) solar radiant heat and (iii) metabolic heat. In many industries such as manufacture of steel or aluminium, foundries, etc. metals are melted at very high temperatures of the range 700 – 1300oC. Also, processes such as hot forging, hot rolling, heat treatment of steels, etc. are performed at about 800 – 1200oC. At these temperatures high convective heat prevails in the workrooms. The solar radiation heat from the sun is quite substantial in summer months. At most of the places the air temperature in daytime exceeds 37oC, the normal body temperature. When the solar radiation heat is substantial, the A.C. sheet roof or G.I. sheet roof will absorb it and the roofs get heated. These hot roofs, in turn, start emitting radiant heat in considerable amounts into the workrooms. Metabolism is the term describing the biological processes within the body that lead to the production of heat. During physical work about 20% of the total energy produced is utilized for useful work and the balance 80% is in the form of heat, called metabolic heat. 2.1 Excessive Temperature The excess heat present in the workrooms results in higher temperatures. This in turn results in heat stress. Heat stress of any given work environment is considered as the combination of both climatic and non-climatic/personal factors leading to heat gain by the body by convection and radiation and also by metabolism and/or limiting heat dissipation from the body. The deleterious effects of heat stress on worker include heat disorders, accidents and lower productivity. Heat disorders in order of increasing severity are heat cramps, heat exhaustion and heat stroke.

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2.2 Statutory Requirements It is very important to control excess heat in the workrooms. Section 13 of the Factories Act, 1948 states, “… effective and suitable provisions shall be made in every factory for securing and maintaining in every workroom such a temperature as will secure to workers therein reasonable conditions of comfort and prevent injury to health…”. Under this Section State Governments prescribed Rules on ventilation and temperature in factories. For example, as per Rule 22-A of the Maharashtra Factories Rules, 1963, the maximum wet-bulb temperature of air in workroom at a height of 1.5 meters above the floor level shall not exceed 30oC and are adequate movement of atleast 30 meters per minute shall be provided; and in relation to dry-bulb temperature, the wet-bulb temperature in the workroom at the said height shall not exceed more than that shown in the Schedule given below:

Schedule Dry-bulb temperature in

oC. Wet-bulb temperature in

oC. 30 – 34 29.0 35 – 39 28.5 40 – 44 28.0 45 – 47 27.5

Air temperature, humidity, air movement and radiant temperature are the four factors modifying the heat exchange. Among the various heat indices, the one which is widely used to set the thermal environmental limits for everyday industrial work is the Effective Temperature (ET) or Corrected Effective Temperature (CET) which gives a measure of physical sensation of warmth. Another heat stress index being widely used is the Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) index.

Table: Permissible threshold limit values (based on ET or CET) Work load

Energy expenditure, kcal/hr

ET or CET, oC

Light 135 32.0 Medium 225 29.5 Heavy 315 29.0

2.3 Control of Heat Stress Where the nature of the work carried on in the factory involves or is likely to involve, the production of excessively high temperatures, Section 13 of the Factories Act requires that adequate measures should be taken to protect the workers there from. Two examples given are (i) separating the process which produces such temperatures from the workroom and (ii) insulating the hot parts or by other effective means. A few control measures by which excess temperature in factories can be reduced are briefly explained below: 2.3.1 Segregation Segregation or separation of hot process equipment areas from the other areas so that only a fewer workers are exposed to heat is quite an effective way of protecting large proportion of the workers from excess temperature.

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2.3.2 Insulation Thermal insulation is a system which is provided to retard the heat flow. Among the three forms of insulation-reflective, resistive and capacitive, the reflective and resistive types of insulation are more effective in the control of heat stress. Painting or coating the hot bodies with materials of low radiation emission parameters is another efficient method of heat radiation control. A large proportion of heat in factories may be due to the solar radiation falling on the roof surfaces, which in turn radiate heat inside the workrooms. In such situations painting the outer surface of the roof by heat reflective substances reduces the heat in the workrooms. 2.3.3 Ventilation Ventilation is a method of controlling the environment with airflow. Provision of adequate ventilation by the circulation of fresh air is also a statutory requirement in every factory. The provision of fresh air and the removal of heat by mass transfer are the first two tasks of ventilation. Natural and mechanical type of ventilation can be used depending upon the specific problem. Adequate air movement of at least 30 meters per minute should be provided in the factory. IS: 3103 – 1975 Code of Practice for Industrial Ventilation defines the number of air changes per hour as the volume of outside air allowed into a room in one hour compared with the volume of the room. The Factories Rules require that the amount of fresh air supplied by mechanical means of ventilation in an hour should be equivalent to at least six times the cubic capacity of the work-room and should be distributed evenly throughout the workroom without dead air pockets or undue draughts caused by high inlet velocities. 2.3.3.1 North-light type of roofing to prevent the infra-red solar radiation from entering the workrooms, the factory buildings should be so oriented and provided with the north-light type of roofing. 2.3.3.2 Baffles and sun breakers should be provided to cut off the direct sunrays. 2.3.3.3 Radiation shielding consisting of metal sheets e.g. bright aluminium sheets, or wire mesh screens, interposed between the source of heat and the workstation reduce excess temperature by reflecting a major portion of the radiant heat away from the worker. 2.4 Suitable Personal protective equipment should be used (Reflective fabrics, that is, aluminized fabric suits, aprons, face shields, mechanically cooled suits, etc. are available to protect workers from exposure to radiant heat). 3. Noise and its Abatement Introduction When a solid object vibrates in an elastic medium e.g. air, the medium around the object is disturbed. The disturbance spreads away from the object in the form of

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longitudinal waves, which are transmitted by oscillations of particles of the medium. These waves in turn impinge on eardrum and set it in vibration. The resulting physiological response in the human auditory system is perceived as sound. Noise has been described as sound without agreeable musical quality or as unwanted or undesired sound. 3.1 Intensity of sound Sound waves involve a succession of compressions and rare-factions of an elastic medium. The rate at which the sound energy passes through a unit area normal to the direction of propagation is the sound intensity. The sound intensity is related to the sound pressure level which is expressed as the logarithm of the ratio of a measured quantity of sound pressure (root mean square value) to a reference quantity, 20 micro pascal or 2 x 10- 5 Newton/sq. meter or 20 µpa. The unit of sound pressure level is decibel, abbreviated as dB. A healthy human ear responds to a very wide range of sound pressure levels from the threshold of hearing at zero dB, may be uncomfortable at 100 - 120 dB, and painful at 130 - 140 dB. 3.2 Frequency of sound The frequency of sound is the rate at which the variation in air pressure takes place. It is expressed as the number of cycles per second and the unit is Hertz, abbreviated as Hz. Human hearing is sensitive to frequency in the range of about 16-20 000 Hz. However, the sensitivity is not uniform in this wide range. It is maximum in the middle frequencies (1000– 4 000 Hz.). A sound with a frequency of about 500 Hz. and below is generally known as low-frequency sound and above 500 Hz. frequency is known as high-frequency sound. 3.3 Types of Industrial Noise Noise is classified as (1) steady-state or continuous type of noise and (2) impulse or impact type of noise. 3.3.1 Steady-state noise If there are many impacts per second, as in ordinary riveting machine, fluctuations in the noise level are small and the noise produced is usually treated as steady-state or continuous type of noise. The quality and intensity are practically constant, varying less than + 5 dB over an appreciable period of time. 3.3.2 Impulse or Impact noise A noise consisting of one or more bursts of sound energy, each of a duration less than about one second. This type of noise is transient, like a gun shot. The impulse must be less than 0.5 second duration and has a magnitude of at least 40 dB within that time.

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3.4 Threshold Noise Levels Threshold noise levels or hearing damage risk criteria are defined. The Factories Rules prescribed permissible exposure in cases of continuous noise (Table 1) and impulsive or impact noise (Table 2).

Table 1: Permissible Exposure in Cases of Continuous Noise

Total time of exposure per day, hours Noise level, dB (A) 8 90 6 92 4 95 3 97 2 100

1.5 102 1 105

0.75 107 0.5 110 0.25 115

No exposure in excess of 115 dB (A) is permitted.

Table 2: Permissible Exposure Levels of Impulsive Noise

Peak sound pressure level, dB No. of Impulses per day 140 100 135 315 130 1 000 125 3 160 120 10 000

No exposure in excess of 140 dB is permitted.

3.5 Effects of Noise Sound which influences people via their hearing also has a number of other adverse effects in the body. The ill effects of noise are broadly classified into two: (i) auditory effects and (ii) non-auditory effects. 3.5.1 Auditory effects A sudden rupture of ear-drum on short exposure to high impact noise level, temporary threshold shift or auditory fatigue, and noise-induced hearing loss or permanent hearing loss are auditory effects. 3.5.1.1 Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Much more serious regular and prolonged exposure to some kinds of noise of moderate intensity maintained through successive working days over a period of years or a single short exposure of very high intensity noise can result in permanent reducing of hearing sensitivity by causing damage to the sensory organs of the inner ear. Permanent hearing loss or noise-induced hearing loss is caused by over stimulus of the receptor cells in the cochlea. Initially the high frequencies are affected (3-4-6 kHz.) and then the damage extends to the 0.5-1-2 and 8 kHz. ranges. If the average hearing level at 0.5, 1 and 2 kHz exceeds 25 dB it is

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indicative of hearing loss. The hearing impairment will be considered total when the hearing level reaches 91.7 dB. The noise-induced hearing loss is a notifiable occupational disease under Sections 89 and 90 of the Factories Act, 1948. Besides, 'Hearing impairment caused by noise' is included in the list of occupational disease in Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923. 3.5.2 Non-auditory effects There are several non-auditory effects of noise on the human body. Exposure to noise may interfere with speech communication, cause annoyance and distract. It has been reported that it may also reduce output and efficiency and cause fatigue apart from various health disorders unrelated to the effects on the hearing. They are more or less reversible, but still proved to occur. 3.6 Statutory Requirements Schedule XXIV to the Model Rules framed under the Factories Act, 1948 and adopted by States deals with operations involving high noise levels. As per Rule 2 (b) 'high noise level' means any noise level measured on the A-weighted scale is 90 dB or above. Rule (3) of the Schedule deals with protection of workers against noise. It enumerates the types of control measures, which must be taken if the noise levels exceed the maximum permissible noise levels prescribed therein. Some of them are briefly described below: 3.7 Noise Control 3.7.1 Engineering and Administrative Controls Avoid the problem, if possible: Eliminating potential noise problems in the blueprint stage of a project will minimize subsequent expenses for noise control measures. Location, plant layout, construction materials, and equipment selection are factors that should be considered to minimize noise problems. Noise control by location: Areas that are particularly noisy should be segregated from quiet areas so that reduction of noise with distance can be achieved and by buffer zones. Noise reduction by layout: The quieter areas may be segregated from noisy production areas by proper layout of buildings. Noise specifications: At the time of ordering new equipment and if it is expected that a noise hazard may be involved, it should be specified that the noise level at worker’s ear level should not exceed, for example, 85 dB (A) as a result of the equipment’s use. Design of machinery and equipment: Noise control measures are achieved by the reduction of noise generation by modifying the process, shape and material of the noise source. Speed, force, material, etc. can be so selected that noise levels during the operation of the machine/equipment are low.

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Substitution of noisy operations by quieter operations: Production equipment producing high levels of noise must be substituted by quieter or less noisy equipment. Grinding operations can substitute chipping for cleaning. Welding can substitute riveting. Proper maintenance: Proper upkeep and repair of machinery will reduce noise. Reducing transmission of mechanical vibrations: Many machines, while working, transmit vibrations to adjacent structures, which in turn will radiate secondary noise. The Vibration is conducted along mechanically rigid paths to surfaces that can act as effective radiator. The rigid connecting paths should be interrupted by resilient material (e.g. steel in the form of springs, rubber, cork and felt). Vibration isolators and damping are the methods of noise reduction at source. Sound absorbers or silencers: Diminish air-borne sound propagation in ducts or prevent sound generation in vents or openings when gases escape or expand. Acoustical enclosures: Air-borne noise generated by a machine can be reduced by placing the machine in an enclosure. Acoustic barriers or shields: High frequency, e.g. noise generated in chipping, drilling, grinding operations, vent noise, the erection of acoustical barriers or shields between the noise source and the workplaces is very effective. Acoustic treatment of ceiling and walls: Sound energy is absorbed whenever it meets a porous material or absorbents or acoustical materials, e.g. glass-wool, fiber-glass, mineral wool. Functional sound absorbers: Pre-formed functional sounds absorbers also called space sound absorbers or baffles may be clustered as near the machines as possible. These absorber units may be fabricated using acoustical materials in any shape. They may be suspended and distributed in any pattern to obtain lower noise levels within in the workrooms. 3.7.2 Personal ear protectors Rule 3 (4) of the Model Rules (Schedule XXIV) states “where it is not possible to reduce the noise exposure to the levels specified in sub-rule (1) by practicable engineering control or administrative measures, the workers exposed to the high noise levels should be provided with suitable ear protectors so as to reduce the exposure to noise to the levels specified in sub-rule (1)”. Personal ear protectors are commonly available in the form of earplugs, which fit tightly into the ear canal and earmuffs, which enclose the ears from outside to provide an acoustic barrier. 4. Lighting Human beings possess an extraordinary capacity to adapt to their environment and to their immediate surroundings. Light is a key element in our capacity to see and is necessary to appreciate the form, the colour and the perspective of the objects that surround us in our daily lives. Most of the information we obtain through our senses, we obtain through sight - close to 80%.

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A well designed lighting scheme in the workplace increases productivity and reduces accidents at work. It also reduces rejections in processes and fatigue of individuals. It gives a feeling of well-being to the work force as well. On the other hand, a poor lighting scheme is harsh on the work force, and leads to less output, more fatigue, more accidents and more rejections. 4.1 Interpretation of Terms Some of the terms used in lighting are:

• ‘’Luminous flux” is the term used to represent the total light available. • “Lumen” is the unit for Luminous flux. • The power of a light source is expressed in “Candle power”. Candle power

is also known as Candela (Cd). • “Illumination” is the term used to represent the light falling on a surface.

Technically, it will be more correct to say that it is the density of Light flux incident upon a surface.

• “Level of Illumination” : Level of Illumination of a surface of one square meter when it receives a luminous flux of one lumen [ Unit : lux = lm/m2 ] Lux – is the illumination on a surface 1 square meter in area, created by one lumen of Light Flux.

• “Luminance” is the brightness of a surface. It is the relation between

luminous intensity and the surface seen by an observer situated in the same direction (apparent surface) [unit: Cd / m2].

• “Contrast”: Difference in luminance between an object and its surroundings

or between different parts of the object. • “Reflectance” : Proportion of light that is reflected by a surface. It is a non

dimensional quantity. It value ranges between 0 and 1. It is a common misunderstanding that providing good lighting conditions means only increasing the illumination level. Sufficient light to perform the task comfortably, of course, is important, but there are many other factors which need to be considered in the study of lighting.

4.2 Lighting and visual tasks Lighting is for seeing. Visibility or the ease of seeing depends upon many inter-related factors • The size of the object. The larger the size the more visible it will be.

Inspecting a watch is difficult compared to examining a clock, in terms of eye strain, in the same light.

• The amount of light falling on the object. Correct levels of lighting make it easier to perform the task.

• The contrast between the object and the surroundings.

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4.2.1 Factors that Determine Visual Comfort The prerequisites that an illumination system must fulfill in order to provide the conditions necessary for visual comfort are the following. • uniform illumination • optimal luminance • no glare • adequate contrast conditions • correct colours • absence of stroboscopic effect or intermittent light. It is important to consider light in the workplace not only by quantitative criteria, but also by qualitative criteria. The first step is to study the work station, the precision required of the tasks performed, the amount of work, the mobility of the worker, etc. Light should include components both of diffused and direct radiation. The result of the combination will produce shadows of greater or lesser intensity that will allow the worker to perceive the form and position of objects at the work station. Annoying reflections, which make it harder to perceive details, should be eliminated, as well as excessive glare or deep shadows. The periodic maintenance of the lighting installation is very important. The goal is to prevent the ageing of lamps and the accumulation of dust on the luminaries that will result in a constant loss of light. For this reason it is important to select lamps and systems that are easy to maintain. An incandescent light bulb maintains its efficiency until the moments before failure, but this is not the case with fluorescent tubes, which may lower their output down to 75% after a 1000 hours of use. 4.2.1.1 Levels of illumination Each activity requires a specific level of illumination in the area where the activity takes place. In general, the higher the difficulty for visual perception, the higher the average level of illumination should be as well. The level of illumination is measured with a luxmeter. When selecting a certain level of illumination for a particular work station the following points should be studied: • the nature of the work • reflectance of the object and of the immediate surroundings • differences with natural light and the need for daytime illumination • the worker’s age. Under Sec.17 of the Factories Act, 1948 State Governments have prescribed illumination levels in factories. For example, the relevant levels prescribed under Rule 35 of the Maharashtra Factories Rules, 1963 are given as Annexure. Indian standard 3644 provide detailed guidelines for illumination, for different tasks.

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4.2.1.2 Light distribution Glare Key factors in the conditions that affect vision are the distribution of light and the contrast of luminance. In so far as the distribution of light is concerned, it is preferable to have good general illumination instead of localised illumination in order to avoid glare. For this reason, electrical accessories should be distributed as uniformly as possible in order to avoid differences in luminous intensity. Constant shuttling through zones that are not uniformly illuminated causes eye fatigue. Glare is produced when a brilliant source of light is present in the visual field; the result is a diminution in the capacity to distinguish objects. Workers who suffer the effects of glare constantly and successively can suffer from eye strain as well as from functional disorders, even though in many cases they are not aware of it. Glare occurs when there is excessive luminance in the field of view. The effects of glare on vision can be divided into two groups, termed disability glare and discomfort glare. Discomfort glare, which is more likely to occur in interiors, can be reduced or even totally eliminated by reducing the contrast between the task and its surroundings. Matt, diffusely reflecting finishes on work surfaces are to be preferred to gloss or specularly reflecting finishes, and the position of any offending light source should be outside the normal field of vision. In general, successful visual performance occurs when the task itself is brighter than its immediate surrounds, but not excessively. Glare can be direct when its origin is bright sources of light directly in the line of vision, or by reflection when light is reflected on surfaces with high reflectance.

* * *

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HUMAN ERROR AND ITS PREVENTION (Behavioural Factors, Job Stress and Its Management)

The traditional management practices for better safety performances rest on the intra-psychic mode of human behaviour which implies that majority of accidents are due to human errors and that initiative for better safety performance lie on workers. This assumption is reflected in the messages contained in any safety posters, pamphlets and propaganda material, policies of management. Human Error Human errors of omission or commission contribute to a disproportionately high percentage of all accidents. How and why such errors are committed must be understood patiently by supervisors and managers. Workers who are protected by safety guards remove them or fail to use them. People who are told about hazards ignore the warnings. Well-trained workers seem to forget what they have learnt. Attempting to analyse and understand this behaviour from an outward appearance without first understanding human nature can lead to only one conclusion – human are illogical beings doing many things without apparent rhyme or reason. Not so. All human behaviour is directed by a striving for satisfaction of needs. All life is struggle to satisfy the many needs that everyone has, and it is a never-ending struggle, because human being are so constituted that as soon as they satisfy one of their needs another appears in its place. According to Abraham Maslow, human needs are organized in a series of levels, a hierarchy of importance as shown below – Self Actualization needs Ego needs Social needs Security needs Physiological need

• Self expression • Use of potential • Self fulfillment * Importance • Excellence • Self respect • Dignity • Power • Recognition • Acceptance • Group membership • Equality • Safety • Preparation for the future • Justice • Hunger • Thirst • Sex • Excretion

• Achievement • Creativity • Development • Freedom • Status • Prestige • Belonging • Team spirit • Tolerance • Comfort • Self preservation • Protection • Rest • Activity • Normal body temperature.

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According to Frank E. Bird, Jr. Executive Director, International Loss Control Institute there are some physical and psychological needs that conflict with Safety and protection needs- 1. Safety Versus Saving Time – If the safe way takes more time then an unsafe

way, some people will choose the unsafe way – to save time. The greater the time advantage, the greater the motivation to risk unsafe behaviour. People want to save time for many reasons (e.g. To earn more incentive pay, to have the satisfaction of getting job done quickly, to gain more time for socializing with others or just plain ‘taking it easy’).

2. Safety Versus Saving Effort – If the safe way requires more work than an unsafe

way, some people will choose the unsafe way – to save the effort. They will choose a safe way that involves more work only if the risks of the easier way are too great.

3. Safety Versus Comfort – If the safe way is less comfortable than an unsafe way,

some people will choose the unsafe way – to avoid discomfort. The greater the discomfort associated with the safe way, the greater is the temptation to choose the more comfortable unsafe way.

4. Safety Versus Getting Attention – The greater the amount of attention gained by

the unsafe way, the stronger is tendency for some people to choose the unsafe way. Some people feed their starved desire for recognition by ‘showing off’.

5. Safety Versus Independence – If an unsafe way gives greater freedom from

authority than the safe way, some people will choose the unsafe way – simply to assert their independence. It becomes a way of expressing resentment, of defying supervision.

6. Safety Versus Group Acceptance – If an unsafe way has greater group approval

than the safe ways many people will choose the unsafe way – to get or maintain group acceptance. Peer pressures are pervasive and powerful. Hardly anyone likes to be rejected.

To save time, to save effort, to be more comfortable, to attract attention, to assert independence, to gain group acceptance these are the most common desires that conflict with the desire to work safely. Coupling a lack of conviction about safety with the feeling that ‘it won’t happen to me’, people often take chances with unsafe behaviour. This is the basic fact that can aid our understanding of human behaviour and motivation.

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Prevention of Human Error Causes of Errors Preventive Measures

1 Improvising procedures that are lacking in the field.

1. Provide adequate instruction.

2. Lack of understanding of procedures

2. Ensure that instructions are easy to understand.

3. Lack of awareness of hazards.

3. Provide warnings, cautions, or explanations in instructions.

4. Untimely activation of equipment.

4. Provide interlocks or timer lockouts from load, or other damaging conditions.

5. Critical components installed incorrectly.

5. Provide designs permitting such components to be installed only in the proper ways. Use asymmetric configurations.

6. Interference with normal habits.

6. Ensure that recognition and activation patterns are in accordance with usual practices and expectancies.

7. Error or delay in use of controls.

7. Avoid proximity, interference, awkward location, or similarity of critical controls.

8. Inadvertent activation of controls.

8. For critical functions provide controls that cannot be activated inadvertently; use torque types instead of push buttons. Provide guards over critical switches.

9. Control activated in wrong order.

9. Place functional controls in sequence in which they are to be used.

10. Failure to take action at proper time because of faulty instruments.

10. Provide procedures to calibrate instruments periodically.

11. Failure to note critical indication.

11. Provide suitable auditory or visual warning device that will attract operator’s attention to problem.

12. Irritation and loss of effectiveness due to high temperature and humidity.

12. Provide environmental control.

13. Loss of effectiveness due to lack of oxygen or to presence of toxic gas, airborne particulate matter, or odors.

13. Prevent generation or entrance of contaminants into the occupied space.

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Behavioural Factors 1. Resentment of criticism – Even the slightest comment made by a supervisor to

an employee may be taken as criticism even though the supervisor had no intention of being critical. Hence in giving safety instructions, pointing out a hazard, or explaining a new safety device, it is well to avoid a comment, tone of voice, or inference that is likely to be interpreted by an employee as criticism. This does not mean that constructive criticism should be avoided but, communication should not be taken too much for granted. There is no pat answer how these and similar situations should be handled. In some cases, group discussion will be more effective. Hence each supervision must appraise the problem in, light of existing conditions; his knowledge of the work group and the proper time, place and the example he sets will do much to produce a satisfactory response.

2. Resistance to change – Workers do not always respond as the supervisor might

expect. For example, painting a work area in attractive colours, installing modern equipment should usually promote a favourable employee response. But not always a man who worrying about how he is going to pay on the new washer might regard a large expenditure made by this employer to renovate the plant as a threat to his chances of getting an increase in pay. Employee reaction to change is perverse perplexing, and this applies to change as well as any other.

Both these ignored traits of human nature – the resistance to change and the resentment of criticism – have a significant influence on worker attitude and behaviour. There is much that can be done to motivate employees to accept change and criticism. a) Tell employees in advance about safety changes that will affect them. b) Explain the change – people resist what they do not understand. c) Get workers to participate in the development of the change.

Safety climate – Management does set the style and this is particularly true in safety. If mangers show by their safety behaviour that they really say good safety concepts and practices, this will be reflected in employee safety behaviour. The reverse is also true where management gives nothing more than lip service to safety, foil to use safety equipment, tolerate poor house-keeping employees will have a ‘I could care less’ attitude about safety, and the accident rate is bound to be high. Top management’s commitment to safety must be oriented toward action, not words. If the workers see the general manager at the scene of every accident, personally making a safety inspection, stopping at unguarded machine, wearing safety glasses, or speaking to employees about safety, it does not take long for them to learn that management wants safety and that unsafe conditions and unsafe behaviour will not be tolerated.

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Job Stress: Stress is the necessary part of our life. It could have the best or worst effects on performance, health, general well-being. Managing stress effectively is the way one reacts to the stressors present in the environment. The stressors are manifold and the ways to manage stress are individual, organizational and contextual. Stress is defined as the response to a stressor, a stimulus, or a set of circumstances that induces a change in the individual’s ongoing psychological and \or physiological pattern of function. Completed freedom from stress is death. Stress presents difficulty when the response is inadequate, or excessive or so prolonged that it exhausts the individual capacity to respond. The difficulty may be expressed in emotional distress, aberrant type of overt behaviour, or symptoms or illness, most commonly those associated with disorders of the nervous, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and respiratory systems. Strain will occur when any characteristics of the job environment poses a threat to the individual. Strain refers to any deviation from normal responses in the person. Psychological strains are like job dissatisfaction, anxiety, depression. Physiological strains are like high blood pressure and elevated serum cholesterol; and behavioural strains are smoking, drinking, taking drugs or dispensary visits. A host of studies has identified job elements and work routines that are associated with symptoms of ill-health. Examples include work overload, lack of social support, deadline pressure. It seems clear that job stress can affect health and well being of employees and is associated with increasing cost to organisation. Stressors In Work Environment : There are mainly six categories of stressors prevalent at work sites: i. Stressors concerning to job : poor working conditions, work overload, time

pressures, exposure to danger; ii. Stressors concerning role in the organization : Role – ambiguity, Role – conflict,

responsibility for people; iii. Stressors concerning career development : Over promotion, under promotion,

job insecurity, increased ambitions and aspirations; iv. Stressors concerning relationship at work : poor relation with boss, coworkers,

difficulty in delegating responsibility; v. Stressors concerning organizational structure and climate : little or no

participation in discussions about matters that individuals at work, restrictions on behaviour, office politics, lack of effective consultation; and

vi. Extra organizational sources of stress: Family problems, life crisis, financial

difficulties etc.

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It has been indicated through research findings that these stressors are prevailing at the work place in one form or another and to a little or great extent. Each category of these stressors is potential to increase the levels of anxiety and neuroticism, tolerance for ambiguity and Type A behavioural pattern (extremes of competitiveness, striving for achievement, aggressiveness, haste, impatience, restlessness, hyper alertness, explosiveness of speech, tenseness and feelings of being under pressure of time and under the challenge of responsibility) in individual. These individual characteristics aggravate the symptoms of occupational ill health (diastolic blood pressure, cholesterol level, heart rate, smoking, depressive mood, escapist drinking, job dissatisfaction, reduced aspiration etc.) which promotes coronary heart disease and mental ill health. Reaction To Stress: It all depends how we react to stress. Individual’s control over an event is important in determining psychological and physiological effect. Sometimes just thinking that control is possible can prevent adverse effects of stress. Many people despite repeated upheavals did not show abnormally low levels of N K cell activity. The relationship between emotional reactions and stressful events are like this: the people showing high levels of anxiety and depression have shown lowest N K cell activity and the people with low anxiety and depression are found to be having highest N K cell activity. Those who react with anxiety and depression seem to have poor coping skills. The personality factors have also been related to N K activity. Acceptance and adjustment to events have shown lower N K cell activity and response with anger and agitation has been reflected with higher N K cell activity among cancer patients. Chicago psychologist Meddi believes that people who hold beliefs-a sense of personal contentment what they are doing, a sense of personal commitment to what they are doing, a sense of control over life and a feelings of challenge are usually resistant to many kinds of illness. People getting tough could have lower blood pressure, less depression, and fewer headaches. Stress And Health : There is a growing body of evidence form studies in laboratory settings and in the workplace to suggest that occupational stress is a causal factor in psychoneurotic and personality disorders, nervousness, debility and migraine headache. Factors intrinsic to a job related to poor mental health are unpleasant work conditions, repetitive and dehumanizing environments. Qualitative work overload (work that is too difficult) is found to be significantly related to escapist drinking, absenteeism from work, low motivation to work, lowered self-esteem. Both qualitative and quantitative (too much to do) work overload produce different symptoms of psychological and physical strain : job dissatisfaction, job tension, lower self-esteem, threat, embarrassment, high cholesterol levels, increased heart rate, and more smoking is only part of the cost of the stressful work. There is a evidence that stress does play a significant role in the etiology and prognosis of many physical disorders like coronary heart disease, bronchial asthma and diabetes mellitus. It has to be accepted that poor physical health can result from stressful work, even where the stress and the work itself have no direct physical impact on the person. Stress And Job Performance : How do people perform under stress ? Why do some cope under the same conditions that make others collapse? These questions

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perplex sociologists investigating the dynamics of work group, psychologists delving in to motives and drives of individuals, ergonomists examining the interaction of the individual and the environment, and anthropologists recording the norms, values and mores of the work culture. Optimum performance comes from converting tension from energy into an ally; from a needless stressor to a creative motivator. Therefore, stress becomes an energy when too much or to little is produced. The effectiveness of job performance depends upon three conditions: i. Level of Arousal / Stimulation – Stress can be high under low as well as high

level of stimulation-under conditions of both distress and eustress. Proper levels of moderate stimulation therefore become important in providing productive levels of stress.

ii. Talents of capabilities – The state of arousal or stimulation one experiences

depends on his perception of whether or not he can perform the job well. Can he meet the challenge at hand? This perception depends upon both the past experiences (successes and failures) as well as talents he brings into his job.

iii. Nature of work load – The third condition in the formula for effective

performance is the difficulty of workload one is required to perform, both in terms of qualitative and quantitative workload which largely depend on how accurate his perception is of the task difficulty as opposed to his perceive-ability to achieve the task. The key to optimum job performance rests in the balance of difficulty and ability.

Social Support And Stress : Social support seems to buffer the stress. The supportive interpersonal relationships at family and work situations seem to reduce the felt-stress. Social support is defined as helpful function performed for an individual by significant others such as family members, friends, coworkers, supervisors / managers, relatives and neighbors. Helpful functions could be the materials or human help in terms of fulfillment of needs related to household, money and job, expression of love, caring, valuing, esteem, sympathy, advice, personal feedback, belongings etc. Psychologist of the view that attach among individuals serve to improve adaptive competence in dealing with short-term crisis as well as long term challenges and stresses through promoting emotional control, offering guidance on expected problems and methods of living with them. Stress Management Skills: Broadly there are four ways of managing stress directed below: i. Personal management i.e. self regulation for organizing time and energy

expenditure through various skills such as valuing (aligning energy investment with core values) personal planning (setting goals and progressing steadily towards accomplishment) commitment (saving yes wholeheartedly), time management (setting priority to send time effectively) and pacing (regulating the tempo of life).

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ii. Relationship i.e. Scene – changing skills for altering the environment and

interaction with it through – contact (forming satisfying friendships), Listening (tuning into others feeling and meanings), Assertiveness (Attending to self and boundaries), Fight (standing firm to effect change), Flight (Retreating from the pressure) and Nest-building (Beautifying the environment).

iii. Outlook i.e. Change – your –mind skills for controlling attitudes and perceptions

through (seeing the promise in the problem), Surrender (Letting go and letting be), Faith (Accepting limits and the unknowable), Whisper (Talking positively to self) and Imagination (Using creativity and humour).

iv. Stamina i.e. Body-building skills to strengthen resistance and relieve tension

through- Exercise (Strengthening and fine – tuning the body), Nourishment (Eating for health), Gentleness (Treating self with care and kindness) and Relaxation (Cruising in neutral and replenishing resources).

Personal management or organizing skills are particularly effective for the times when life seems out of control, when the work to be done exceeds the available times when life seems out of control, when the work to be done exceeds the available time, when goals are unclear or values uncertain. Valuing, personal planning, commitment, time management or placing might be the skill of choice when organisation is the issue. Relationship skills work best when an individual feels lonely and unsupported, confused or in need of caring, or when the environment is a source of tension. Contact, listening, assertiveness, fight, flight, and next-building are potential skill resources for these situations. Both personal management and relationship skills are especially helpful when stress-producing demands of the physical or social environment need to be altered. Assertiveness may help one cope with an inconsiderate co-worker or a persistent sales person. Personal planning and time management may be essential skills for the career couple. Following a job promotion contact and listening skills may ensure success in the new work unit. Values clarification helps people determine what issues, situations and relationships are worth fighting for. Flight may be the healthiest option when one is powerless to change a destructive situation. Outlook or attitude- change skills are particularly helpful when a person feels depressed or cynical, when grief over a loss is an important dimension of discomfort, or when stress comes form self- imposed pressures. Relabeling, surrender, faith, whisper and imagination are important internal strategies for preventing or coping with such dilemmas. No matter how uncomfortable the situation, changing one’s attitude can prevent or alleviate stress imagination skills can help teachers or supervisors who take life too seriously to laugh at themselves.

***

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BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS: INTRA & INTER-PERSONAL BARRIERS

The behavioural science approach concentrates on human aspects of management. It is based on concept that managing means getting things done through people. It is focused on people and deals with human factors responsible in reacting certain way in particular environment and effect of such environment on their behaviour. Focus of this science is on individual and groups. The scientists in the field of psychology & sociology have identified various factors in individuals and environment which affect safety practices as well as safety culture in industrial organisations. Behavioural Analysis reveals human factors responsible for unsafe behaviour. In progressive organisations, people are using their brain power to improve safety standard, reduce accident rate, make workplace safe as well as to progress on other parameters like productivity, quality etc. Using brainpower to direct human energy to meet or increase safety standard is a matter of study and exercising human skill. Psychologists have studied this subject from various angles. Dr.Wilder Penfield a neurosurgeon carried out scientific research on brain functioning from psychological angle in 1951-52. His findings are that (1) the brain is like a tape recorder wherein all the experiences are recorded right from the moment he is born. (2) The recording of experiences during childhood upto the age of 6 years is very strong. (3) The recording is permanent and cannot be erased. (4) The past recording affects his present life. All the recording of experiences are categorized into three types and for study purpose, we can consider them to be stored in three parts of the brain which are called : (1) PARENT (2) ADULT & (3) CHILD. Innumerable cassettes are there in each of these parts and a person's response to situation depends upon which part of the brain is activated (i.e. parent, Adult or Child). Since the behaviour would depend upon the cassette which runs, one must first study as to how the recording takes place in the brain. When a child is born, it cannot talk or understand what others are talking. The recording is therefore only of feelings. The different feelings such as joy, anger, grief, hunger etc. are recorded say upto the age of one year or so in one part i.e. CHILD. In this part only feelings are recorded. However, as the child grows, many things are taught to her such as how to walk, what to say to whom, how to behave with others, how to brush teeth, how to cross the road etc. All these taught things are stored in another part of the brain i.e. PARENT. This recording is normally complete upto the age of 6 years. There is another part which also starts developing simultaneously which is called ADULT. In this part, reality of the world and facts as seen, heard, smelled & touched are recorded without any prejudice like a computer. This part of the brain functions like a computer. From the above explanation, we can say that when two persons are present in a room, actually there are six; because each person has three parts in his personality

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namely P, A & C. Any one part of this brain out of these three (P.A.C) are engaged at any particular moment and the part engaged may change from moment to moment while behaving or talking. Behaviour or communication transaction between two persons can be shown diagrammatically which can be analyzed for the purpose of understanding as to which transactions will promote safe behaviour. Once this is known, one can try to make those behaviour and communication transactions to prevent unsafe acts. Brain is unseen. Similarly, thinking process and thoughts stored in brain are concealed. However, when managers, interact with other people, they respond to each other as prompted by their recording in PAC parts of the brain. Each type of recording is indicated or displayed in their behaviour & talk. Displayed behaviour and talk can be analyzed to understand state of mind and recording in the brain. During the feed-back process for correcting undesirable behaviour of a worker, manager or a supervisor may find it difficult to direct the worker to safe behaviour due to inter-personal barriers. Some barriers are due to negative response of a worker. Some difficulty may be due to crossed behavioural transaction between supervisor and the worker. These are explained diagrammatically below : You were doing same thing when you were worker

If you do not put on safety goggles, I will report to manager

Supervisor Worker

Wearing handgloves will safeguard your hands wear them.

Nothing will happen to me.

P

A

C

P

A

C

P

A

C

P

A

C

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Supervisor Worker

Why are you after me ? You are always partial.

I do not understand why you do not switch off machine before going for lunch

See that the instrument is calibrated, otherwise it will make things hazardous for you. You don't teach me

Behaviour analysis thus gives an idea as to which part of the brain is activated. If manager understands that other person's activated brain recording is undesirable, then he can try to de-activate it. This can be done by skillful talk based on facts. Worker is adopting short-cuts & taking undue risk due to undesirable recording which needs to be side tracked to allow other thoughts to come in by activation of desirable thoughts prompting to follow safe practice. However, this is a skilled exercise. Manager can acquire inter-active skill by employing Behavioural Transaction Analysis Technique (TA Technique), which requires keen observation, patience and self-control apart from communication skill. Correcting unsafe behaviour through communication (talk) and feed-back technique on the basis of TA principles has limitation. However, it is one of the ways of correcting behaviour to reduce accidents & injuries. Attempt made consistently with genuine interest to help people will give positive results in the long run and promote safety culture. Exercise for Practice: Situation: Worker is performing a high-risk behaviour. The behaviour is one you used to perform frequently yourself when you were worker. However, after cautioning you by the then manager, you stopped your high-risky behaviour.

P

A

C

P

A

C

P

A

C

P

A

C

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Suppose, you are now supervisor of Mr.Govind, then what will you tell him? You will say; (Choose any one response from below) 1. Mr.Govind, I used to perform the same way at high-risk, but subsequently I

changed my risky habit. 2. Mr.Govind, I suggest that you do not take undue risk. 3. Mr.Govind, I do not like the way you are performing at high-risk. 4. Mr.Govind, if you repeat your risky behaviour, I will report this matter to the

manager. 5. Mr.Govind, this risky behaviour of yours is likely to result in accident some

day. 6. --------------- (please state any other response to correct behaviour)

***

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CREATIVE THINKING TO MAKE METHODS SAFE Some safety problems require non-traditional thinking to evolve solutions to make work-methods safe. According to Newell, Shaw & Simon (1962), creative thinking is a kind of problem solving. It requires high motivation and persistence, taking place over a considerable span of time or at high intensity. Basics of Behaviour Transaction Analysis illustrate the importance of child part of brain in creative thinking to solve problems. Emotions displayed such as curiosity, inquisitiveness, spontaneity are stored in CHILD part of brain and is called "Natural Child". This coupled with high motivational recording help in generating creative ideas. New ideas have to be made practical to make existing work-methods safer to reduce accidents & injuries. Ideas are required to be modified by discussion and consultation with other people. In search of new safety solutions, self-motivation to prevent undesirable behaviour of self and others is important. Getting co-operation of people at all levels of management is also helpful in making work-methods safe and contribute towards safety culture in organisation. At this stage, Industrial Engineering techniques are useful. Managers can use these questioning techniques to evolve safer work-method which is practical, economical, beneficial and acceptable. Optimum utilization of machines, equipment, materials and such resources at the disposal of workmen is also an important factor. While using these resources, the work methods are also required to be safe. Managers need to have scientific outlook to do this part of their job. An approach of observing jobs being carried out at work place can be further processed by carrying out 4 steps given below: Step 1: Analyse job details: In this step, list details of job being done by a worker in sequence. Against each detail note snags, difficulties, safety precautions, and also mention what is unsafe. For noting difficulties & safety points, resources used by the worker such as:

i) materials ii) Tools iii) equipment iv) machines v) Layout & use of space should be observed.

Step 2: Examine: In this step questioning technique is used. This is usually used by method study engineers. Each detail is examined separately by means of "Five W" questions with a view to get ideas in order to make job safer, and easier for safe practice as well as getting safety suggestions regarding resources such as materials, machines, tools etc.

Step 3: Improve the method: In order to finalize safer & better method, all ideas are to require to be reviewed to select those which are practical, cost effective, safer, and beneficial. It is better if manager discusses selected ideas with the worker as well as his colleagues to work out realistic method.

Step 4: Implement: With a view to get support from worker & other concerned persons, convince them by pointing out how it is advantageous to them. Emphasize importance of personal safety & safety of others. Appeal for co-operation in implementation and also assure to extend help to them in acquiring safety habits.

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BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS & ATTITUDES Behaviour Scientists find that attitudes are being developed right from the childhood itself. These attitudes in the childhood are about himself and other people around him. Depending upon experience in the childhood, he perceives himself & others in a certain way which develops particular attitude. According to Dr. Thomas Harris1, very early in life, most children conclude “I am not O. K.” they make conclusion about their parents also that “You are O. K.” This is the first thing child usually figures out in his life long attempt to make sense of himself and the world in which he lives. This attitude, “I am not O. K - You are O. K.” is the most deterministic decision of his further life. It will influence everything he does in future life as well. It can be changed by certain ways but not until it is understood. Attitudes developed during childhood depend upon positive or negative experience that he undergoes. If a child receives positive experience from other people such as affectionate behaviour, caring for health, upbringing with love, etc. he develops positive attitude towards others i.e. “you means others are O. K.” This is because recording of positive & affectionate acts & talks get engraved in brain which sets process of you are O. K. attitude. However, if he gets opposite experience from others such as punishment not commensurate with mistakes, other people lie & child later on finds what truth, beating is & rough handling by others and such similar negative experience which child thinks that it is injustice to him, then he develops negative attitude towards others i.e. “You are not O. K.”. The above narration reveals that there could be two types of attitudes i.e. “I am not O.K. - You are O. K.” and “I am not O. K. - You are not O. K.”. However, there could be another two types of attitudes also. For example :- If child tries many things on his own and is successful in walking, eating, speaking etc. as well as others also encourage him to do positive, constructive things which give good experience or results, then he develops “I am OK. - You are OK” attitude towards self & others. This is because child gets confidence & positive feelings, that he can do it. Similarly he also feels that parents, teachers & other people around him try to help in case of difficulty. Such attitude gives rise to proactive approach and can help in safety management which is behaviour based. However, if child gets experiences that whenever he tried things on his own he was successful without the help of others & on the contrary when he asked for assistance people did not give it and he had to struggle himself for success with difficulty, then he is likely to get a feeling that others are not helpful. He may misunderstand that they are not deliberately extending help and other people are giving negative response to his positive behaviour. Such experiences develop another type of attitude i.e. “I am O.K. - You are not O. K.”

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The above mentioned basic four types of attitudes can be shown diagrammatically below:-

You are OK

You are not OK

I am OK He follows

safety practice (1)

Coaching & Active Listening will help in changing his unsafe

behaviour (3)

I am OK

I am not OK

He is Amenable to change his unsafe

behaviour (2)

Very difficult to change his unsafe behaviour

(4)

I am not OK

You are OK

You are not OK

The above mentioned basic attitudes of a person many times stand in the way of manager’s efforts in preventing unsafe behaviour of workers & direct them towards safe practices. Except the attitude mentioned above in rectangle 1 above, others become intra-interpersonal barriers in developing positive attitude towards safety & safe practice. The above mentioned four basic attitudes regarding self & others become a foundation for further development of attitudes of a person in his life. The process of attitude formation is important for behaviour study & analysis. Some managers think that people who meet with an accident because of their unsafe action are accident prone. But there has been lot of confusion in the use as well as interpretation of the word “accident proneness”. Injustice was also done to some employees due to adoption of a negative approach arising out of wrong convictions regarding accident proneness of individuals. The theory that most accidents are sustained by a small fixed group of “accident prone” individuals is open to question. On the basis of clinical experience and studies, most accidents are due to relatively infrequent solitary experience of a large numbers of individuals. The total number of accidents suffered by those who injure themselves year after year, over a period of three or more years, is relatively small as Dr. Schulzinger2 points out, most people move in and out or the so-called accident prone group depending upon age, mental and physical state, environmental factors, and other conditions that vary with the passage of time rather than remaining fixed with the individual. According to Professor Edwin E. Ghiselli3, to describe in individual as being accident prone is to diagnose him as having a certain psychopathology a disorder or abnormal way of thinking or behaving. He discusses the errors or interfering factors that could be expected to come into studies which have tended to classify persons as accident prone, highlights the unreliability of this concept to predict the accident rate of a worker, much more so when environmental conditions,

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occupations or activities change. He concludes that accident proneness is not a general characteristic of the individual. According to Thomas R. Krause4, the goal is to change safety related behaviour & usually organisations post slogans, hold meetings urging people to have change of thinking about safety. Behavioural science points that when a change of behaviour is the goal, there is good possibility that changed behaviour will also change attitude. In a business or industrial setting, there are strong reasons to focus on behaviour. some important ones are given below:-

a) Behaviour can be defined in measurable terms and therefore managed. b) Changes in behaviour can lead to changes in attitude in the long run. c) Consequences of behaviour can be compared.

Everyone agrees that a good safety attitude is important. The problem of managing change by focusing on attitude is that attitudes are internal & are difficult to measure at certain interval or day-to-day basis. In actual practice, attempts at changing safety culture by changing attitude lacks precision and cannot be developed only by focusing on attitude change. Hence correcting behaviours through behavioural analysis & corrective transactions gain importance. Behaviour - Based approach is therefore adopted which indirectly hits these basic attitude barriers through observing behaviours which can be defined in measurable terms and directly tackling them employing psycho-social skills. References

1. “I am O K - You are OK”, pan books Ltd. London 2. Schulzinger, M. S.- “the accident syndrome”, Charles C. Thomas Co.,

Spring Field ILL 3. Ghiselli, E. E. “The Myth of Accident Proneness” The British Journal of

Industrial Safety, Vol. 6, No. 71, 1965 4. Thomas R Krause, “Employee - driven systems for safety Behaviour”.

***

37

BEHAVIOUR-BASED MANAGEMENT

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OBSERVATION & COMMUNICATION TO CORRECT UNSAFE BEHAVIOUR

Observation Skill Observing to correct unsafe behaviour is a skilled activity. It requires ability to concentrate. Concentration is nothing but focusing attention to particular aspects such as Worker’s actions / movements while doing a job, his use of PPE’s and sequence with which job is done by him. In order to focus on safety aspects only, check-list of safe behaviour on a particular job will help concentration and observations can be noted down for correction. Observations should be noted down with the knowledge of worker and his co-operation should be enlisted during observations. Worker’s involvement is this exercise will also help in correcting wrong observations if any observations can be made on particular part of whole job also especially in case of longer duration of jobs or if certain portion of job is very important or critical from safety point of view. Observations can be made by colleague of a worker also and hence check-list can be very useful. The same check-list can be used by more than one person or a team of persons when observations are to be made by such persons. These observations are used as soon as possible to provide feedback for reinforcement or correction of behaviors. Observations are required to be noted down in a format called observation sheets which forms a part of guidelines for observers. Written observations also serve as record for future reference. Guidelines should be prepared covering aspects such as purpose, approaches & methods of observations, its use in communicating to workers & importance of follow-up etc. Managers’ skill will be increased through practice of observing behaviours by using check-list because skills are developed through practice. Managers can also develop their observations skill by conducting certain eye exercises or do Yogasanas as well as meditation and similar activities in their personal spare time. Communication difficulties In order to prevent unsafe acts & promote safe practices at workplace, managers have to use their communication skill also. Unless the observations are communicated properly and discussed with workers, the desired purpose of correcting behaviour is not likely to be achieved. Some of the barriers in communication are as follows: 1. Unsuitable language: Too technical or jargons are used which makes other person difficult to understand if he is not a technical person. 2. Different evaluation & meanings: Due to differences in background, people attach different meanings and evaluations to words. A semi-literate person may give a different meaning to a word used by a well-educated manager.

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3. In-attention: If the receiver is preoccupied with other matters, he can not properly listen to or attend to what is being said. 4. Status relationships: The hierarchical consciousness comes in the way of effective communication. 5. Lack of time: Due to overwork or otherwise employees express their inability to communicate stating that there is no time. This dampers enthusiasm to communicate. 6. Lack of openness: Sometimes lack of openness comes in the way of free flow of communication due to unfavourable attitude. 7. Lack of incentive: Sometimes employees do not feel impelled for want of incentive. Effective communication for correction: Some of the principles for effective communication are given below which can minimize difficulties in correcting unsafe behaviour. 1. Clarity Manager should be absolutely clear of his purpose in communicating. His communication should be simple, clear which is commonly understood. 2. Attention Manager should aim at making the message understood by the recipient. 3. Consistency The main message or whatever is communicated should not have contradiction. It should be impersonal. 4. Adequacy The message should be adequate and complete for proper comprehension by receiver. 5. Timeliness Prompt communication is required to convey its importance. 6. Follow-up In order to ensure that the receiver has understood correctly, it is desirable to receive verbal feed-back from the worker as well as through his further action of safe practices.

***

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SAFETY COACHING & ACTIVE LISTENING

a) Safety Coaching: This method is based on behaviour & person which includes observation, analysis and helping person to perform safely. It is different from advising him how to do better. The real coaching concern itself to a question of making worker aware of how he is doing work leading to certain consequences. This means getting worker to analyse his work method, discuss alternatives and when request for advice is genuine, spelling out possibilities leaving the worker to make his own decision. Main objective of coaching is to make worker think various aspects & his mental blocks to decide on safe action and correct himself. This can be achieved through discussions with him immediately after occurrence of significant behaviour or as soon as possible. Some workers are particularly sensitive on some issues and hence attempt of coaching them on those aspects should be carefully made and timed to prevent reaction which is unproductive.

Prof.Getter E. Scott in his article titled "principles for achieving a total safety culture"

(Professional safety, Sept. 1994 : 18-24 issue) considers safety coaching similar to athletic coaching. Coach has to reinforce positive behaviours and discourage unacceptable performance. He has to clearly indicate what needs to be improved and advise to perform at a higher level with positive suggestions or guidelines. Compliments for following safety practice with achievements of expected results and praise for improvement in specific behaviours are key points in coaching. The main purpose in coaching is to ensure that work is performed safely and according to established guidelines to minimize unacceptable behaviour.

b) Active Listening: Most communication education has focused on skills of self expression and persuasion; until quite recently, little attention has been paid to listening. This overemphasis on the skills of expression has led most people to underemphasize the importance of listening in their daily communication activities. However, each person needs information that can be acquired only through the process of listening. Apart from observations, managers need to listen well when other person talks. But most managers are not good listeners. People strongly desire to be understood; yet often do not put in efforts to understand others. Real listening requires giving utmost attention to what others communicate. Listening skill can be acquired by practicing meditation. Managers in their private life or personal time should engage themselves in off-the-work activities such as sports, listening to music, solving puzzles, prayers etc. which refreshes brain. Certain of these activities act as tranquilizers and help in developing listening skill. Listening, of course, is much more complicated than the physical process of hearing. Hearing is done with the ears, while listening is an intellectual and emotional process. Several principles can aid in increasing essential listening skills. These are given below: 1) The listener should have a reason or purpose for listening. 2) It is important for the listener to suspend judgement initially.

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3) The listener should resist distractions - noises, views, and focus on the

speaker. 4) The listener should wait before responding to the speaker. Too prompt a

response reduces listening effectiveness. 5) The listener should use the time differential between the rate of speech (100-

150 words per minute) and the rate of thought (400-500 words per minute) to understand and to search for meaning.

***

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MOTIVATING FOR SAFE BEHAVIOUR AT WORKPLACE Introduction: – Why do people work with safe practice? Why do they develop positive or negative attitude towards each other and towards safety? Why do they refuse to co-operate? What determines the amount of effort they put into their jobs? These, and many others, are the questions of motivation which affect management at all levels in the organisation. We know from our own experience and from our observation of others that a “motivated” person works more effectively with observance of safe practice than someone who is uncommitted and unwilling. Many of the problems facing us at work are connected with lack of motivation, and therefore some understanding of the complex motivation of our fellow human beings might help us in our management role. Sources of Motivation:- Motivation springs from the existence of needs within people which demand satisfaction. Human needs can be categorized into five basic groups : (a) The physiological needs, i.e. food, rest, sex, warmth, air, shelter, exercise

etc. (b) Safety and security needs, i.e. protection from danger, threat or

deprivation, freedom from fear. (c) Social needs of belonging, i.e. association and acceptance by one’s fellows,

giving and receiving friendship and love. (d) Ego needs, which are of two types :

(i) Self esteem The need for self-respect, self-confidence, personal achievement and knowledge.

(ii) Reputation The need for status and recognition, for appreciation and the

deserved respect of others whom we recognize as important to us, (e) Self-Fulfillment needs, i.e. The need to realize one’s potential for continued

self-development and growth. The Effect of Needs on Behaviour:- When a need is unsatisfied, a “drive” is aroused within people which makes them seek certain goals with increased efforts. A simple example of this is the hunger drive. When their need for food has not been satisfied for some time, they become hungry and direct their efforts towards seeking food. Once the need is satisfied by eating, their hunger subsides for the time being. Satisfied needs, therefore, cease to motivate people. Unless, of course, their satisfaction is threatened by new or adverse circumstances or consequences. For example, the safety need might be threatened by recent accident during introduction of a new system.

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If one observes the behaviour of people (including his own), it may give him some indication that what is motivating to them. People are not always consciously aware of the goals or consequences, and it is often only from their behaviour that the motivation can be deduced. For example, someone’s behaviour may be more concerned with being liked and accepted by his colleagues than with the task, or he may constantly seek reassurance from his boss if he lacks emotional security. The Behaviour Consequences of unsatisfied Needs:- It is mentioned above that satisfied needs no longer motivate. But one also has to talk about what happened; when his needs are not being met. The likely results of people being unable to meet their needs are: (a) Insecurity – Anxiety that current satisfaction will be lost in the future. This

leads to defensive behaviour, lack of co-operation and hostility. (b) Conflict – The opposition of two strong needs and drives. This often results

in indecisiveness or escapist behaviour. (c) Aggression – This is commonly encountered and acts as a release from

tension. The aggression can either be leveled directly against the source of the frustration or displaced against a substitute. If, because all external outlets are barred, or the source of the frustration is also admired, or the individual has been brought up believes that any form of aggressiveness is wrong, then the aggression may turn inwards causing anxiety, self-hatred and depression.

(d) Regression – This takes the form of primitive and childish behaviour.

Examples of this are tantrums, sulking, pettiness, and hyper-sensitivity. (e) Fixation – The overwhelming compulsion or desire to continue repeating a

useless action or habit i.e. a person who has a fixation will tend to carry out the same action repeatedly although experience has shown at an early stage that it will achieve nothing. Where punishment or sanctions are applied, the fixation may become even stronger and therefore the effect of the punishment will be the opposite of what was intended.

(f) Apathy – This occurs after prolonged frustration and can affect the

individual’s whole attitude to life. He may well give up the struggle and simply cease to care any more.

In the work situation, motivational disturbances such as these often leave behind poor personal relationships, inter-group conflict, sickness, absenteeism, accidents etc. Just as one deduces motivation from behaviour, he can also tell when a person’s needs are not being met. The likely consequence of this will be deterioration in work performance, unsafe act, and in the long term, possible disruption to the task and the work group. Motivating an employee for increasing safety standards is one of the difficult task of managers. According to Dr. Herzberg’s theory of motivation, the real motivating

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factors of human being are: Achievement, Responsibility, Recognition, challenge, creativity, and Advancement. Money as motivator is debatable. In certain cases, money was found as real motivator whereas in certain cases it was not. If people feel that they have achieved safety standard with great efforts which was earlier felt as rather impossible, then their psychological need of achievement is satisfied. Setting a little difficult safety target in reducing accidents or injuries and providing help to achieve the same will motivate people to a great extent. Similarly, encouraging people to give suggestions and extending help to implement these by themselves with shared responsibility is also one of the ways to motivate. This will satisfy their need to advance. Appreciation of efforts by way of praising the improved behaviour satisfies need for recognition & it motivates men. For this purpose, safety incentive schemes can be promoted. However these are to be designed and used correctly. For incentive programmes, the following points should be borne in mind. i) Safety incentive schemes need to focus behaviour with specific performance

requirement. ii) It is desirable to give small rewards to many than to give big rewards to a

few individuals. iii) Ensure that penalty to group due to failure of an individual is not given. iv) Safety targets should be focused on achieving success rather than avoiding

failure. v) Individuals should not be held accountable for things outside their control. CONCLUSION How does an understanding of motivation help the manager? Firstly, it can make him more observant and give him increased understanding of his subordinate’s behaviour. Secondly, although he is often unable to control financial incentives, there is much the manager can do to simulate motivation. Money is a versatile incentive since it offers the means of satisfying a wide range of needs but it does have the disadvantage of concentrating attention on the financial reward rather than on the accomplishment of the task. This can result in attempts to obtain the reward without doing the work. The two main approaches the supervisor or manager can adopt are through improving working conditions and encouraging safe behaviour as well as building personal and group morale. Some of the ways he can do this, depending on the person’s needs, are by delegating, training, praising, encouraging, giving a sense of purpose, giving variety of work, recognizing and using individual talents, ensuring communication within the group, consulting or involving subordinates in decisions, helping to integrate new starters, resolving inter-personal conflicts within the group, attending to personal problems etc. There is much, therefore, that a manager can do to encourage positive motivation and avoid the disruptive unsafe behaviour.

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Game Objective : To bring out different motivating factors responsible for safe or

unsafe behaviours and evolve the most important factor which leads to safe practice at workplace.

Title and outline in brief

: Game of Cricket: Participants form two teams and they play either 20-20 or one-day cricket in a novel way. Each team player score runs by dropping a ball in a bucket. The team which scores more runs than the other wins the match. Each player’s behaviour pattern and results in terms of scored runs are analyzed to bring out various intra-personal motivating factors for safe and unsafe behaviours. A consensus is then reached to understand the most important motivational factor which prompts an individual for safe practice at workplace. Importance of team-work in BBSM is also demonstrated through this game.

***

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EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE BEHAVIOUR IN GROUP BY MEN

Effective Behaviour in Groups Ineffective Behaviour in Groups

Harmonizing : Attempting to reconcile disagreements; reducing tension; Initiating: Proposing goals or actions; suggesting a procedure.

Displays of aggression; Deflating others’ status; attacking the group or its values;

Initiating: Proposing goals or actions; suggesting a procedure. Gate Keeping: Facilitating the participation of others.

Blocking: Disagreeing and opposing beyond “reason”; resisting stubbornly the group wish (for personally oriented reasons); Using a hidden agenda to thwart the progress of the group.

Information giving: Offering facts; giving an opinion. Checking for meaning: “Is this what you mean”? “Are you implying that…?”

Dominating: Asserting authority or superiority to manipulate the group or certain of its member interrupting contribution of others; controlling by means of flattery or other forms of patronizing behaviour.

Consensus testing: Checking to see if a group is nearing a decision;

Playboy behaviour; Displaying, in “playboy” fashion, seeking recognition in Ways not relevant to the group task.

Clarifying: Interpreting ideas or suggestion; issues before group. Encouraging: Being friendly, warm and responsive to others; remark for the acceptance of others’ contributions. Compromising: Offering an alternative; admitting errors; modifying in the interest of group decision or progress.

Avoidance behaviour: Pursuing special interest not related to task; staying off the subject to avoid commitment; preventing the group from facing up to controversy.

Source: Kennath D. Barne & Paul Sheats, “Functional Roles of Group

Members” The Journal of Social Issues.

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BEHAVIOURAL ADJUSTMENT TO FRUSTRATION Frustration is the state of being prevented from attaining a goal. From the moment people are born until the day they die, frustrations of one kind or another are usually with them. People quickly learn what patterns of behaviour will work to relieve the frustrations. A baby finds a few loud cries to bring his food. Crying is an indirect path to the satisfaction of the hunger drive. And as we grow older there are many times when we can’t directly get that what we want. In a small child the cry becomes a tantrum. A child will continue to have tantrums when he is frustrated as long as they bring him what he wants. If the tantrum does not bring him satisfaction, he will try in some other way to satisfy his needs. People quickly learn what behaviour will satisfy their needs and they tend to use that same behaviour whenever they become frustrated. The crying tantrum adjustment becomes loss of temper in an adult if this adjustment has been satisfactory. So by trial and error, people build up habits of adjusting to obstacles and difficulties. There are many paths their, behaviour might take in attempting to adjust to frustration. The most common adjustments are given below: A very common reaction to frustration is explosion; like the baby wanting food, they get mad. In a work situation, if a person is the barrier to a goal, some people will haul off and slug this supposed barrier. Another common path is escape; people try to run away and forget. In life, many people try to escape by turning to alcohol or drugs. Many perhaps run away, quit, their jobs, or leave town. Unfortunately escape cannot be anything more than a temporary adjustment, for the problem is still there when they sober up or go to another town. Another path is Rationalization. It is nothing but the process of fooling themselves and others as to the real reasons for their actions or failures. When a person makes a poor shot in golf, frequently he blames his club, the course, the wind, the sun or almost anything. Seldom it is his own fault. Or in work, perhaps he wants the boss’s job and he can’t get it. So he talks that he does not want it because it isn’t worth the price. The boss doesn’t get anything out of life, he has too much work to do, etc. The real reason he can’t get the job might be because he lacks sufficient ability, but he can’t tell himself that, so he rationalizes. Another type of behaviour due to frustration that is very common is introversion. People can’t reach their goals in real life, so they reach them in their dreams. So in their imagination they see themselves making that impossible shot or winning the tournament. So if you catch a person day-dreaming, you will know why. Imaginary satisfaction is fine, but again the problem is still there when they wake up. Another method of adjustment is known as sublimation. When people take this path, they find a new goal that will satisfy their need. Perhaps they are playing cricket because they want the prestige of beating their friends. They find they can’t beat anyone. So they decide to grow roses and become the best rose growers in the world. Thus, their friends will look up to them. Another path is compensation. People might compensate for their poor cricket by wearing nice clothes. At work it might be that the boss is mean to them all day and they can’t get back at him so they go home and pick on their wife.

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These are the common paths or behavioural adjustments to frustration. There are many more. Some of the other paths are: 1. Defence mechanisms – People do not like something, so develop a headache. 2. Surrender – Give up completely, admit failure, do not even try. 3. Regression – Revert to behaviour that produced satisfaction earlier in one’s

development. He is frustrated and unhappy today but he was happy in the past, so he talks more about the past than present.

Probably the best way to adjust to frustration is to try to overcome the barriers. Figure out what is causing the barrier, then set out to remove it.

***

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BEHAVIOURAL QUALITIES OF MANAGERS

Managers are required to display positive behaviour qualities rather than negative in establishing safe practices and enhancing safety standards. This is a proactive approach in interacting with other people. This encourages others to respond similar way. Some of the desirable positive behaviours are listed below

Element Positive Behaviour Negative Behaviour

1. Self Motivation 1. Displays optimism & infects it in others. 1. Is critical without suggestions & spreads pessimism.

2. Change Management 2. Aware of changing environment and is trying to cope with it.

2. Rigid and resists change.

3. Help 3. Is available; prepared to help & advice. 3. Selfish, finds excuses or tells why it should not be done.

4. Initiative 4. Takes initiative as self-starter

4. Happy & contented with routine.

5. Acceptance of Ideas 5. Ready to discuss ideas with an open mind. 5. Argues why ideas would not work. 6. Knowledge 6. Continuously acquiring knowledge & learning

from it to prepare for increased responsibilities.

6. Considers himself "Mr know-all"

7. Managing Mistakes 7. Coaches, teaches, reviews for correction & makes changes if necessary.

7. Uses it as stick to punish.

8. Criticism 8. Courage to accept criticism if well intentioned.

8. Rejects all criticism.

9. Managing Conflicts 9. Understands what is right rather than who is right and tries to resolve without fear.

9. Generates conflicts; displays non-problem solving attitude.

10. Work 10. Obtains information, materials and other required resources to complete task; enjoys working, shows alertness to crisis, Anticipates likely problems and finds tentative solutions.

10. Finds excuses why work cannot /could not be done, unpleasant to work with, Delays decision indefinitely.

* MENTAL HEALTH IS AS IMPORTANT AS PHYSICAL HEALTH IN SAFE WORKING * ***

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IMPLEMENTATION OF BEHAVIOUR BASED SAFETY IN THE ORGANISATION

Successfully implementing the behavior-based safety process at a site requires a combination of necessary conditions or factors, one of which is the reaction of an outside guide. This person may be a corporate resource or an experienced advisor from an independent consulting firm. Although the input of such a consultant can be essential to success, it is “merely” necessary – but not sufficient. Ultimately the success of the initiative is the responsibility of the site personnel. Nonetheless, the task of providing the necessary consultative input is critical. Successful implementation of the behavior-based safety process at a particular site involves the clear handling of roles and responsibilities of two kinds – 1) organization responsibilities to the implementation efforts, and 2) the role and responsibilities for the behavioral safety process itself. Implementation of behaviour based safety management is most straight forward in organizations where responsibility for safety already clearly resides with line management and where there is an ongoing management system that includes accountability for safety related issues. The site manager ultimately has responsibility for the success of implementation. Working with department heads and safety staff the manager sets the specific criteria for support of implementation. These criteria in turn imply supportive roles from lower level managers down to the level of first line supervisor or team leader. Effective management avoids the common problem with safety goals – setting them in terms of the wrong objectives. Instead of setting goals such as specific percent-safe rating or specific injury rates, proper early objectives are activities and outcomes which support implementation itself. Organizational Responsibilities for Implementation Employees Workers often have a variety of views about safety, not all of them consistent. On the one had, workers want to avoid injury; they want equipment and sites to be safe; and they want co-workers who do not expose them to injury. On the other hand, workers can view the enforcement of safety rules negatively – especially when enforcement is inconsistent. This can lead to an adversarial attitude in which workers think of safety as management’s responsibility and injury as managements fault. Insofar as virtually all injuries involve some at-risk behavior, it is clearly impossible for supervisors to directly prevent most injuries. This means that involvement of employees is essential to success of the behavior-based approach. This can be a delicate matter at first because workers often hear the emphasis on changing at-risk behavior as a way of blaming them for injuries. It is not a simple thing to establish an atmosphere in which workers are more open to the behavior-based approach. It helps to recruit workers for participation in the planning, implementation, and maintenance of the process; and effective way of

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organizing this involvement is the use of an implementation steering committee that has significant representation from the ranks of workers. Not all organizations are well prepared to involve personnel in a significant way. Organizations managed in a traditional manner find that neither workers nor managers are ready for a major safety effort requiring participation by employees. Also, as important as worker involvement is, it cannot not be at the expense of management participation. A balance of the two is necessary, and management personnel, especially first line supervisors, cannot be ignored or bypassed. By assigning employees significant roles and responsibilities during implementation, management assures their involvement and participation in a way that is commensurate with their importance to success. By assuring the active involvement of employees, the implementation effort gains access to some of the best and most detailed information about safety-related behaviors at the site. Employees are often closest to the work, and their untapped knowledge represents a wasted resource. Employees with strong credibility among their peers are some of the best candidates for key roles of the safety process. The behavior-based safety process not only depends on employee involvement, it is geared to employee involvement. First line Supervisors Since the first line supervisors must be familiar with the observation process they usually receive observer training, and they may also go through advanced observer training. Since the first line supervisors are responsible for conducting workgroup safety meetings, they also received training as meeting facilitators – training that focuses on using observation data to identify problem areas and on communication and problem-solving skill. At sites where first line supervisors do not have responsibility for conducting workgroup safety meetings, they usually work with a team leader or team safety representative who is responsible for the meetings. In these cases the supervisor functions as a coach and as a resource to team leader. Training in coaching for skills development can improve the communication skill and effectiveness of the supervisor is required. The first line supervisor is responsible for providing support for the process and for creating an environment which fosters employee involvement by doing such things as:

• Allocating sufficient time throughout the implementation effort to see that necessary steps are taken.

• Encouraging designated observers by giving feedback and consequences that are soon, certain, and positive in favor of consistent, timely observations.

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• Making sure that follow-up occurs for safety-related maintenance items. • Ensuring that observation data is used effectively in safety meetings. • Assisting in the review of the site’s behavioral inventory to keep it current.

In organizations where the first line supervisor’s function is very direct, supervisor’s function is very direct, supervisory behavioral process responsibilities may include :

• Doing observations • Writing work orders and providing follow-up on safety-related maintenance

items where there is no effective existing system for initiating and communicating about safety-related maintenance.

• Conducting safety meetings. • Conducting sessions on problem identification and problem-solving. • Accident investigation • Revising the site’s behavioral inventory as needed. • Overseeing proper implementation of the process.

Middle Managers Managers at the second level and above usually do not get involved in implementation to the same degree as do first line supervisors. At a minimum, however, these managers need training in the foundation concepts of the continuous improvement process and its practical application. Though they are less involved than the first line supervisors, middle managers are nonetheless encouraged to participate in the skill-oriented training sessions on observation, feedback, and so on. Their presence in such sessions has both practical and symbolic impact. In terms of practice, the more exposure middle managers have to the details of the behavior-based process, the more supportive they can be of implementation. Symbolically, attendance by managers at observer training sessions sends a powerful message about the importance of the safety effort. Beyond the special considerations listed above, the middle manager’s roles and responsibilities are much like those of the first line supervisor but at a higher level. Middle managers make sure that their first line supervisors are accomplishing their roles and responsibilities. Their duties as a facilitators for their first line supervisors may require that they draft, present, and pursue structural changes in the organization in order to provide an environment in which the first line supervisors can perform their duties. It is worth emphasizing that for middle managers to give effective support to their first line supervisors and foremen it is essential that the middle managers have a thorough understanding of the basic concepts, principles and working mechanisms of the behavior-based process. This caliber of understanding requires specific training, not “general knowledge”.

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Site Manager At sites of up to approximately 200 employees, the site manager usually sponsors the implementation effort. In large plant his sponsorship is often the responsibility of the department or division manager. This means that the site manager not only knows the basic concepts of this upstream approach to safety performance, but clearly sees the scope of their application to the site. With this overview, the site manager provides leadership and direction, encouraging the site as a whole to endorse the behavior-based approach. The site manager is resolved to stay the course, communicating clearly that the resources required to make the process effective in the long run will be provided. The site manager must also be ready to pursue organizational development measures, especially in relation to his middle managers. Middle managers may feel threatened by an approach that depends on such high levels of involvement by employees. In addition, middle managers and first line supervisors are often the hardest to get to buy into the benefits of the behavior-based approach to safety. These managers often mistrust any new initiative. They have become skeptical of the organization’s ability to really improve. Middle managers and firstling supervisors are primarily responsible for balancing the pressure for production, quality, cost, and training. This makes them most vulnerable to a new initiative that is temporary – they put resources into it only to see it abandoned later. To ensure that middle managers and first line supervisors are effective decision makers, the site manager provides the resources for them to receive through training in the basic concepts of the behavior-based approach. Once they understand the principles, the site manager makes it clear to middle managers and supervisors that decisions which compromise the safety effort are not acceptable. The Steering Committee Implementing and maintaining this process requires planning, good organization, and a time commitment. There are two primary ways to accomplish the task. A project team approach such as a steering committee can be employed or existing organizational structures such as the safety department may be used. Although each approach has advantages and disadvantages, most organization opt for a steering committee since it allows for strong representation of a cross section of the site, a factor which helps foster ownership of the implementation effort at all levels. There are some disadvantages to using a committee instead of an existing organizational structure; the committee may be less efficient. The people on a committee may be less accustomed to doing some of its required functions and so may do them less well or take longer to do them well. A committee usually takes longer to organize for smooth functioning and may require training in the skills needed to conduct an effective meeting. In addition, a committee presents logistical difficulties. Committee members may have to be released from their normal work assignments or else be paid for overtime work. If the organization has no recent history of using such project teams, a committee may pose real challenges. People

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often feel threatened by organizational structures which cut across normal lines of authority. An alternative to both the safety department and to the project team approach is the site safety committee. Most sites have a safety committee of some kind, and it may be suitable for overseeing implementation. An important consideration is whether the safety committee members can genuinely support the effort. Using an existing committee for the sake of convenience is not advantage if the members of that body do not support implementation. Nothing is gained either if the safety committee is ineffective as a group due to political issues. Another consideration is the perceived status of the safety committee. If the safety committee members are not well regarded by their peers, it is detrimental to entrust the committee with direction of the implementation effort. The following description of responsibilities proceeds on the model of an implementation steering committee. Facilities that do not use a steering committee. Facilities that do not use a steering committee, must nonetheless accomplish, by some other means, the same things that a steering committee accomplishes. Planning, Communication, and Logical Support Planning, communication, and logistical support are the three major organizational tasks of implementation. The steering committee typically handles all of these. Planning/Decision-making: It is most effective for a committee to do the planning and to make the important decisions of implementation. Implementation means that change and acceptance of change is more likely when there is representative input from cross section of the site. When a steering committee is used for this purpose it is formed as early as possible so that it can contribute from the beginning of the implementation effort. Communication. One of the key challenges that the steering committee must effectively address is how to keep the entire site and all levels of the organization properly informed and involved in every step of the implementation effort. No group can be left out. The effective steering committee devises ways of reporting its own activities to the plant, of keeping the plant interested in ongoing developments, and of eliciting input from the plant when it is appropriate. The ease with which the site accepts the behavioral safety process depends in large part on how well the steering committee communicates with the rest of the plant. Logistical Support. Logistical support covers the nuts and bolts of implementation. These include many aspects of training such as: preparing slides, giving talks and presentations, training planners, observers, meeting facilitators and trainers, making charts, etc. In some cases, members of the implementation steering committee do virtually all of the support themselves. In other cases, the steering committee is primarily an advisory or decision making body, and the logistical support is done by specialists within the site – the safety department, and so on. When the steering committee relies on departmental resources for logistical support for implementation, resource allocation also becomes a matter for decision making.

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Generally it is most effective to have the steering committee fill as many of the implementation roles as possible. Key Decisions about the Committee Reporting to the site manager. The steering committee needs to fit into the organizational structure. Implementation requires phased resource allocation, which brings up multiple factors for consideration. It is rare that the steering committee can make the necessary resource decisions by itself. Usually its recommendations are presented for review and consideration. It is most effective to the manager of the unit where implementation is under way. Depending on the size of the site, this is either the site manager or the departmental manager. The reporting relationship has both practical and symbolic effects. The level at which the committee reports communicates a message throughout the organization. There is beneficial symbolic impact in having the steering committee report directly to the site manger. Because it is common for safety to be the responsibility of the safety department, whose head often does not report directly to the site manager, a direct reporting relationship from steering committee to the site manager can highlight the importance that is given to safety. In addition to the symbolic benefit, the practical advantage is that is preferable to have steering committee recommendations immediately reviewed and decided on, and the level at which this can happen is usually that of the site manager or department head. On the other hand, where the implementation steering committee does report directly to the site manger, input from all the level of management is very important to success. For instance, if middle managers and first line supervisors are inadvertently overlooked, they may see the implementation effort as one that is driven principally by employees. Middle managers and first line supervisors need to have a voice. The steering committee facilitator. The person who facilitates the committee is clearly very important. The facilitator must have the skill necessary to manage large project and to work effectively with other people. The safety head is often thought of as a logical choice for the job. Whatever the merits of that individual may be, the safety head may not be the best choice. Having the safety head facilitate the implementation steering committee may lead people to think that behavior-based safety management is just another program from the safety department. Someone else in the management position that also has the skills for the project can make a good facilitator. However, a potential drawback to having a manager facilitate the committee is that the employees on the committee might not participate as freely if a manager is the facilitator. Having someone from the ranks act as facilitator of the committee has powerful symbolic value. Acceptance by the workforce can be enhanced by having an employee coordinate the implementation effort. The possible drawback is that workers have less experience in such roles. In this situation it is helpful to establish a coaching and advisory role between an appropriate manager and the employee who is facilitating the steering committee. The facilitator would report directly to the site manager, and the lower level

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manager who is the coach and advisor is there to interact with the facilitator about process issues. The steering committee facilitator has several important tasks. Concerning the steering committee/s, he or she attends liaisons meetings and provides leadership and coordination. The facilitator also must be able to assess the implementation training needs of employees and to monitor the reliability of the observers’ data. In addition, the steering committee facilitator does monthly reports, keeps implementation moving, makes routine management presentation, and keeps up with consultant developments. Selection of the committee’s facilitator is done in time to allow him or her to have a role in selecting the other members. The pitfall for any facilitator is that he or she will assume too much responsibility for the implementation effort. This is not good for long-term success. These and related issues can be addressed at the outset by selecting a facilitator who has good delegating skills, by arranging for some concentrated coaching for the facilitator, and by giving the committee a clear charter. The committee’s charter. To save the implementation steering committee from floundering, it is important to provide structure from the outset. A charter is one way of doing this. Details of the charter will be modified as implementation progresses; however it is best to anticipate the major issues and to make clear to all parties what the committee will be responsible for in the way of results and timeliness. An important issue to address explicitly in the committee’s charter is the relationship of the committee to line management, especially first line supervisors. It is best to develop a clearly defined procedure for having steering committee recommendations reviewed and endorsed by all levels of management. Steering committee size. There are so many variables of organizational culture and site that it is not possible to specify steering committee composition in detail. There are, however, some general rules. A single plant-wide steering committee is usually sufficient for sites with fewer than 200 employees. At a site with more than 200 employees a single plant wide steering committee may not effective, and additional steering committees need to be established at the departmental level. Roles and responsibilities of each steering committee must be well defined. Within the limits of efficient committee function, the number of people on the committee depends on the size of the site and on how much of the implementation logistical support the members are expected to do themselves. At the high and low end, however, committees of this type rarely function well with more than twelve members or with fewer than five. The most effective steering committee involves from eight to twelve members. At some very large sites, separate implementation steering committees are set up for different departments. In such cases it is important to have strong coordination between the committees in order to maintain consistency of implementation. One coordinating approach at very large sites is to have one steering committee at the

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site level and sub-committees as needed by area. Each subcommittee is then facilitated or led by a member of the overall steering committee. The single plant wide steering committee generally has responsibility for the overall process and issues that are common to all departments. This oversight function includes:

• Outlining the fundamental elements of the behavioral process that each department must work towards.

• Stating the objective methods for measuring departmental success. • Providing coordination and resources as needed. • Taking general responsibility to make the process work.

The departmental steering committee ensures that the process is working effectively at the departmental level. This includes:

• Conducting introductory presentations. • Developing the departmental behavioral inventory. • Training observers in the operational definitions and in data sheet use. • Skills development training for observer and supervisors in verbal feedback,

interviewing, managing resistance to change, and safety meeting participation.

• Ensuring that observation data is used effectively in safety meetings. • Incorporating accident investigation data into the behavioral inventory and

the observer data sheet. • Taking general responsibility to make the process work.

In addition the department steering committee takes the pulse of implementation effort to be sure that communications are clear and that employees understand and support the basic process. During implementation, communications issues almost always arise – incidents occur which are misunderstood or misinterpreted, rumours spread. The steering committee closest to these developments stays on top of them and acts to dispel rumors and to keep communications clear and open. Composition and selection of the steering committee. The make up of the committee has a strong influence on where the ownership of the continuous improvement process will eventually reside in the organization. In order to work, the behavior-based process requires significant worker involvement, and this means that workers make up a high proportion of committee members. Furthermore, as many important constituencies as possible need to be represented. To the extent that these differences are important at the site, all of those organizational units need to be represented in some way on the steering committee. First line supervisors and middle managers need to be represented. Given the membership constrains of eight to twelve people representative selection requires a balancing act. Care is also given to how the committee members are selected. The best people are the opinion leaders, people who are respected by their co-workers and whose endorsement will carry weight. Opinion leaders are not necessarily in formal

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leadership roles, however, Supervisors and managers usually have a sense of who the opinion leaders are. Tenure of steering committee members. The heaviest time demand of implementation is getting successfully through the kickoff meeting. It is misleading, however, for the committee to focus solely on the kickoff meetings, because the quality of effort after those meetings also has a great deal to do with determining the long-term success of the effort. It is typical for the committee members to experience a letdown after the observation process becomes more routine. To combat this slackening of the committee’s focus, it is usually a good idea to set committee tenure at some period that extends past the kickoff meetings. Some sites establish the committee for an indefinitely long time, rotating the membership and the facilitator on a predetermined schedule. The facilitator needs to rotate so that safety does not become one person’s pet project. Knowing and Communicating the Process Successful champions of the process are people who understand and communicate the signature traits of behavior-based safety to their respective sites. They become fluent spokespersons for implementation because they can translate the process for their company culture, introducing it to others and sketching clear applications of the process to existing challenges. An implementation effort based on a mistaken understanding of the behavior-based process or even one that is “merely” unclear is likely to go off on ineffective tangents. Signature traits A number of important characteristics follow from the central focus of the behavior-based safety. Chief among them are:

• Employee Involvement • Communication • Emphasis on Skill Development

Employee Involvement Successful implementation requires the input and ownership of all personnel. In terms of sheer potential for making gains, genuinely involved worker are probably the most powerful force at a site. Nonetheless, an employee-driven process means all levels employed at the site are involved. On the other hand, management involvement cannot afford to be overbearing either. Involvement is more than participation. Employee involvement happens when employees truly get involved from the very start, in the planning, the decision making and in the implementation. Ownership sells itself. Facilitators of successful implementation efforts develop process ownership from the start. They know that if they do not take the time to truly involve the people in developing the safety process, they are going to spend a

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great deal more time trying to sell it. Selling is hard while ownership, on the other hand, does not require selling. Ownership sells itself. Communication Each of these behavior-based strategies translates into higher quality, better production, and continuous improvement in safety performance. But it takes time to demonstrate the linkage. Getting the proper time takes involvement and ownership. Demonstrating the linkage takes feedback and communication. The two things are closely related. Successful implementation effort sponsor communication through ownership, and they develop ownership through communication. This is true involvement and the gains can be unprecedented. Even very sober observers of successful implementation efforts are sometimes surprised by just how much enthusiasm the behavior-based process engages. Emphases on Skill Development Successful implementation efforts place a strong emphasis on skills development. Although professional consultants could more quickly develop a site’s behavioral inventory, the steering committee would miss a crucial learning opportunity. Skills development is an important objective. Successful implementation efforts involve groups of people who are proud to say “We are part of this.” Knowing and Communicating the Goals Effective implementation goals are both specific and achievable. A mission statement is different from a vision statement. A high-sounding, vague statement may make people feel good about the effort they are engaged in, but in short order it becomes counterproductive. It offers no practical guidelines. At the other extreme is the laundry list of specific points so numerous or scattered that they are impossible to achieve in one concerted effort. Groups that are smart from the start avoid both of these pitfalls by:

• Developing a focused mission statement. • Getting widespread mission agreement. • Balancing results and individual satisfaction.

Developing a Focused Mission Statement Some mission statements are so general they are almost meaningless. When framing a mission statement or purpose or objective, the steering committee needs to remember that as the implementation proceeds they should be able to tell from the statement whether they are on the right track. Ready-made is poorly made. In addition to being focused and achievable, the effective mission statement develops or emerges from the implementation steering committee. Their mutual understanding needs to be developed into a forward mission statement that incorporates the best that everybody needs to contribute.

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Widespread Agreement – Clear Objectives The issue here is how to develop organizational support. The steering committee that sees itself as handing down the law to the site is breaking the same rule as the manager who hands down the implementation charter. At every important point of application a successful employee-driven effort involves adaptation versus adoption. The ripple effect of this strategy shows up everywhere. Readymade is poorly made. This is true at every level of the organization. In the heart and mind of anyone whose support worth having, support follows understanding. Buy-in follows knowledge. Ownership sells itself. Business Results and Individual Satisfaction – Striking the Balance It has seen that many steering committees setting where one or the other of these two factors – business results or individuals satisfaction – took precedence over the other. In a setting where the business needs completely override the needs of the individual, the steering committee members begin to withdraw. They quit putting out the necessary effort. They lose steam. At the opposite extreme, the needs of the individual completely overshadow the achievement of the objective. The steering committee is off in ten different directions; they get off track. Even their peers are wondering, “Where are these people heading?” Guided or sponsored self-management. In an employee-driven process, self management is the mode that most people favor. The idea sounds good but many times self-management actually means that nobody manages. The steering committee that reports to no one can get so far of track that even its own members become disillusioned with self-management. Successful self-management is possible, however, through active liaison with site management personnel. Direction-holding is something that a management liaison person can help the steering committee accomplish. Steering committee conformance to its own charter, roles, and responsibilities is the kind of accountability that is an aid to performance. In effect, the management sponsor or mentor to the steering committee helps them keep their attention focused on their “customers.” Knowing the Barriers to Implementation Resistance to change is a natural human traits. Psychological research has shown that people resist change even when they know that it promises an eventual improvement in their situation. Among other things this means that resistance to change is not a sign of a bad attitude. Successful steering committees do not take it personally when they remain proactive. At the outset they:

• Identify the sequence of likely barriers. • Stay in motion by addressing the nearest barrier/s • Have a plan for each future barrier.

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Identify likely implementation barriers. In an explicit, very methodical way the steering committee determines when the implementation barriers are. Whose cooperation is crucial for implementation success? What do those crucial people need to hear and see so that they can give the effort their informed cooperation? There are different reactions here. People for whom the new safety process represent most change – perceived or actual – will require the most attention. In addition to questions of individual resistance to change there are the challenges of organizational resistance to change. What systems and organizational consequences already in place will need attention? The steering committee takes stock and develops an action plan to address each implementation barrier. Stay in motion. The implementation steering committee addresses each barrier as it arises. They get their action plan in place and move forward. Barriers that can be fixed after implementations are under way can be addressed later. They are identified, however, so they do not ambush the implementation effort. The point of planning is to minimize surprise. Plan for each identified barrier. Steering committees that wait until they run into a barrier before they act, spend all of their energy overcoming that one barrier, move another six inches, hit another one, and stop and fix that one. That tactic is an energy burner. The effective steering committee actively solicits and builds the commitment of other groups for the implementation effort. Effective steering committee spokespersons learn to see and say the behavior-based safety process from every perspective that is relevant to their implementation effort. They translate the message for each important constituency at their site. The aim is understanding, buy-in, ownership. Each barrier to implementation points to at least one of these challenges of translation. Each success enlists a new constituency for the safety effort. KNOWING THE IMPLEMENTATION PROGRESS Finally, implementation prospers when it has a steady stream of accurate short-term answers to the overriding question: How are we doing? The imitative cannot afford to wait for the very important long-term indicators such as falling incidence rates. Those will indeed emerge but their arc is so sufficiently long term that they will never represent sustaining feedback even after the behaviour-based safety process is installed. Realizing this, effective steering committees develop numerous short-term measures of performance that are consistent with long-term improvement and supportive of it. The other source of implementation “progress reports” is feedback from the workforce. Although genuine feedback is an invaluable source of information that requires careful cultivation, too often steering committees are slow to ask for workforce feedback, and then when they do get around to it they ask in a half-hearted way. Effective steering committees actively solicit feedback. Because what they hear may not always be positive, most people feel a natural reluctance to ask for feedback. Successful steering committees nonetheless learn to go past their natural tendency to avoid negative news-they ask anyway.

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They do more than ask. The steering committee members carefully work out ways of giving their “customers”---the workforce—soon-certain-positive consequences for giving the steering committee feedback. In an employee-driven effort this strategy is crucial. It demonstrates a willingness to listen and learn. It shows resolve and builds credibility. And it leaves no doubt that everybody is really in this initiative together with the same rules for everyone, observed and observers alike.

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TRAINING OF OBSERVERS Peer-to-peer observation with feedback is a powerful tool for safety behavior change. It is difficult to overstate its importance. Incidents arise from exposure levels, and those exposure levels – and related injury rates – can be reduced dramatically using this tool. Safety leaders and managers who use this tool correctly can achieve an injury-free environment by controlling injury rates. PREPARING FOR OBSERVATION It is important to note that successful implementation of a peer-to-peer observation system requires addressing a number of issues. Depending on the level of organization function those implementation issues may be more or less difficult to resolve adequately. The most challenging environment in which to implement peer-to-peer observation is one where there is little trust between levels of the organization, and where the safety culture is weak. In all cases peer-to-peer observation needs to be introduced carefully, getting buy-in from the workforce early, communicating and clarifying relevant questions. In some cases reservations or anxiety about observation present a barrier to the implementation effort itself. Key employees can be so reluctant to cooperate with observation that management loses confidence in its ability to achieve adequate buy-in. In those cases it is worthwhile to prepare for observation, laying the groundwork and building trust and confidence prior to the start of actual observations. The best way to lay this groundwork is to put more emphasis on other aspects of the behavior-based safety process first, until people feel comfortable with new safety initiative. This shift of emphasis is a fairly straightforward thing to do. The most common implementation sequence is the following:

1. After Overview Training, there is the decision to begin implementation. 2. The behavioral safety assessment is conducted. 3. The steering committee is formed and trained in the foundations of behavior-

based safety. 4. With the assistance of a consultant, the steering committee develops the

site’s behavioral inventory. 5. The steering committee then conducts the inventory review and buy-in

meeting. 6. The observer group is recruited and trained. 7. Ongoing observation and feedback begins. 8. Workgroups use the accumulating data for problem solving and action

planning. In the modified implementation sequence, steps 1 to 5 above are the same, however, step6 postponed to make room for the insertion of some intermediary preparation. Instead of the transitioning directly to observer training, the steering committee members themselves receive coaching for conducting safety meetings using behavioral data. They then use their new facilitating skills to make workgroup safety meetings a place to do action planning to meet new targets and overcome existing barriers to safety performance. The steering committee then leads a

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thoroughgoing improvement effort to remove or minimize identified barriers, reporting back to the workgroup safety meetings on progress. This more gradual approach builds creditability for the implementation effort. By discussing in safety meeting the concept of critical behaviors, the steering committee gets valuable input from the workforce and creates an opportunity to demonstrate its resoluteness and intentions. The safety meeting discussions can easily lead to suggestions that pave the way for observation later. This round of activities builds interest and trust in the new safety initiative. At that point, the more common sequence can resume with the recruitment and training of the observer group. The Role of the Observer The observer is a key player in behavior-based accident prevention. The observer makes the regular observations which provide measurement and immediate feedback about safety performance as well. These observations are also the basis for ongoing safety problem-solving and continuous improvement. In addition the observer is the champion for the accident prevention process itself. This second function is very important. Credibility in the organization, especially with peers, is essential in an effective observer. For persons of employee involvement, a high proportion of observer – at least 50 percent should be employees. Managers can also be especially effective advocates of the safety process when they have had observer training. It gives them hands-on experience with the process and puts them in a position to understand fully what the inventory and data sheet are like to work with. They learn that behavior-based observation is harder than it sounds at first. There is room for mutual respect here. The ideal observer is a person who:

• Has high credibility with peers • Is knowledgeable about the work to be observed • Has good verbal and interpersonal skills

The effect of those traits is that people will listen. This is a very important factory. The most effective way to change a behavior is to change its consequences. One of the most powerful consequences is information or feedback about performance, especially since workers are often unaware of ways in which they expose themselves to injury. Purpose of Observation The three main purposes of observation are:

1. Regular sampling of the safety process 2. Feedback, primarily to individual workers, and 3. Data gathering to identify improvement targets.

Injuries are the product of a system, a complicated human behavioral system with elements such as equipment maintenance, production pressures, safety training, and so on. When injuries occur, the system is out of control. When a machine is producing a defective product, it needs adjustment. One way of discovering whether a production process is out of control is to sample the product. When it is

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possible, however, a better way is to sample upstream process indicators, such as temperature or pressure. Steering by reliable upstream indicators allows adjustment of the process before defective product is made. Similarly, a system that is producing injuries needs to be adjusted. However, adjusting the system only in response to injuries introduces an unnecessary delay. When the system is out of control, this fact is first shown by high levels of at-risk behavior level or frequencies of at ------- behavior are leading indicators of injuries. This at-risk behavior may be the kind which directly exposes a worker to injury. Or it may be behavior which indirectly exposes other workers to injury – the mechanic who fails to reinstall a safety guard removed while fixing a machine. In the first case, the percent-safe raters can be measured for lifting by observing numbers of workers who are standing in the line of fire or who are standing in a safe position. In the second case, the mechanic might be directly observed to walk away from the machine without replacing the safety guard, or the observer might later note the “footprints” of the mechanic’s behavior by observing of safe and at-risk behaviors is a way of monitoring whether a site’s safety system needs adjustment because it has begun to go out of control. The second reason for doing systematic observations is to provide feedback to individuals. Injuries often occur during the performance of routine jobs that people do in an at-risk manner. Workers are often unaware that they are doing a job in a way that puts them at-risk; their at-risk routine has become a habit. A systematic observation procedure ensures that workers regularly receive information from an observer about their safety-related behaviors. Since this information emphasizes the positive aspects of safety performance by consistently noting area of improving by consistently noting areas of improvement, observer feedback becomes a soon-certain-positive consequence for safe behavior. The third reason for doing systematic observations is ultimately the most important one : gathering data to identify targets for the improvement. This kind of data is impossible to get in any other way. Behavioral data of this kind is the single most reliable source of information about the state of safety at a site. This is what it means to say that behavior is the final common pathway for incidents. Workforce behavior is the common thread that runs through all management, production, and quality considerations. Although it might seem that a formal feedback system is not necessary, that a foreman could give feedback to workers in the normal course of events, the problem is that in the normal course of events there are very few natural consequences that support and maintain this kind of foreman behavior. When foremen are asked how often they say something to workers about safety during the course of shift, most of them estimate that they say something to workers about safety during the course of a shift, most of them estimate that they say something once every week or two weeks. This is not nearly often enough to change at-risk behaviors that have become habitual. Furthermore, most foremen admit that when they do talk about safety with crew it is almost always to say something negative, not something positive. In the normal course of events a foreman’s remarks

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provided consequence for safety that is infrequent, uncertain and negative – the weakest kind of consequences there is. Observation Procedures and Schedules Many companies have some kind of safety inspection program. These programs are useful in identifying certain kinds of hazards, but there are three factors which limit their utility in reducing injuries: focus, frequency, and thoroughness. Most safety inspection programs focus on facilities, equipment, and housekeeping, because the goal of the inspection is to identify static hazards – things that need repair replacement, or cleaning up. These are important problems to correct: however, the typical safety inspection ignores the issue involved in most injuries -- behavior. A second problem with safety and housekeeping inspections is that they are done relatively infrequently. Monthly inspections are unusual, most of them being done quarterly or annually. This inspection schedule is probably warranted in the case of sit conditions and equipment. These things change fairly slowly, and repairs and modifications of these also take time. Consequently, more frequently inspections might not be worthwhile. Housekeeping, however, is a different matter. It is quite common to see workers scurrying around before a housekeeping inspection, cleaning up their area so that it will look good for the inspector. Poor housekeeping often represents a safety hazard, and therefore the work area needs to be maintained in an orderly state at all times, not just before a quarterly inspection. Infrequent housekeeping inspections can do little to encourage better routine housekeeping. High standards of routine housekeeping are a product of individual behavior, and individual behavior and individual behavior is unlikely to change with only quarterly feedback. The same holds true of infrequent safety inspections. Finally, many existing programs fail to realize their potential because the inspections are not sufficiently thorough or rigorous. The most common type of inspection procedure consists of a group of people unsystematically looking around in an area to see what they can see. Hazards are bound to be overlooked with this kind f approach, especially at-risk behaviors. Without a systematic approach many critical events are simply missed. An effective system of direct inspection needs to be focused, frequent, and thorough. This is all the more true when the goal is the observation of safety-related behaviors. As part of a systemic approach observers need to be trained. Something that is rare in most inspection programs. Observer Training After the inventory review meetings have concluded, and the steering committee has had a chance to incorporate any improvements into the inventory and data sheet, observer training sessions begin. The purpose of these sessions is to provide knowledge, skill, and practice in basic observation techniques to observes, supervisors, and other managers. The six skills of observations are:

1. How to see safe and at-risk behaviors.

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2. How to record what they observe – the scoring procedures. 3. How to calculate percent-safe. 4. How to chart percent-safe. 5. How to provide feedback on what they observe. 6. How to enter data into the system for analysis.

What is Behavior-Based Observation? Behavior-based observation requires registering what is going on in the work place and judging it as either safe or at-risk on the basis of the site inventory. When observations are done in a standardized, systematic, scientific way, they provide a measure of work place safety. One observation by itself is a sample of work place safety. The accumulation of these samples begins to develop a reliable picture of the site’s safety as a whole. High quality observation done over a period of time sketches a trend, a picture of how the site is changing in time, either growing safer or less safe. This trend phenomenon is very important. The trend toward at-risk performance is a warning to the site that it is asking for an incident to happen. On the other hand the trend may be toward higher and higher levels of safe performance. Obstacles to Observation Behavior-based observation takes times to learn, and there are a number of obstacles to doing it well.

1. Over-familiarity with the work. An observer who knows the work too well may be complacent about the way that co-workers are doing it. In effect, in this case the observer trusts habit more than the data sheet. In this respect, observation is a bit like being a pilot who is flying by instruments. The pilot learns to trust them and respond according.

2. Unfamiliarity with the work. On the other hand, if the observers are not familiar with the work they are observing, they do not know what is going on. They are faced with additional work – they must grasp the situation, not just recognize hazards that they already understand.

3. Unfamiliarity with the site’s data sheet. Another problem that observer have is that they ------- the looking at the work than at the data sheet. Thorough familiarity with the data sheet and with the ----- critical behaviors cure than difficulty.

4. Behaviors happen fast. It does not take very long for a worker to bend over and grab something from the floor. Did she do it properly? Before the driver changed lanes, did he look over his shoulder as he should have, or did he just glance in the side rearview mirror? Little things, and the absence of little things, count. There is really no time to notice unless the observer has become very attuned to safety issues.

5. Little things add up. This problem is compounded by the fact that when things go wrong they can go from safety to at-risk instantly. The importance of little things is magnified in a crisis. A door that is half open may not appear to be hazard, but when some unexpected thing happens, that door can become a serious danger. People have been injured walking headlong into

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the edge of such doors when the lights went out. A wheelbarrow in an aisle may not amount to much of a hazard, until there is a fire and that escape route is obstructed. Not wearing a seat belt can seem like a little thing; but on average, approximately once every fifty years of driving it may suddenly become a matter of life and death. Not cleaning up a spill right away can seem like a little thing that does no harm, but the law of averages is at work here too, and that harmless little spill of water or oil on the floor can suddenly become a critical contributing factor in an accident.

Two Kinds of Observation To counteract the obstacles to observation there are two strategies, both of which require a trained eye. They are situation-centered observation and data sheet-centered observation. Situation-centered observation. In situation-centered observation the situation itself guides observers. Standing back, taking their time, they let the situation show itself, as though they were seeing it for the first time. The primary question for the observer is, What is the potential for injury here? This type of observation is a good antidote to being overly familiar with a work situation. The observers see things they never noticed before. Situation-centered observation requires real discipline. Inexperienced observer tends to skip over this kind of observation because it can be frustrating and can seem unproductive. They find it difficult to really look without knowing quite what they are looking for. The due lies in the question, what is the potential for injury here? The operative word in the question is potential. In behavior-based safety management, potential does not mean may be. The injury potential is more urgent than that. It refers to how people will get hurt, given enough time and the “right” conditions. The potential exists at the moment of observation. It is there fore the skilled observer to see. Data sheet-centered observation. In data sheet-centered observation, the data sheet is used like a check list, ensuring thoroughness of observation. This type of observation is easier than situation-centered observation. Nonetheless, in order to be truly accurate at it, observes need to know the data sheet from memory. Otherwise they are looking at it and not at the workers. THE 7-Step Observation Procedure The goal of the seven-step observation procedure is standardization and thoroughness. It is important that all observers do their observations in the same way. And thoroughness is important because the observations need to cover all of the same ground. Thoroughness is achieved by having the observer do both situation-centered and data sheet-centered observation in one procedure.

1. Go to the action. This means doing the observation where things are happening – the observer looks for action.

2. Look at people as much as possible. This does not mean that the observers should not look at things and conditions. When they look at them, however, they must consider what the conditions indicate about the behavior

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of people. The way the boxes are stacked over there, is it a sign that someone has moved them by hand or with a lift? This is the kind of question the observer asks continually.

3. Introduce yourself. When observers begin, they introduce themselves to the workers and explain what they are doing. They are not spies, and they show people their data sheet and talk with them about the observation process, telling people to continue with their work and that they will be told what ws observed when the observation is finished. If the workers express concern about being observed, they are assured that no names are logged and that no disciplinary action will result from the observation.

4. Situation-centered observation. The observer takes time and studies the situation, looking for potential injuries. Effective observers do not go on to the next step until they either have a sense of potential injuries in the situation, or see that the situation is fundamentally safe.

5. Data sheet-centered observation. Now the observer goes down the data sheet like a check list, very systematically.

6. Give verbal feedback. After the observer has logged the safes and at-risks and has calculated the percent-safe, he or she is ready to give feedback on what was observed.

7. From start to finish – 20 to 30 minutes. The whole procedure including calculations and feedback, should take only 20 to 30 minutes.

Verbal Feedback -- Tips for Talking Observers provide verbal feedback and discussion following an observation. This amounts to talking with the employees observed about what they have seen and noted on the critical behaviors data sheet, and why they noted what they did. The technique for providing this feedback follows a proven sequence. Positive feedback is given first. The observer talks with the employees about the safe things he saw, emphasizing especially those things that demonstrate improvement over previous observations. The observer then talks about areas that need improvement. Their manner is helpful throughout, making suggestions, asking questions, encouraging questions from the employees, and actively engaging in problem-solving with the workers observed. The following are some Tips for Talking that observers practice during observer training: Prevent the accident. Observers who see that someone is about to get hurt stop the accident from happening. Respect the people who are being observed. They know what they are doing, and they probably have reasons for doing the job the way they are. It is not the observer’s job to boss them. The observer and the workforce share a common ground – no one wants an accident. Stick to the fact. When observers are discussing behavior, they stick to the facts and do not talk about people or preach to them about safety.

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Be specific. The observer cites specific things so that people know what the feedback means. Acknowledge people’s progress. The observer emphasizes improved performance as well as discussing areas for further improvement. Discuss and ask. When something that workers are doing looks at-risk to the observer, the observer discusses it with the workers and asks questions about the situation. In such a discussion the observer is engaged in the first step of ABC Analysis – the aim is to determine what antecedents are triggering the at-risk behavior, and what consequences are reinforcing it. Do not argue. The observer does not argue with someone who is resistant to the observation process. Other Contributions of the Observer Initiating job actions. It may be the observer’s job to initiate action on safety-related maintenance items. Even in cases where it is the supervisor’s responsibility to initiate such action, the observer’s role is to make sure that the information is presented clearly to whoever will take action. Often the observer also has the responsibility of following up the action. Safety meeting resource. The observer has an important role at safety meetings when the behavioral data is analyzed by the group for the purpose of problem-solving. The observer amplifies the information contained in the summary data sheet reports. Providing general impressions and giving the benefit of his or her unique perspective based on experience with the observations in question. No spying. The effective observer is not a “safety cop” or authoritarian of any kind. The observer does not sneak around trying to catch people doing something wrong. The observer does not report the names of observed employees to anyone for any reason. Nor is the observer expected to force behavioral change on the people observed. The observer is there to provide a measurement of safety performance, to make suggestions for improvement as well as to recognize improvement with feedback that is soon, certain, and positive. Rotation. It is a good idea to change observers periodically. However, care should be taken not to do this too frequently. Six to twelve months is a good period for an observer. Rotating observer periodically provides an ongoing source of renewal for the accident prevention process and the benefit of different points of view. There is also the fact that people who have been trained as observers become more sensitive to their own behavior. For this reasons companies often train an entire workforce to be observers even though only a portion of the employees function as designated observer at any given time. It can be very helpful for the workforce to know from the outset that eventually everyone will be an observer. This expectation makes the work of the first group of observers easier, and it makes it easier for the other workers to accept the idea of being observed.

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Necessary Skills and Knowledge

• Foundation Concepts • Observation Techniques

− Seeing Behavior versus Condition − Familiarity with the data sheet and Definitions − Consistency of observation procedure

• Feedback Techniques Foundation concepts. Since observers are champions for the safety process, especially during the early phases of implementation, it is very important that the observers understand the rationale behind the behavioral approach. An observer needs to know why the approach works the way that it does, what the basic concepts are translated into action through the behavioral process. Observation techniques – seeing behavior versus conditions. Behavioral observation is an acquired skill. Experienced observers understand what the basic issues are in being able to see behavior. They have developed the ability to look with discrimination at any activity and to see the aspects of it that are representative of the behaviors targeted on the site’s data sheet. The inexperienced observer, whether employee or plant manager, finds it very difficult to focus on behaviors. This is because the inexperienced observer is much more inclined to look at the site and its condition rather than at the actions of the employees. This inclination is “natural”. There are a number of reasons that an untrained or inexperienced observer tends to register things rather than behaviors. For one thing, behavior happens fast. Oftentimes critical safety-related behavior happens very fast – like a play in a basketball or football, and this makes it hard to obsere this behavior with certainty. Compared to the confidence observers feel in reporting on the physical plant, their confidence in themselves as observers of behavior can be quite low to start with. For example, was the observed employee really standing in the line-of-fire? This behavior may occur for only a brief moment of time, and yet it is very significant. Is the observed employee lifting properly? The duration of the actual lift may be very short but nonetheless of critical importance to the safety of the employee. Skilled observers learn to see the critical behaviors, to have confidence in their ability to record the behavior, to have confidence in their ability to record the behavior they have seen, to convey with appropriate feedback what they have seen. Observation techniques – familiarity with the data sheet. Experienced, well trained observers produce an accurate measure of safety performance because they have achieved fluency in their use of the data sheet. They are well acquainted with operational definitions for each of these items during every observation that they conduct. The observers who have not yet learned their data sheet have a tendency to be distracted and to fall back to looking at conditions. They become sidetracked by various issues other than behavior and the result is a measure of decreased reliability.

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Observation techniques – consistency of observation procedure. Experienced and reliable observers are knowledgeable about the proper steps of the observation, careful to perform all the steps and in sequence. This carefulness extends from the larger issues of focusing on behavior and familiarity with the data sheet to such “smaller” procedural questions such as where to obtain fresh copies of the data sheet, how to mark them, and where to submit them for compilation. In addition the observers should be clear about the number of observations they are to conduct and at what intervals. Skilled observers make it their responsibility to observe at desired frequency as determined by the steering committee. The observation schedule is fulfilled even when the workgroup is busy on a special project. Feedback technique. The critical point here is that the observer knows how to talk to other employees so that:

• They listen and join the discussion and • The discussion is productive of improved safety performance.

Training Strategies In addressing the training needs of observers, several approaches are possible – each of them has its pluses and minuses. Individual self-instruction. Individual self-instruction provides the observer trainee with a set of training materials – manuals, workbooks, and video tapes – arranged in a series of presentations. The advantage of this approach is that it can be self-paced, and therefore meet the needs of a broad range of individuals. There are several disadvantages to this approach. It is dependent on the individual trainee to maintain a high level of motivation. It is hard to monitor. In addition it does not develop a group spirit, and as a consequence the individual may develop misconceptions without anyone else knowing about it. There may be such inconsistencies between observers that their observations are not reliable. Tutorial. Another approach is the tutorial format – small groups of four to six trainees with a trainer. This training method affords each trainee the opportunity to ask many questions and to go into the material in depth. Practicing new skills in small groups rapidly builds observer confidence and increases inter observer consistency and reliability. The tutorial approach does not have the disadvantage of individual self-instruction. All other considerations being equal, the tutorial approach is probably the most effective. Large group. The third method is to train all observers as one group. This has the benefit of developing a spirit among the group which could add to the overall visibility of the effort. It also increases the likelihood of consistency of observation across the observer pool, an important consideration. The disadvantage of this approach is that individuals may not receive the attention from the trainer that they need. Skill Acquisition The important functions for the trainer here are coaching and motivation. What the trainees need most of all is a clear explanation of the material in terms of its related

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skill, an opportunity to practice these new skills under controlled conditions, and motivation to us their new skills on the job. The best sequence for the acquisition of a skill is:

• Model • Practice • Feedback • Re-practice

During modeling, the trainee watches someone exercising the skill to be learned. The trainee then practices the skill in the presence of others. The others who saw the practice session then give the trainee feedback on his or her performance of the skill. Then the trainee re-practices the skill in the presence of the same group. Such a presentation of the skill scoring the data sheet would have the following steps. During the modeling phase, data-sheet scoring is discussed and demonstrated by the trainer, using a slide presentation and data sheet forms appropriate to the site or target area. During the practice phase, the trainer conducts a scoring exercise presenting slides of behavior to be observed while the trainees mark the data sheet. Then the trainees pair up and practice an actual observation while the rest of the class watches their performance. (An intermediate step is to have the trainees watch a video presentation of critical behavior – body position, lifting, personal protective equipment, etc.) During the feedback phase, the trainer and class give feedback on how the trainee/s performed the observation. Then the trainees re-practice what they have learned through their discussion of issues and compared notes. Calibration and reliability – Does variation in the observation data comer from the observer or from the observed behavior? If it is the former, there is a calibration problem. The best technique for developing calibration is to have observers make observations in pairs. Practice improving feedback skills -- In spite of training in how to provide positive feedback and how to make suggestions for improvement, observers often remain weak in this area. They feel awkward and uncomfortable, and they shy away from one-to-one contact. The best strategy for upgrading observer verbal feedback skill is for observer and/or facilitators who are skilled in feedback in accompany less skilled observers and coach them in verbal feedback. Effective kickoff meetings are crucial to the success of the implementation effort. To use an image, if the inventory review meetings are a sort of dress rehearsal, the kickoff meetings are the grand opening. The Kickoff Meeting – Introducing the Process to the Workforce. Implementation of the behavior-based safety process reaches a very important step with the kickoff meetings that formally launch the process in the target areas. However, this is not the first time that the workforce has encountered the process. By now the workforce has been involved in the assessment and in the inventory review meetings, and it has received various communications from the steering

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committee. By this point in the implementation sequence observers have been trained and have used the data sheets for five or six weeks to learn observation procedures and techniques. The workforce will also have some acquaintance with the training process, based on publicity designed by the steering committee. However, it is during the kickoff meeting that all of the workers as a group get their first formal introduction to the basic concepts of the behavior-based safety process and to their site’s behavioral inventory and data sheet. Therefore the kickoff meeting is an integral part of the behavior-based safety process itself. Typically conducted workgroup by workgroup, the primary objective of the meeting is to gain the enthusiastic endorsement of the safety process by the workforce. With such important matters at stake the successful kickoff meeting requires thorough planning and the meeting facilitator needs to be skilled. The following discussion covers a list of things to consider and/or accomplish in preparation for the kickoff meeting/s. Planning and Conducting the Kickoff Meeting Advance Publicity. The more that people know about the behavior-based safety process, the better. Articles, before and after kickoff, in site newsletters can be very helpful in alerting workforce to progress in the implementation effort. Announcements at regular safety meetings are another avenue for providing advance publicity for the kickoff meeting/s, as are letters and circulars. Photographic slides/video tapes. Slides or video tapes of the site’s critical behaviors can be a very helpful way to introduce the workgroup to the safety process. The presentation need not be elaborate or fancy; in fact, the emphasis is on clarity of demonstration. It is important that the kickoff meeting presenter not assume that people already know which behaviors are safe and which are at-risk. Targeted Feedback The kickoff meeting is the first presentation of observation and feedback to a workgroup. The important consideration is that workers must feel that the feedback is relevant to them. Especially when the baseline percent-safe figures are very low, the workers need to be sure that the figures are not the fault of some other workgroup. Therefore the appropriate organizational level for the kickoff meeting is usually that of the first line supervisor and the workgroup. Points Covered in the Kickoff Meeting The steering committee usually presents the kickoff meeting. It selects a variety of its members to cover the needed topics. The presenters may not be accustomed to speaking in such situations. In most cases it is worthwhile to have a rehearsal. Rehearsal gives the presenters a chance to become more comfortable with their --- and it offers an opportunity for the meeting facilitator to do some coaching and make sure that each presenter covers the subject matter in its proper order. Some presenters may even need written scripts or outlines at the least. It is best --- to slight these preparation.

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Review the purpose. The kickoff facilitator reviews the purpose of the meeting and discusses the agenda. Some people at the meeting will know what it is about, but an effective facilitator spells out the purpose of meeting. Statement of management support. The support of the site manager is critical to long-term success of any process. It is important that the employees be clear about the commitment of top management to the safety process. Introducing the steering committee. The steering committee not only facilitates the kickoff meetings, it introduces it members and its work at these meetings. The employees on the steering committee can lend great credibility to these meetings in particular and to the process as a whole. They should be fully involved in the kickoff meeting preparations and in the reports and presentations made during the meetings. Introducing the foundation concept. These concepts need to be covered, but not in great detail. A member of the steering committee reviews the basic theory behind the behavior-based approach to safety management. This is usually done in a condensed summary, leaving time for a question and answer period. Review of the behavioral inventory. This is the heart of the kickoff meeting and usually it takes and the most time of any of the meeting’s elements. The presence of the behavior-based safety process is letting workers know how to perform key tasks and then giving them feedback on how well they are doing. The review of the site’s behavioral inventory provides a perfect opportunity to let the workforce as a whole know to behave safely. SUMMARY Effective kickoff meetings set the stage for the implementation effort. The observation procedures gain momentum. Supervisors, observers and the workforce at large, learn what to expect, and they learn what is expected of them. The observation data is posted regularly for the various workgroups. The workgroups begin to watch their progress as reflected in the charted feedback. They note their performance marks in relation to their own past performance and in relation to the performance ratings of other workgroups. In the meantime the workforce grows accustomed to the principles of the behaviour-based process in the most practical way possible as the injury rate declines. This situation represents a successful implementation effort. Such a workforce is primed to play its part in the self-regulating safety mechanism. The establishment of this mechanism is the point at which the behaviour-based process becomes a closed loop of continuous point at which the behaviour-based process becomes a closed loop of continuous improvement.

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Additional Reading Material

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BEHAVIOURAL MANAGEMENT OF SAFETY

1. Introduction MACE have decided to develop their own product for Behavioural Management of Safety (referred to by the acronym BMOS from now on). There are various reasons why this development has taken place. However, the principal ones are as follows: Successive years of research have shown that in excess of 80% of accidents in the wo r k p l a c e a r e c a u s e d b y u n s a f e be haviours. In order to improve safety performance, an effective methodology has to be implemented, which addresses this. Existing 'Behavioural Based Safety' (BBS) products have been found wanting, and have not delivered sufficient improvements for the investment taking place. As a result, accidents have occurred on sites running BBS interventions, which would have been avoided. As a consequence, the only sustainable way to develop a true 'zero accident' environment is to approach safety using sound, effective principles of Behavioural Management which have been developed and proven over many years, through academic research and practice in the commercial arena. This hinges on setting out an expectation on safe behaviour to be delivered, and reinforcing it when it is delivered. It involves a fundamental shift away from traditional safety practice, which has used an enforcement mentality, usually imposed by negative means, where the outcome is focused on catching people doing the wrong things, and punishing them for it. This protocol sets out to achieve two main objectives, namely:

1. Act as a reference document which will provide points of instruction and clarification for anyone reading it.

2. Equip practitioners to understand how BMOS should be implemented on site.

Do not make the mistake of believing that BMOS is a 'magic bullet' which will turn safety performance into an easy achievement. BMOS involves engaging the people working on your project, with the emotions as well as the intellect, to help to demonstrate safety as a value, not a priority. 3MO5J has to be delivered with genuine sincerity and passion, and led from the very top of the organisation. No written protocol can substitute for providing the correct leadership - the skill which sets the tone for the performance that follows. Good leadership costs nothing and yet will get the maximum benef i t in safety performance.

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2. Behavioural Management theory and practice This section sets out basic Behavioural Management principles, and how these relate "to BMOS. These arc not difficult to absorb in theory, but can be difficult to practice. The reason for th is is your existing behaviours have got you where you are; all of us are driven to achieve the things we like, and to do something different will be strange for us. However, if this gels you better outcomes - whether on a personal or business basis -they are worth pursuing. The key to (his is simple - practice whenever you can. 2.1 Strategy, Process, Behaviour Underpinning the correct practice is the belief that to have a high performing team of people, it is necessary to have a clear strategy for what they are trying to achieve, solid work processes and a clear understanding of how to bring the best out of i ts people (behaviour). In the safety arena, the Strategy is normally defined by parameters such as company H&S policy, mission statements, business plans and Critical Success Factors (CSF's -sometimes equated to KPT's). Typically, these will be statements such as 'Zero accidents by 2008' or 'Be the best performing company in our industry sector'.

The Processes are normally laid down by procedures operating within the business, whether or not these have been derived by the team operating them; typically, this includes the H&S manual, other company policies, safety policies etc. Work place Behaviour is simply defined as what people say and do. It is observable, noticeable and measurable. The expectation on how people behave is laid down by factors such as company or team values, performance improvement initiatives and the written or verbal processes. Whether or not the people involved actually live these values by what they say and do, is another issue. So the

Mission, Statement, Business Plan, CSFs / KPIs

H & S Policies, manuals, toolbox talks, method statement etc.

What actually happens in the business / on site etc.

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organisation may say 'we will operate on the basis of safety first'; in practice, the management behaviours may actually encourage production in preference to safety. 2.2 The ABC model The major driving principles in Behavioural Management are summarized in the acronym ABC as shown below:

'A' stands for Antecedent 'B' stands for Behaviour 'C’ stands for Consequences

Antecedent An antecedent is something that happens before behaviour occurs. It sets the stage for, and influences whether, that behaviour results. Extensive research shows that antecedents only have a 20% influence over behaviour. Examples of antecedents in safety management are: inductions, training, safety policies, notices, toolbox talks, briefings or being asked to do something verbally. Antecedents can be quite effective the first few times they are used. They remain effective, however, only if they are backed up with consequences. To use an everyday example, a 30mph sign is a classic antecedent; it has a very limited effect on getting the speeding driver to slow down to the required speed, since most people will not believe there are any consequences from continuing to drive at a speed above the limit. However, a speed camera has a much higher chance of getting the driver to comply with the limit, since there is a high chance of a speeding ticket being issued as a consequence of speeding. Likewise, staffs are prone to ignoring requests to behave in a certain way unless the antecedents in that situation are supported by consequences. Behaviour Behaviour is what a person does or says. A good definition of behaviour describes what is clone in observable and measurable terms; for example, when a phone rings you can observe the behaviour of someone picking up the receiver, to answer the call. A business meeting may consist of someone talking, someone nodding, someone smiling, someone looking through the window, someone fiddling with a pen, someone writing. All these events are behaviours, and can be observed. This information can be recorded, and used for feedback immediately or at a later point. In the safety arena, behaviours may include someone lifting items, someone walking across a site without PPE, someone working at a height with proper harness security, someone working without a banks man. Again, all these behaviours can be observed, recorded, and used for feedback immediately or at a later point.

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Consequence A consequence is something that a person receives after displaying a particular behaviour, and which occurs as a direct result of that behaviour. Behavioural Management theory shows that consequences have an 80% influence over behaviour. The effectiveness of a consequence depends upon whether it is positive or negative, immediate or future, certain or uncertain. A strong consequence is one that is immediate and certain. Immediate and certain consequences win every time over those which arc future and uncertain. It is people's perception of the possible consequences that give the consequences strength. We have stated that consequences are the most influential means by which to shape behaviour, or patterns of behaviour in individuals or groups. Consequences, by definition, are delivered and received after the behaviour occurs and will have a provider and a receiver. Sometimes, the provider and the receiver can be one and the same person. There arc four types of consequences you can receive, that can result from any particular behaviour, as outlined on the following page. They are further explained in the text which follows the diagram at the top of the following page: Positive reinforcement (R+): This is gelling something you like, It should be used to recognise and reward the behaviour YOU seek.

Behaviour

Positive Reinforcement (R+)

Negative Reinforcement (R-)

Punishment (P)

Extinction (E)

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If you are the giver....

• People want to deal with you more. • You feel good about giving out R+.

If you are the receiver....

• You will want to do more of the same behaviour, to net more R+ . • Your performance on that behaviour improves. • The more you get, the happier you are - your surrounding 'environment'

becomes more rewarding. Negative reinforcement (R-)» This is avoidance of punishment. It should be used where a behaviour you seek is no! taking place, and you want to get the message across that you are serious about wanting it to happen.

If you are the giver.... • You will gel short term improvement - therefore use it again. • If you use it constantly, you will be seen as threatening or feared.

If you are the receiver.... • You will only do as much as you need to escape a perceived or actual

punishment. • You will build up hostility over time, and feel devalued. Extinction (E): This is not getting any recognition, or feeling ignored. It should be used to diminish poor behaviour over time, primarily by ignoring it. However, there is a danger that you practice it inadvertently if you do not issue Positive Reinforcement when a behaviour you seek takes place.

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If you are the giver....

• People will find other ways of getting your attention. • You will have to be very patient to see the behaviour change over time.

If you are the receiver....

• You will become very frustrated at not getting what you seek. • Your behaviour will change to seek alternative reinforcement. • You may undergo an 'extinction burst' where you vent your frustration at

not getting what you seek. Punishment (P): This is getting something you don't want, It should be used when you want to stop a behaviour in its tracks.

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If you are the giver.... • People will avoid and fear you. • You may experience revenge (although this is normally taken out on

the wider organisation). If you are the receiver....

• You will go through a wide range of emotions - anger, fear, hostility, resentment.

• You will not repeat that particular behaviour. Both positive and negative reinforcement will increase performance. To create a true positive environment, they should be used in the ratio of 4 to 1. This means that you are balancing the rewards for the right behaviour (R+) with the occasional correction of poor behaviour (R-).

2.3 PIC/NIC analysis (developed by Aubrey Daniels) The other dimension to management of consequences is that their power of delivery is dependent on timing, and how certain you are that they will actually happen. To analyse this, we use a tool labeled PIC/NIC to decide whether consequences are positive or negative, immediate or future, certain or uncertain.

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Positive/Negative (P/N) Does the person experience the consequence as positive or negative? 1. Immediate/Future (I/F) Does the person experience the

consequence immediately or at some point in the future? 2. Certain/Uncertain (C/U) Is the person certain or uncertain that the

consequence will occur? The most powerful consequences - i.e. those which will have the greatest effect on influencing behaviour, are Immediate and Certain. This makes the most powerful consequences Positive, Immediate, Certain (PIC), and Negative Immediate Certain (NIC). What is PIC for one person will not automatically be PIC for another; this is the mistake which many existing BBS products make, since they rely to a degree on verbal praise / feedback for sale performance, delivered 'on the spot". They assume thai stopping someone to congratulate them on safe performance is a PIC, whereas for many people this will be a NIC, and is likely to get the opposite result to the one being sought. Consequences happen to us, and all around us, every day. We all make judgments about what is P, N, 1, F, C and U. These judgments are sometimes 'snap' ones and sometimes based on our previous experience. It is accepted that people will try to maximize PIC's and minimize NIC's. The work 'environment' which provides PIC's for the correct behaviours, as well as NIC's for the incorrect ones, will produce generate the correct outcomes and results they seek. It is important for businesses to recognise that aligning personal sets of PIC's to safe behaviour will provide increased levels of safety performance into the business

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-with all of the incumbent benefits this brings. To help understand this, we use a behaviour analysis worksheet to understand why people are behaving as they are. Two worked examples are also shown in Appendix A. 2.4 Understanding the result / behaviour link

If we accept that consequences have an 80% impact over managing behaviour, then it is becomes essential to identify them and deliver them to change the behaviours sought. Moreover, the behaviours themselves have to start being measured, to demonstrate that they are taking place. A simple domestic example demonstrates this point. If you want to lose weight, start measuring how many days in the week you eat less than 1500 calories, and how many times in the week you carry out exercise (Behaviours). If these are being maintained, you will lose the weight (Result). This forms part of a simple but highly effective model for motivation:

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If you leave any of these items out, you are in danger of losing the correct degree of motivation. Many organisations fail at the first hurdle; failing to set clear expectations for their staff means that the staff are focused on achieving the wrong things. For example, in safety terms a manager emphasizing production over safety could set an explicit expectation ('I want you to get that job finished no matter what it takes') or an implicit one ('we won't have a problem finishing this off in time, will we?') Examples of links between results and behaviour include the following: Result being sought Behaviour we need to get it Reduce cuts to hands Wear gloves Reduce slips, trips and falls Walk at correct pace through designated areas Reduce injuries to eyes Wear goggles Reduce injuries through manual handling

Observe safe manual handling practices

In many cases, the behaviour which is being sought is not difficult to identify. However, it can be very difficult to change; what is being offered here is a way for you to achieve this. 3. References Judy L. Agnew Ph.D and Gail Snycler M.S "Removing Obstacles to Safety" A Behaviour - Based Approach ISBN 0-937100-07-2.

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Appendix A Two worked examples are also shown below, in the first case, we look at the behaviour of someone who has been asked to carry out a DIY task by his wife, but who instead watches football on TV:

BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS WORKSHEET

Performer Husband watching football on TV, in preference to carrying out DIY task requested by wife

EXISTING BEHAVIOUR Antecedents Consequences P/N I/F C/U

DIY task needs done Get to watch TV P I C

Wife has asked person to carry out DIY task

Relax a bit P I C

Hopelessly bad at DIY See team playing P I C

Don’t like doing DIY Team might win P F U Supports the team who are on the programme

Team might lose N F U

Feeling tired after day at work Avoid DIY P I C

Have never missed watching team when on TV

Wife might nag / fall out with me N F U

Husband watches football on TV, in preference to carrying out DIY task requested by wife

Wife might employ tradesman to complete DIY task P F U

In this case, we have analyzed only an existing behaviour, without going on to understand how to change it. There are some golden rules about PIC / NTC's: 1. Always be specific about the behaviour and be as clear as possible about

what it is - this skill is called 'pinpointing'. 2. When carrying out the analysis, always put you in the shoes of the person

carrying out the behaviour and understand why he / she is behaving in the way they do.

3. Remember that the Antecedents set the scene for the behaviour to happen -

they precede it. 4. The consequences are those experienced by the person doing the

behaviour, not by you. 5. Collection of PIC's and avoidance of NIC's will be the consequences driving

the existing behaviour; in this case, it is easy to see why the person watches football.

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So how does the wife get him to change his behaviour? At base consequence level, she has several possible courses of action: • Positive reinforcement - She offers to cook him his favourite curry for dinner if

he completes the DIY task. • Negative reinforcement - she threatens to stand in front of the TV if he doesn't

complete the task. • Punishment - she goes immediately to stand in front of the TV and states that

she won't move until he completes the task. She decides to take a double course of action, and threatens the TV block, but also indicates that if her husband completes the DIY task, he gets the curry at dinner time. Now his analysis looks like this:

BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS WORKSHEET

Performer Husband watching football on TV, in preference to carrying out DIY task requested by wife

EXISTING BEHAVIOUR Antecedents Consequences P/N I/F C/U

Wife threatens TV block Avoid hassle with wife P I C

Wife promises favourite curry Get all time favourite curry P I C

Problem with DIY task solved P I C Have to carry out DIY task N I C

Husband gets up from watching football, and carries out DIY task

Miss some football N I C Although there are still two NIC's associated with his new required behaviour, his wife has managed to put some PIC's in his way, which influences him sufficiently to carry out the new behaviour. Now we try a more complex situation, where a person willingly violates a safety standard:

BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Performer Person violating safety standard EXISTING

BEHAVIOUR Antecedents Consequences P/N I/F C/U

Safety standards in working Get the job finished quicker P I C

Toolbox talks ‘Job and knock’ potential P I C Site briefings on safety Look macho P I C Posters, notices etc Don’t look like a was P I C Mates violate standards regularly

Conform with peer pressure form mates P I C

Person violates safety standard whilst working

Director encourages production over safety

Thrill from getting away with it P I C

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Have done it before and no injury

Crack after getting away with it P I C

Have done it before and no discipline Potential discipline N F U

Potential injury / fatality N F U

Tacit approval through foreman ignoring it P I C

The main consequence providers here will be the person's workmates, first line supervisors (foremen etc) and the site manager or agent. In order to bring about a change, the person has to have new antecedents to set the scene for the new behaviour and some new PIC / NIC consequences to reinforce it after it happens:

BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Performer Person violating safety standard EXISTING

BEHAVIOUR Antecedents Consequences P/N I/F C/U

Safety standards in writing

Lose most of the previous PIC’s N I C

Toolbox talks Avoid the sack P I C Site briefings on safety Meet new expectations P I C

Posters, notices etc Receive tangible rewards P I C Agent sets new expectation on safety vs. production

New peer pressure to safe behaviour P I C

Agent calmly promises instant sack of violations

Reduce injury / fatality risk P I C

Person works in observation of safety standards

Agent promises tangible rewards for safe behaviour

Verbal reinforcement from foreman and / or agent P I C

The way to become skilled at this is to practice. When you see behaviour happening that doesn't make sense to you, remember that it makes perfect sense to the person carrying it out (the performer). Put yourself in their shoes and ask why they are doing it - the PIC's and NIC's will soon give you the clues you seek.

*** Courtsey: APOSHO 23 Conference at Singapore in October’2007 Paper prepared by Mr John H Birchall, SHE Department, Marina Bay Sands Pte Ltd, Singapore

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IMPROVING SAFETY PERFORMANCE WITH BEHAVIOUR-BASED SAFETY

1.0 Introduction A safety system will not work in all companies. It will only work in the company where the corporate and safety climates are right. Before attempting to implement a safety system, it would seem wise to look firstly at the company itself and at the climate of past safety programs. 2.0 Safety Program Climate The types of climates common in industrial safety programs are as follows: 2.1 The Over-Zealous Company 2.2 The Rewarding Company 2.3 The Lively Company 2.4 The Negligent Company 3.0 Corporate Climate Another aspect to consider before implementing a safety system is the corporate climate in total. The corporate climate is a major influence on the behaviour of both managers and employees. Specifically, safety climate refers to perceptions of the policies, procedures and practices relating to safety. At its broadest level, safety climate describes employee perceptions about the value of safety in an organisation. There are eight dimensions in safety climate. They are as follows: 3.1 perceived importance of safety training programs 3.2 perceived management attitudes toward safety 3.3 perceived effects of safe conduct on promotion 3.4 perceived level of risk at the work place 3.5 perceived effects of workplace on safety 3.6 perceived status of the safety officer 3.7 perceived effects of safe conduct on social status 3.8 perceived status of the safety committee There is one point of concern - i.e. the employees' perception of the organisation's climate and philosophy may be different from what is intended. Two possible reasons may have contributed to this difference in desired versus actual perception. Firstly, perhaps not enough effort has been expended in communicating the guiding philosophy down the line. Secondly, there may be a discrepancy between what is professed and what actually occurs. The individual's closest point of contact with the organization is the immediate superior. If the superior's action do not reflect the organizational philosophy, a perception discrepancy occurs.

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Some of the basic climate requirements for maximum individual performance in an organization are: 1 There must be central overall goals of objectives 2 Effective communication down the line to gel commitment of the objectives 3 Functional areas, departments and individuals must have specific goals to

strive towards 4 Interdependency of all sub-units must be established to accomplish results 5 Meaningful participation on the part of the individual should be the keynote 6 Freedom to work without any pressure or authority from their superiors

4.0 Analyzing your climate You must then begin the process by examining the climate in two distinct areas: the climate of the safety program and the corporate climate. Let me remind you that both aspects of climate are difficult to assess, easy to feel but often difficult to get a handle on. In the areas of safety program climate, it would be best to ask your line managers, supervisors and workers. One method is to use a questionnaire which would give an indication of how people feel about the safety program, what works and what does not work for the safety program. As for corporate climate, a questionnaire approach might be used for various levels of the organization. You may design your own questionnaire to tailor to your needs. 5.0 Misconception about Behavioural Safety There are numerous misconceptions that hinder safety progress in the behavioural area. They are as follows: 5.1 Fails to address system causes of injuries 5.2 Use to blame employees 5.3 Least effective interventions 5.4 Allows management to abdicate responsibility for safety 5.5 Is a magic bullet. 6.0 Principles and Strategies of Behavioural Safety Behavioural approaches are based on years of research in the field of Applied Behaviour Analysis. Geller (2001) notes, "Behaviourism has effectively solved environmental, safety and health problems in organizations and communities; first, define the problem in terms of relevant observable behaviour, then design and implement an intervention process to decrease behaviours causing the problem and/or increase behaviours that can alleviate the problem." (Geller, p 21) 7.0 Common problems with safety efforts There are four common problems that seriously hinder safety efforts. They are: 7.1 Severe consequences for reporting injuries

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7.2 Safety Awards not related to behaviour 7.3 Dependence on management or staff for planning and decision making 7.4 Reliance on punishment to reduce risky behaviour Unfortunately, overcoming these lour common problems docs not ensure effective safety efforts. Solving these problems is a step in (he right direction and helps establish a solid foundation lo build on. 8.0 Behaviour Sampling for Proactive Measures Not all behaviours or even major behaviours can be observed. Organizations do not have the resources to observe all behaviours. The strategy is to observe a sample of behaviours which has been identified as critical to the safety performance. 9.0 Employee-driven Processes and Partial Empowerment Another strategy is the employee-driven or bottom-up approach - i.e. employees (including management) drive the behavioural safety process with support and resources provided by management. During this process, employees are empowered lo participate in decision making for improving safety performances. 10.0 How To Implement Behavioural Safety The implementation process has nine steps which include the important step of solving system problems and pursuing continuous improvement. 10.1 Seek/gain workforce buy-in to the behavioural process prior to

implementation 10.2 Establish a Project Team to implement and run the system 10.3 Identify critical safety behaviours 10.4 Develop specific behavioural checklists that cover the critical behaviours

identified 10.5 Train personnel from each workgroup 10.6 Establish a baseline of safe behaviour by monitoring behaviour for 4-6

weeks. Determine the average safe behaviour levels 10.7 Ask each workgroup to set a safety improvement target 10.8 Daily monitoring of progress and provide detailed feedback on a weekly

basis 10.9 Review performance trends to identify barriers to improvement 10.10 Concentrate on continuous improvement of the system and behaviour at all

levels by solving any problems in the management system that encourages risky behaviour or create/allow hazards to exist.

Omission of any of the steps may result in the unsuccessful implementation of behavioural safety. Applying all steps increases the probability of a successful behavioural effort as well as sustainability of the process.

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11.0 How To Conduct A Safety Assessment Prior to the implementation of the behavioural safety process, it is important to conduct a safety assessment. This can be done internally or by external consultants who offer safety assessments. Purpose of this assessment is to determine an organization's current level of safely performance and provide recommendations for improvement. There are 5 steps to the safety assessment. They are:

11.1 Review the organization's safety data including accident statistics and actual accident report

11.2 Conduct interviews with people over the cross section of the organization 11.3 Observe safety meetings, safety audits and safety practices in work

areas 11.4 Analyse information and develop an improvement plan 11.5 Prepare a report and presentation to garner management's support. 12.0 What Are Critical Behaviours Critical behaviours are those actions that contribute to good safety performance or conversely that lead to injuries and the challenge is to 12.1 identify the specific safety- related behaviours for a particular site 12.2 establish an inventory of operational definitions for these behaviours 12.3 prepare a checklist based on these critical behaviours for observers to use 13.0 How Can We Identify Critical Behaviours There are four ways to identify critical behaviours, namely: 13.1 Behavioural analysis of incidence reports 13.2 Interview workers 13.3 Observe workers while they work 13.4 Review work rules, job safety analysis and procedure manuals The list is usually not long - perhaps 15 to 25 behaviours that are genuinely crucial to safety performance. 14.0 Steps of the Observation Process There is no one best way to perform observations - techniques and methods depend on the organization and the existing safety culture. They can either tailor it to their particular needs or benchmark it against another site. The following steps are provided as a broad guide for observations: 14.1 Select specific behaviours to observe as derived from the Critical Behaviour

Inventory

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14.2 Develop behavioural checklist for particular jobs and departments 14.3 Develop specific procedures for the observation process 14.4 Determine procedures for data processing and feedback 15.0 Steps For Continuous Improvement Establish a system to continuously improve the observation process. The following items should be included in the system: 15.1 Trial runs and fine-tuning the observation checklist and process 15.2 Conduct a management review of the process to encourage management

input 15.3 Analyze data to identify areas for follow-up. 15.4 Follow up on targeted items. 16.0 Safety Coaching Coaching is essentially a process of one-on-one observation and feedback (Geller 2001 p 239). It is a high level intervention and involves imparting both direction and motivation 17.0 What Are The Steps In The Coaching Process There are four slops to help safety coaches develop their good relationship with workers. They are: 17.1 Caring 17.2 Collaborating 17.3 Coaching 17.4 Conciliating 18.0 Mow To Provide Meaningful Feedback Safety coaches observe and then give feedback. Feedback must be meaningful and meet certain criteria to be effective. The following are characteristics of meaningful feedback: 18.1 Be specific 18.2 Be immediate or soon 18.3 Individual feedback should be given privately 18.4 Listen actively 19.0 Potential Barriers To Successful Implementation of Behavioural Safety The concepts and principles of behavioural safety are simple and straightforward. Implementation issues can be difficult to handle and complex to understand. It only takes one persistent problem to undermine a behavioural safety effort. The following gives some common examples that may be encountered:

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19.1 Failure to adequately plan and train 19.2 Lack of planned, on-going feedback to measure the effectiveness of the

behavioural approach 19.3 Treating behavioural safety as a separate program 19.4 Over-emphasis on results (injury measurements) 19.5 Over-emphasizing on process 19.6 Lack of worker buy-in 19.7 Observation checklists fail to target at behaviours leading to injuries 19.8 Observations checklist focus on unsafe conditions instead of risky

behaviours 19.9 People are punished for failure to behave safely as indicated on the

checklist. 19.10 Problems in safety improvement target setting meetings 19.11 Observations take place at the same time every day. 19.12 There is no standardized procedure for people to hand in their completed

observation checklists 19.13 Failure to conduct regular weekly feedback sessions 19.14 Lack of on-going management support 20.0 Success Factors For Behavioural Safety For a successful behavioural safety effort, numerous factors must work together in harmony. Ultimately, the key to safety success lies with management. The following are essential features of the behavioural safety process: 20.1 Management must be visibly committed to the process 20.2 There must be a significant level of workforce participation in and

understanding of the behavioural safety process. 20.3 Selection, training and guidance of the Implementation Team are predictors

of success 20.4 Data must be collected and used for decision-making and for continuous

improvement 20.5 Process must be well planned in advance 20.6 Training and communication must be adequate for all levels to possess the

necessary skills 20.7 All levels of personnel must be involved in the process 20.8 The behavioural process must be designed to meet the specific needs and

peculiar circumstances of the organization. 20.9 The basic premise and key objective of a behavioural safety initiative must

be clearly established. 20.10 Leadership must address the safely issues (hazards) existing in the

environment and risks that occur in working situations. 20.11 Safety management system must be aligned with behavioural safety

principles. 20.12 Safety champions must be carefully selected and groomed. 20.13 Recognition for safe behaviour and safety-related accomplishments should

be integrated into the daily work culture.

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20.14 Patience and persistence are required. Organizations must allow time for trust to evolve and allow the process to work.

21.0 Conclusion Experience and research verify the potency of behavioural safety. Research findings demonstrate the value of behavioural safety: The only empirical approach to improving safety that has proven to be effective is a behavioural safely process. Behavioural safety is the only approach that has routinely produced significant reductions in incidents in well designed research studies. The approach involves employees using a systematically developed checklist as the basis for feedback on critical safety practices observed in work areas. (McSween 1998 p 49) References: Blair E H 1999 - Behaviour-based safety: Myths, magic and reality Cooper M D 1998 - Improving Safety Culture: A Practical Guide Geller E S 2000 - The Psychology of Safety Handbook McSween T 1998 - Culture: A Behavioural Perspective

*** Courtesy: APOSHO 24 Conference at Seoul in July, 08 Paper prepared by Mr Lim Boon Khoon, Registered Workplace Safety & Health Officer, Singapore

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BEYOND BEHAVIOUR CHANGE Road traffic injuries are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among all injuries in this part of the world. Significantly it affects people in the most productive years of life. Morbidity from injuries is also high because of inadequate treatment. A major burden of this falls on the vulnerable road users – the pedestrian the bicyclist and the motorized two wheeler rider. Anecdotal information suggests that some of these families broke for a lifetime as a result of loss of employment and burden of loans taken for treatment. Public policy and strategy has not sufficiently addressed steps to contain this. The global burden of disease due to road traffic injuries is expected to move from the ninth position in 1990 to third position in 2020. Traditionally safety implied that a person adopted a safe attitude or a safe behaviour. If a child is injured he or she is scolded for being careless. The injured was often supposed to be at fault. In the event of a crash a driver of a vehicle is considered rash and negligent. The bottom-line being that in any injury event there has to be someone who was careless. The assumption being if everyone is careful no one is likely to get hurt. It also implied that for safety, careless behaviour must change. These assumptions led people to device huge campaigns to educate people on safe behaviour. Expensive advertisement campaigns have been designed to have such information campaigns in the print and visual media. The trouble with information campaigns is that people are likely to take it seriously only if they are convinced that it affects their life. The average human being likes to believe that he is careful. And because he is careful he is not likely to get injured. As an event, injury seems to be a low probability event. Every person that travels to work runs a small risk when he is on the road. Of the millions of vehicles that are on the road, only about two persons get killed for every million vehicles. Naturally an individual’s perception of such an event is low. But of course he does realize that he could be hurt because of someone else’s carelessness. So he expects the other person, who is careless, realizes his carelessness and therefore will read the advertisement and change his behaviour. Unfortunately behaviour change is never as simple. Mere knowledge of a fact does not naturally lead to change of behaviour. If that were so no one would ever drink alcohol or smoke cigarettes or even drive fast. As a society we condemn all these acts but a individual human beings there are so many millions who drink, smoke and drive fast. In fact theses acts are glamorized in the media. If people did not enjoy driving cars fast there would be no Formula one race. But for safety a person must drive slow! On one side we glamorize people who drive fast in Formula one racing and on the other we expect people to drive slowly. We penalize people that drive fast on the roads. There seems to be some contradiction here. What people don’t realize is that a Formula one car has innumerable safety features built-in. A driver in the Formula one car is protected completely to avoid injuries and even protected from fire as his jacket is fire proof. The track itself also has several safety features. It is because of theses that despite a major crash on the track the driver gets up, dusts his jacket and walks away while the car lies in shambles and burns

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to ashes. None of these safety features are available for our day-to-day interactions on the roads. We also indulge in self flagellation. ‘We Indians do not know how to behave or drive properly’! Some of course despair. If only Indians would behave differently on the roads! We would then be able to save so many lives! Looking at the positive side, it is just as well that we are not able to change human behaviour easily. If by some mechanism someone designed a way to control the behaviour of a mass of people there could be mayhem. Some Fascist could then manipulate people to do this bidding! Then the world would be a really unsafe place. Let us now look at careless people. Our gut reaction at a careless person’s fate could be ‘he was careless therefore he deserved what he got’. Are we sure? If the injured was our son, daughter or parent we would neither want them killed nor injured. Our yardstick for the careless is likely to be different for our friends and our relatives. As responsible citizens of a responsible society our concern for safety must extend to all the careful, as well as the careless. Once this is clear our whole approach to safety is likely to have a paradigm shift. We must try to save as many as many people as possible, not just the careful people. This does not imply that we encourage negligence and carelessness. It just means that we doe not look at safety as an issue that can be resolved by behaviour change alone. We do not stop at educational campaigns to improve the behaviour of people. Human behaviour is conditioned by the environment that we live in, the design of products that we use and the societal structures that are in place.

Table 1 – Haddon’s Matrix as described by William Haddon Junior

Haddon’s Matrix

Time / Space Human (Victim) Products Environment

Pre-Crash

Crash

Post-Crash

Table 2 – Crash Analysis using Haddan’s Matrix Scientific Crash Analysis

Time / Space

Human (Victim) Products Environment

Crash Prevention

Role of the human beings in preventing the event

Role of the product in preventing the event

Role of laws, policing, and environment in preventing the event.

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Time / Space

Human (Victim) Products Environment

Injury Prevention during crash

Role, changes in victim in minimizing injury during crash

Design changes in product to minimise injury during crash

Changes in laws, policing, and environment during crash

Injury Management after crash

Management of victim to minimise effect of injury

Design changes in product to minimise after effects.

Social and environmental arrangements

If we are to achieve any success in road safety we have to go beyond attempts at behaviour change. This means we must adopt a multipronged strategy to make people on the roads safe. William Haddon Jr. (Bill Haddon) was the first to define the principles of injury control. He described Haddon’s matrix, as we know toady. If we look at this matrix it becomes clear that injury has been analyzed in time and space. In any injury event, steps can be taken before, during and after the event, to reduce the consequences of a crash. These safety features could be on the vehicle, the human being or the environment. Table 1 shows a typical Haddon’s Matrix. Table 2 shows the crash analysis using Haddon’s Matrix. When we look at every crash in this three by three matrix we are likely to have a complete understanding of how we can minimise the effect of a crash. Let us taken an example and try to understand how different strategies can be combined to make our roads safer. Take the example of a young boy of 18 who is riding a motorcycle without a helmet. He has received it as a birthday present and is driving at a speed of 60 kmph. He reaches a crossing just at the time a car driver decides to jump the red light as he is getting late to work. The young boy breaks hard to avoid the car but his motorcycle skids and he falls off and lies there on the road with a head injury. The car driver meanwhile swerves to the left and hits a pedestrian who was walking on the road as he could not climb on the pavement because of a painful knee. He is hit by the car which is an old type ‘sturdy car’ and suffers an open fracture of his right leg. The car driver was not wearing the seat belt and he gets thrown against the windscreen of his car and suffers lacerated wounds of his face. A crowd gathers and puts the injured in a passing car to the nearest hospital. Meanwhile the police arrive on the scene and arrest the car driver for rash and negligent driving. At the hospital the youth’s condition deteriorates and dies before a neurosurgeon can clear blood collecting in his skull. The news paper reports the event the next day and people feel upset at the loss of a young life. Some feel comforted at the thought a rash and negligent driver has been punished by being arrested and put behind bars. The old man’s fracture gets infected and he goes in and out of the hospital for months. He finally gives up treatment as after months of absence from work his employer throws him out of his job and he hobbles around with an ununited fracture dependent on well wishers for his meals.

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This could happen in any of our cities or towns. Let us now analyse who all were rash and negligent. Who all deserved to be punished and taught a lesson so that society can be safer. Before the events that led to the crashes: Two vehicles were involved, and three human beings were interacting at the crossing with a red light control. Let us first look at the people involved. The Car Driver: He is the obvious culprit. He is the one who jumped the red light. He did it because he was getting late for a meeting. A very common reason for people to speed up and jump red lights. He had seen that if the police were not around he could easily get away without getting caught. He was an educated man who understood the implications of jumping a red light. Yet he did it as he was in a special situation as it was a very important office meeting at workplace. We all make mistakes like this and subsequently rationalize it. If he knew for sure that he would get caught for jumping the red light he may not have done it. He was also not wearing the seat belt and suffered injuries to his face. The Youth: His only fault was he was driving fast. Was that his only fault? He was driving a motorcycle without wearing a helmet. If he was wearing a helmet he may not have suffered the head injury that killed him. In his state, helmet wearing was not compulsory. So in the real sense he was not violating a law. If he was in a state where helmet wearing was compulsory he would have been violating the law. As a society we have allowed a dangerous product that can take people at dangerous speeds without ensuring that safety helmets are mandatory on the use of such vehicles. He should have been educated on the use of helmets and also on the risks of going at high speeds. His father testified that his son was always careful and unlikely to be too fast. He infact, gave him the birthday present because he was a careful son. He, however, did not feel helmets were essential. The Pedestrian: He was an innocent bystander. But he was walking on the road. He should have been walking on the pavement. He was not walking on the pavement. He was not walking on pavement as he had a painful knee. If he had walked on the pavement he would have had to go up and down at every 10 yards. He could not climb the height of the pavement and found it far more convenient to walk on the level surface of the road, Even if he was educated to understand the importance of walking on the pavement, he would not been able to do so.

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Let us look at the vehicles involved: Two vehicles were involved in the crashes a car and a motorcycle. The Car: First let us look at the car. The car allowed the driver to drive without wearing a seat belt. Modern cars have warning sound and flashing lights to suggest the driver is driving without wearing a seat belt. Without the seat belt he crashed into his windscreen which caused him to have facial injuries. If it was a laminated windscreen instead of a toughened glass windscreen he would actually have been cradled by the laminated windscreen rather than suffer injuries. The car also did not have an air bag system. This also could have helped prevent facial injuries. The car swerved and hit the pedestrian. If the car had a specially designed front, instead of fracture of the legs of the pedestrian, only the front of the car would have been dented. It is much better to have collapsing front of car that allow for cushioning of the impact with a pedestrian. These days people put up bull bars to prevent denting of cars in crashes. Some bemoan the fact that newer cars are very delicately made as they collapse under impact. They boast about the fact that their old car could withstand impacts without getting deformed. They seem to value their cars more than people around us. They do not realize the fact that modern cars are designed to have what are known as crumple zones that allow for collapsing without killing people. The Motor Cycle: The motorcycle was new. So it could not have been failure of breaks. The speed was high for the crossing. For a fresh driver of 18, there should have been a speed governor that prevented him from driving at high speeds. The reason why the youth fell was skidding. If his bike had anti-skid brakes the bike would not have skidded. When you apply brake at high speeds there is a lot of friction heat at the road tyre interface. The heat causes the tyre to melt and the vehicle then moves on molten tyre. This is like moving on liquid and all friction gives way and you skid. The molten tyre is what leaves the skid marks. Anti-skid brakes have a very special system that works in a way to prevent this. A little use of technology could have saved a life. Let us first look at the environment: The road infrastructure at the intersection was red light regulated. But it allowed the vehicles to drive through at high speeds. Modern design of roads and intersections allow for naturally reducing speeds and reduce conflicts with what is called as traffic

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claming. These intersections have elevated surfaces with textures that prevent high speeds. They also have elevated pedestrian crossings that allow pedestrians to be seen from a distance. The vehicles are also compelled to slow down because of the elevation. Pedestrian pavements are designed to be barrier free to allow persons with musculoskeletal problems to move safely. Pavements are designed so that they are not very high and they do not have steps that force people to go up and down at every intersection. If the pavement was better designed, the pedestrian would have been on the pavement and perhaps would not have been hit by the car. Speed and red light cameras on roads automatically catch violators of speed and red-light regulations. Good enforcement by policing can also work, but we cannot expect in a civil society everyone to be policed all the time. We need to identify better ways to protect our people. During the crash Seat belt wearing could have prevented the car driver being thrown against the wind screen. The car driver could have been protected with a laminated windscreen. If the car had an air bag system all the facial injuries of the driver could have been prevented. The youth could have avoided or reduced the impact of head injury if he was wearing a helmet. The pedestrian may have avoided a fracture if the car had a pedestrian friendly front. After the crash: A crowd gathered. Fortunately, the victims were put in a car almost soon after and they were able to reach a hospital in time. Some argue that ambulance should have been called for. The boy may have been saved if an ambulance was available. On the other hand in reality if the crowd had waited for an ambulance, it could have taken longer time to get the youth to the hospital. Scientifically, any comfortable vehicle is sufficient to transport the injured. It is not necessary that a vehicle called be an ambulance. It would be useful if the drivers in the vehicle or someone the crowd knew how to carry the patients and help reduce the discomfort and pain and further damage of patients by splinting the injured areas and applying pressure bandage to reduce bleeding. Merely transporting patients to hospital does not work. The youth had a head injury which could not be treated for want of a neurosurgeon in time. The hospital back up for trauma patients must be comprehensive enough to take care of all trauma cases promptly. There is a need to upgrade trauma services in existing general hospitals.

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The pedestrians injuries were not appropriately treated. That led to his fracture going in for non-union. He had to give up treatment for want of resources. If he had social security his treatment could have been completed and despite losing a job he would not be a dependent physically impaired person. Ideally he should not have lost his job and he should have gone back to his job after treatment. Looking back at the whole tragedy how many people other than the car driver were negligent:

1. The politicians and the policy makers who allowed the kind of intersections and pavements to be made. For the kind of transportation policies and the vehicles manufactured.

2. The engineers that designed the infrastructure and the intersection. 3. The designers and manufacturers of the vehicles that were involved in

the crashes. 4. The licensing authorities that allowed such vehicles to go on road. 5. The police enforcement agencies that could not enforce the compliance

of red lights at intersections and enforce use of seat belts and helmets. 6. The transport, health and communication authorities that could not

ensure pre-hospital care and safe transportation of the patients. 7. The hospital authorities that could not ensure timely neurosurgical

intervention. 8. The labour office that could protect the job of an injured patient. 9. The social security services that could not provide relief in long term

treatment. 10. Society at large that compels people to travel to work. If the car driver

was working near his home he would not have to drive to work. 11. The father for buying such a dangerous birthday gift and not ensuring

that he was supervised or wearing a helmet. 12. The school and college teachers who did not lay adequate emphasis on

safe walking and driving on the roads. 13. The youth for driving fast and not wearing a helmet. 14. The pedestrian for not walking on the pavement. 15. The car driver of course for jumping the red light.

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There may be many that are not listed here. It all depends on how far you are prepared to foresee. So many negligent and a precious life lost! The bottom line in safety is to look beyond negligent behaviour and look at all aspects that influence safety. We need to look beyond, well beyond, behaviour modification. Bibliography:

1. Mohan D, Varghese M: Injuries in South-East Asia Region priorities for Policy and Action, 2002 World Health Organisation.

2. Haddon W, Baker SP, Injury Control In: Clark DW, MacMahan B, editors

Preventive and Community Medicine, Boston: Little Brown and Company 1981.

***

Courtesy: Road Safety Digest – Vol.15, No.2, 2005

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