BBHS Topicality File[1]

8/9/2019 BBHS Topicality File[1]

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SDI 2010 TopicalityTopicality Core

TopicalityResolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its militaryand/or police presence in one or more of the following: South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan,Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.

Topicality .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. ....... ..... ..... ..... 1

Topicality ........................................................................................................................................ 1

**Substantial** .............................................................................................................................. 4

1NC Substantial Reduction 25% ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. ......... 4

1NC Substantial Reduction 25% ............................................................................................ 4

Ext: Substantial Reduction = 25% ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ........... ...... ...... ...... 5

Ext: Substantial Reduction = 25% ............................................................................................... 5

1NC Substantial Reduction 50% ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. ......... 6

1NC Substantial Reduction 50% ............................................................................................ 6Ext: Substantial Reduction = 50% ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ........... ...... ...... ...... 7

Ext: Substantial Reduction = 50% ............................................................................................... 7

Substantial = Important ............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ......... ...... .. 8

Substantial = Important ................................................................................................................ 8

Substantial = Arbitrary .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. ........... ..... . 9

Substantial = Arbitrary ................................................................................................................. 9

**Reduce** ................................................................................................................................... 10

1NC - Reduce CANNOT Eliminate ............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ......... . 10

1NC - Reduce CANNOT Eliminate ............................................................................................ 10

Reduce CAN Eliminate .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ........... ... 11

Reduce CAN Eliminate ................................................................................................................ 11

Reduce = Decrease ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. ...... .. 12

Reduce = Decrease ....................................................................................................................... 12

**Its** ...................................................... ..................................................................................... 13

1NC Its - Excludes Private Contractors .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............ ..... ..... ..... . 13

1NC Its - Excludes Private Contractors .................................................................................. 13

Ext: Private Military Contracts are NOT Topical ............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... ........ ...... ... 14

Ext: Private Military Contracts are NOT Topical .................................................................... 14

Aff Private Contractors are topical ............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. ..... ..... ..... ..... .. 15

Aff Private Contractors are topical ......................................................................................... 15

Its = Possession ............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. ............ ...... ...... ... 16

Its = Possession ............................................................................................................................. 16

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Its = Related To ............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ......... .... 17

Its = Related To ............................................................................................................................ 17

**Military Presence** ................................................................................................................. 18

1NC Presence Excludes Combat Forces ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ........ ...... . 18

1NC Presence Excludes Combat Forces ................................................................................. 18Ext: Presence is NOT Combat Operations ............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ........... ... 19

Ext: Presence is NOT Combat Operations ................................................................................ 19

AT: Combat Distinction Excludes Iraq/Afghanistan ............. ............... .............. .............. .............. ............. ...... ...... . 20

AT: Combat Distinction Excludes Iraq/Afghanistan ............................................................... 20

C/I - Presence = Only Military Aid, Combat Operations, and Bases .............. .............. ............... ......... ..... ..... ...... ... 21

C/I - Presence = Only Military Aid, Combat Operations, and Bases ..................................... 21

Aff - Presence = Combat Operations .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. ....... ...... ...... . 22

Aff - Presence = Combat Operations ........................................................................................ 22

Combat Distinction Excludes Iraq/Afghanistan ............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. ...... 23

Combat Distinction Excludes Iraq/Afghanistan ....................................................................... 23

Combat Distinction Fails ............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... 24

Combat Distinction Fails ............................................................................................................. 24

AT: Greer Evidence ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. ..... ...... ...... ... 25

AT: Greer Evidence ..................................................................................................................... 25

1NC Presence is Only Troops .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ........ ...... . 26

1NC Presence is Only Troops .................................................................................................. 26

Ext: Presence = Troops ............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. ............ ..... ..... ..... .. 27

Ext: Presence = Troops ................................................................................................................ 27

Aff Presence Includes Both Troops and Infrastructure ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ...... . 28

Aff Presence Includes Both Troops and Infrastructure ........................................................ 28

Aff Presence is Defined Broadly ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... 29

Aff Presence is Defined Broadly .............................................................................................. 29

Broad Aff Interpretations of Presence .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .......... ..... ..... ...... ...... . 30

Broad Aff Interpretations of Presence ....................................................................................... 30

Broad Aff Interpretations of Presence .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .......... ..... ..... ...... ...... . 31

Broad Aff Interpretations of Presence ....................................................................................... 31

**Police Presence** ..................................................................................................................... 32

1NC Police Presence = Actual Police Deployments (vs. affs that claim their withdrawal of military decreasepolice) ............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .......... ...... ...... . 32

1NC Police Presence = Actual Police Deployments (vs. affs that claim their withdrawal of military decrease police) .......................................................................................................... 32

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Ext: Police Presence Refers to Civilian Police ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............. ...... ...... ...... ... 33

Ext: Police Presence Refers to Civilian Police ........................................................................... 33

1NC Police Presence Doesnt Allow Combat Troops .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. ..... ...... ...... ... 34

1NC Police Presence Doesnt Allow Combat Troops ............................................................ 34

Ext: Police Presence refers to post-conflict peacekeeping .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. ... 35

Ext: Police Presence refers to post-conflict peacekeeping ........................................................ 35

**Other Words** ......................................................................................................................... 36

United States federal government .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. ............. ...... ...... . 36

United States federal government .............................................................................................. 36

And/Or Does Means Both or Either (AT: It Only Means Both) ............. .............. ............... .............. .............. ....... .. 37

And/Or Does Means Both or Either (AT: It Only Means Both) ............................................. 37

In = Within .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. ........ ..... ..... 38

In = Within ................................................................................................................................... 38

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Ext: Substantial Reduction = 25%

25% is the definition used in military legislation.National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1994 , PUBLIC LAW 103-160 [H.R. 2401],

NOVEMBER 30, 1993, Lexis Congressional"(g) Definitions.--For purposes of this section:

"(1) The term 'major defense program' means a program that is carried out to produce or acquire a major system(as defined in section 2302(5) of title 10, United States Code).

"(2) The terms 'substantial reduction' and 'substantially reduced', with respect to a major defense program,mean a reduction of 25 percent or more in the total dollar value of contracts under the program.".

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1NC Substantial Reduction 50%

A. Interpretation - DOD defines substantial reduction as 50% - official guidelines prove.US Department of Defense ( DOD ), produced by the Office of Under Secretary of Defense (Acquisition,Technology, and Logistics), Office of Assistant Secretary of Defense (Command, Control, Communications, andIntelligence), Office of Director, Operational Test and Evaluation, Mandatory Procedures for Major Defense

Acquisition Programs (MDAPS) and Major Automated Information Systems (MAIS) Acquisition Programs, April5, 2002 , http://www.explorationsystems.nasa.gov/documents/TTT_052005/DoD50002R.pdf DA 7/12/2010C7.10.3.12. The DoD Components shall not terminate or substantially reduce participation in joint ACAT ID programs without RequirementsAuthority review and USD(AT&L) approval; or in joint ACAT IA programs without Requirements Authority review and ASD(C3I) approval.The USD(AT&L) or ASD(C3I) may require a DoD Component to continue some or all funding, as necessary, to sustain the joint program in anefficient manner, despite approving their request to terminate or reduce participation. Substantial reduction is defined as a funding or quantity decrease of 50 percent or more in the total funding or quantities in the latest President's Budget for that portion of the joint program funded by the DoD Component seeking the termination or reduced participation .

Presence is the totality of military activities in each country.Barry M. Blechman et al , President of DFI International, Spring, 1997 , Strategic Review, p.14Given its multifaceted nature, neither practitioners nor scholars have yet settled on a single definition of presence . Technically, the termrefers to both a military posture and a military objective. This study uses the term presence to refer to a continuum of military

activities , from a variety of interactions during peacetime to crisis response involving both forces on the scene and those based in the UnitedStates. Our definition follows that articulated by the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff: Presence is the totality of U.S. instruments of power deployed overseas (both permanently and temporarily) along with the requisiteinfrastructure and sustainment capabilities ."

B. Violation the aff does not reduce 50% of the US military presence in ______________

C. Vote neg our interpretation is key to preserve fair ground for both sides

- Key to limits and ground Checks based on substantial are key to prevent infinite tinyaffirmatives that withdraw specific sections of troops these destroy core generic negativeground and educational clash since they dont have much literature

- Precision this isnt your usual substantial argument our interpretation is based on USlaw specific to the military this best preserves predictability and real-world education

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http://www.explorationsystems.nasa.gov/documents/TTT_052005/DoD50002R.pdf%20DA%207/12/2010http://www.explorationsystems.nasa.gov/documents/TTT_052005/DoD50002R.pdf%20DA%207/12/2010


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Ext: Substantial Reduction = 50%

Military legislation defines substantial reductions as 50%.Comprehensive Base Closure Reform and Recovery Act of 1992 (102 H. R. 4421, Text of the full

bill, introduced by Olympia Snowe, Lexis Congressional)TITLE I-ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION AT MILITARY INSTALLATIONS TO BE CLOSED SEC. 101. CLEANUP SCHEDULE FOR

CERTAIN BASES ON SUPERFUND NATIONAL PRIORITIES LIST.(a) CLEANUP SCHEDULE FOR CERTAIN BASES ON NATIONAL PRIORITIES LIST.-(1) With respect to each military installationdescribed in subsection (b)-(A) before the installation is closed or substantial reductions in its operations have occurred, at least 75 percent of the remedial action

required on the installation pursuant to the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (42 U.S.C.9601 et seq.) shall be completed; and(B) not later than two years after the installation is closed or substantial reductions in its operations have occurred, all of the remedial action

required on the installation pursuant to such Act shall be completed.(2) For purposes of paragraph (1), substantial reductions in the operations of a military installation shall be

considered to have occurred if more than 50 percent of the personnel assigned to the installation, including employees andmembers of the Armed Forces, have been reassigned and moved to another installation.

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Substantial = Important

Substantially means significant.Concise Oxford English Dictionary 2008 , Twelfth Edition, Oxford Reference Online,http://www.oxfordreference.com.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/views/ENTRY.html?entry=t23.e56062&srn=1&ssid=464527616#FIRSTHIT

substantially adv.1. to a great or significant extent .2. for the most part; essentially.

Substantial means important.Oxford Dictionary of English, 2005 , Oxford Reference Online,http://www.oxfordreference.com.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/views/ENTRY.html?entry=t140.e76634&srn=7&ssid=1046855207#FIRSTHIT

substantial adjective1. of considerable importance , size, or worth: a substantial amount of cash. strongly built or made: a row of substantial Victorian villas. (of a meal) large and filling. important in material or social terms; wealthy: asubstantial Devon family.2. concerning the essentials of something: there was substantial agreement on changing policies.3. real and tangible rather than imaginary: spirits are shadowy, human beings substantial.

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Substantial = Arbitrary

Their definition of substantial is arbitrary theres no consistency in US Code.Jeffrey M. Colon , Associate Professor of Law, Fordham University School of Law, Winter 1997 , San Diego LawReview, 34 San Diego L. Rev. 1, Lexis Academicn138. I.R.C. 877(e). Neither the statute nor the legislative history indicates how much of a reduction in taxes is

necessary in order to constitute a "substantial" reduction. The meaning of "substantial" varies from oneCode section to the other . Compare, e.g., I.R.C. 368(a)(1)(C) (West 1988 & Supp. 1996) (acquisition of "substantially all" of acquiredcompany's assets for ruling purposes is 70% of gross assets and 90% of net assets (Rev. Proc. 77-37, 1977-2 C.B. 568)) with I.R.C. 1092 (West1988 & Supp. 1996) ("substantial diminution" of risk of loss).

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**Reduce**

1NC - Reduce CANNOT EliminateA. Interpretation - Reduce does not mean to eliminate judicial rulings proveMarcus Perrin Knowlton , Late Chief Justice Of The Supreme Judicial Court Of Massachusetts, Opinion in DoraGreen v. Abraham Sklar, June 20, 1905 , Lexis AcademicThe first question is whether, in applying the statute, the judge may consider the costs of the different cases together as one aggregate, and reducethem to an amount "not less than the [*364] ordinary witness fees and other costs recoverable in one of the cases"; or, whether he is to consider the costs of each case by itself, and make the reduction in each case separately. If he is limited to the latter mode, he cannot extinguish or disallowthe costs altogether in any case, for the word "reduce," in its ordinary signification, does not mean to cancel , destroy orbring to naught, but to diminish, lower or bring to an inferior state . We think HN2Go to this Headnote in the case.thewords above quoted indicate that, in reducing the costs, the amount in all the cases together is to be considered and reduced. This makes it

possible for the judge, in his discretion, to reduce them in such a way as to leave nothing in some of the cases, providing he leaves in theaggregate an amount not [***3] less than the largest sum recoverable in any of the cases .

B. Violation the aff eliminates all US presence in _________________

C. Vote neg our interpretation is key to preserve fairness and limits

- Key to predictability our evidence speaks to the common usage of reduce this is key tonegative ability to predict affirmative ground which is key to clash

- Key to limits There are infinite ways for the aff to reduce military presence ourinterpretation limits out small large affs and guarantees negatives solvency ground basedon continued US presence

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Reduce CAN Eliminate

Federal code proves elimination is a way to reduce.US Code 2005 (Code of Federal Regulations - Title 26: Internal Revenue (December 2005), 26 CFR 54.4980F-1,http://cfr.vlex.com/vid/54-significantly-reducing-future-accrual-19711258)(c) Elimination or cessation of benefits. For purposes of this section, the terms reduce or reduction include

eliminate or cease or elimination or cessation.

Legislation proves reduce can mean eliminate you can reduce to zero.Major Samuel W. Kan , Judge Advocate, U.S. Army, citing Virginia Code , January 2010 , Army Lawyer,Lexis Academicn316 VA. CODE ANN. 58.1-322 (Westlaw 2010) ("$ 15,000 of military basic pay for military service personnel on extended active duty for

periods in excess of 90 days; however, the subtraction amount shall be reduced dollar-for-dollar by the amount which the taxpayer'smilitary basic pay exceeds $ 15,000 and shall be reduced to zero if such military basic pay amount is equal to or exceeds $ 30,000 .").

Reduce can mean eliminate contextual evidence.Major Michael E. Guillory , reservist assigned to the International and Operations Law Division at the Air Force

Judge Advocate General School, Maxwell AFB AL, and member of the Florida State Bar, 2001 , Air Force LawReview, 51 A.F. L. Rev. 111, Lexis AcademicThe responses available to the United States, or any other country in jeopardy of using civilians in an inappropriate manner are as varied as theopinions of international legal scholars. The safest route would be to cease using civilians when ever the possibility exists thattheir activities are integrated into combat operations , but this would prove difficult from a political standpoint. Thepositions affected are critical for military operations ; eliminating them without replacement wouldmean a reduction in military capability while replacing them with military personnel would be expensive. Either choicewould not be appealing to Congress or the taxpayers. n157 A less [*137] drastic approach, at least theoretically, would be to discontinue their usage temporarily while attempts are made to clarify the law (or perhaps amend the law to recognize the aforementioned quasi-combatant status),

but as anyone familiar with international law knows, getting countries to agree on anything is extremely difficult. Although several decades isconsidered short-term when it comes to establishing international agreements, n158 it would be prohibitively long-term in addressing the issue of civilians operating in questionable roles .

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Reduce = Decrease

Reduce means to make smaller.Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 2008 , Twelfth Edition, Oxford Reference Online

reduce

v.1. make or become smaller or less in amount , degree, or size . boil (a sauce or other liquid) so that it becomes thicker andmore concentrated. (chiefly N. Amer.) (of a person) lose weight. (Photography) make (a negative or print) less dense.2. (reduce someone/thing to) bring someone or something by force or necessity to (an undesirable state or action). (reduce someone to) makesomeone helpless with (shock, anguish, or amusement).3. (reduce something to) change something to (a simpler or more basic form). convert a fraction to (the form with the lowest terms).4. (Chemistry) cause to combine chemically with hydrogen. undergo or cause to undergo a reaction in which electrons are gained from another substance or molecule. The opposite of oxidize.5. restore (a dislocated body part) to its proper position.6. (archaic) besiege and capture (a town or fortress).

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**Its**

1NC Its - Excludes Private ContractorsA. Interpretation its implies ownership.Glossary of English Grammar Terms, 2005 (http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/possessive-

pronoun.html)Mine, yours, his, hers, its , ours, theirs are the possessive pronouns used to substitute a noun and to showpossession or ownership .EG. This is your disk and that's mine. (Mine substitutes the word disk and shows that it belongs to me.)

Military means belonging to the armed forces.Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary 2010(http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/military_1)military adjectiverelating to or belonging to the armed forces

foreign military interventionmilitary targets/forcesmilitary uniformdescribes a characteristic that is typical of the armed forcesmilitary precision

B. Violation Private military contractors dont belong to the US military.

C. Vote Neg our interpretation is key to preserve predictability and fairness

- Limits the topic is already huge limiting the aff to official members of the military iskey to prevent further expansion which destroys clash and negative ground

- Predictability limiting private military contractors excludes link to core generic ground which is key to clash and negative ground

- Extra-topicality is an independent reason to vote even if they remove some officialmilitary forces, removing private contractors still allows them to access extra advantages destroys predictability and proves the topic insufficient

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Ext: Private Military Contracts are NOT Topical

Military contractors are not part of the USFG legislation and court rulings.Aaron E. Garfield , assigned to the 205th Military Intelligence Brigade from January to December, 2003, as amilitary intelligence analyst, Summer 2006 , Georgetown Journal of International Law, 37 Geo. J. Int'l L. 725, LexisAcademicWith the Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA), Congress exempted the federal government from tort liability under specified conditions, such aswhere a claim arises in a foreign country or from combatant activities. n22 However, the FTCA explicitly excludes privatecontractors from its definition of who may be considered to be acting as an agent or instrumentality of theU.S. government . n23 The courts have not specifically dealt with the issue of independent contractors employed in traditionallygovernmental functions in the military operational context. [*730] They have , however, explicitly excluded contractors fromimmunity in cases involving outsourced correctional officers in penal and immigration facilities . n24 As withoutsourced employees at domestic facilities, the flow of government authority in Iraq stops at the contracting official, and does not continue downto the contracted firm or its employees.

Contractors are not agents of the government Supreme Court rulings prove.Professor Barbara Bezdek , Associate Professor at the University of Maryland School of Law, June 2001 ,Fordham Urban Law Journal, 28 Fordham Urb. L.J. 1559, Lexis AcademicAdministrative procedure acts n46 and public information laws n47 often do not apply to private contractors. The

Supreme Court has [*1570] held that receiving money under a grant does not turn the recipient into a government agent, nor create a joint venture between government and grantee . n48 Data generated by privately controlled organizations, whether or not received and used by the government agency, do not constitute"agency records." n49 Consultants employed to improve the quality of the agency's work are not "agency"actors , unless they have legal authority to make decisions as the agency's own. n50

Contractors are not part of the military fall outside the military chain of command.Jennifer K. Elsea et al, Legislative Attorney in the American Law Division at the Congressional Research Service,August 25, 2008 , Private Security Contractors in Iraq: Background, Legal Status, and Other Issues,http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL32419.pdf Can Contractors Be Combatants? A critical question appears to be whether the duties of contractors amount to taking an active part inhostilities. In an international armed conflict or occupation,58 only members of regular armed forces and paramilitary groups thatcome under military command and meet certain criteria (carry their weapons openly, distinguish themselves from civilians,and generally obey the laws of war) qualify as combatants. 59 Because contract employees fall outside themilitary chain of command ,60 even those who appear to meet the criteria as combatants could be at risk of losing their right to betreated as POWs if captured by the enemy.

Contextual evidence proves.Jeremy Scahill , Puffin Foundation Writing Fellow at The Nation Institute, August 13, 2007 , Flush with Profitsfrom the Iraq War, Military Contractors See a World of Business Opportunities,http://www.alternet.org/world/59571/During the 1991 Gulf War, the ratio of troops to private contractors was about 60 to 1. Today, it is the contractors who outnumber U.S. forces inIraq. As of July 2007, there were more than 630 war contracting companies working in Iraq for the United States. Composed of some 180,000individual personnel drawn from more than 100 countries, the army of contractors surpasses the official U.S. militarypresence of 160,000 troops .

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Aff Private Contractors are topical

Private contractors meet police presence.Jennifer K. Elsea et al, Legislative Attorney in the American Law Division at the Congressional Research Service,August 25, 2008 , Private Security Contractors in Iraq: Background, Legal Status, and Other Issues,http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL32419.pdf The Geneva Conventions and other laws of war do not appear to forbid the use of civilian contractors in a civil police role in occupied territory, in which case contractors might be authorized to use force whenabsolutely necessary to defend persons or property.61 Given the fluid nature of the current security situation in Iraq, it may sometimes be difficultto discern whether civilian security guards are performing law-enforcement duties or are engaged in combat. If their activity amounts to combat,they would become lawful targets for enemy forces during the fighting, and, if captured by an enemy government (if one should emerge), could

potentially be prosecuted as criminals for their hostile acts.62 Contract personnel who intentionally kill or injure civilians could be liable for suchconduct regardless of their combatant status.63

Their interpretation of its doesnt exclude private contractors they can legally beconsidered agents of the government when acting for the government court rulings prove.

Nancy Gertner , US District Court Judge, May 4, 2009 , FRANKLIN D. HOLDREN, et al., Plaintiffs, v.BUFFALO PUMPS, INC., et al., Defendants, Civil Action No. 08cv10570-NG, UNITED STATES DISTRICTCOURT FOR THE DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS 614 F. Supp. 2d 129; 2009 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 38253, Lexis

AcademicPrivate military contractors sued in state court for design defects have also been brought within the ambit of the federal officer removal statute , but only under certain circumstances . See Ryan v. Dow Chemical Co., 781 F. Supp. 934,939 (E.D.N.Y. 1992) (suggesting that private actors seeking to invoke the federal officer removal statute "bear a special burden"). After all, thesecontractors, sued by plaintiffs from the same state, hardly face the kind of state-court bias with which the federal officer removal statute wasoriginally concerned. What they do face, however, is state tort liability stemming from the execution of federal duties -- much like [**8] thefederal tariff officer who acted at the behest of the national government. See In re Eastern and Southern Dist. New York Asbestos Litigation, 897F.2d 626, 630 (2d Cir. 1990). Thus, a contractor may assert the "federal contractor defense" only insofar as it hasacted as the federal government's agent by complying with "reasonably precise" design specifications. See Boyle v. UnitedTechnologies Corp., 487 U.S. 500, 507-08, 108 S. Ct. 2510, 101 L. Ed. 2d 442 (1988). And, like the federal officer, it may remove theaction only if the federal government was the source of the specific act for which the contractor now facessuit . See Mesa v. California, 489 U.S. 121, 131-32, 109 S. Ct. 959, 103 L. Ed. 2d 99 (1989).

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Its = Possession

Its implies ownership.Glossary of English Grammar Terms, 2005 (http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/possessive-

pronoun.html)Mine, yours, his, hers, its , ours, theirs are the possessive pronouns used to substitute a noun and to show

possession or ownership .EG. This is your disk and that's mine. (Mine substitutes the word disk and shows that it belongs to me.)

Its implies possession.The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2009 , Fourth Edition,http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/itsits (ts)adj. The possessive form of it.Used as a modifier before a noun: The airline canceled its early flight to New York.

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Its = Related To

Its means related to.Merriam Websters Online Dictionary, 2010 , http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/itsMain Entry : itsPronunciation: \ its, ts\

Function: adjectiveDate: circa 1507: of or relating to it or itself especially as possessor, agent, or object of an action

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**Military Presence**

1NC Presence Excludes Combat ForcesA. Interpretation - Presence excludes combat activities.James Thomason Project Leader, Institute for Defense Analysis, Transforming US Overseas Military Presence: Evidence and Optionsfor DoD, July, 2002 http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.122.1144&rep=rep1&type=pdf Our working definition of US overseas military presence is that it consists of all the US military assets inoverseas areas that are engaged in relatively routine , regular, non-combat activities or functions .1 By thisdefinition, forces that are located overseas may or may not be engaging in presence activities . If they areengaging in combat (such as Operation Enduring Freedom ), or are involved in a one-time non-combat action(such as an unscheduled carrier battle group deployment from the United States aimed at calming or stabilizing anemerging crisis situation), then they are not engaging in presence activities . Thus, an asset that is located (or

present) overseas may or may not be engaged in presence activities, may or may not be doing presence.

B. Violation the affirmative withdrawal of troops from _______________ withdrawscombat troops which are not a part of military presence.

C. Vote neg for fairness and education

- Key to limits the topic is already huge excluding large troop affs is key to keeping thetopic manageable

- Key to precision Our interpretation relies on precise, qualified definitions with intent todefine this is key to predictability and real-world education

- Key to neg ground The US is already withdrawing combat troops from Afghanistan andIraq limiting the aff to non-combat troop affs is key to negative uniqueness, which is keyto generic ground

- Extra-topicality is an independent reason to reject even if they withdraw some non-combat troops, action beyond the resolution destroys predictability and clash, and provesthe resolution insufficient

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Ext: Presence is NOT Combat Operations

Presence excludes combat forces.Lieutenant Colonel Charles Greer , United States Army, February 19, 1991 , The Future of Forward Presence,http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA234227&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf To establish a conceptual framework for this paper, I developed the following definition of forward presence within the

context of national defense: the visible employment of US military personnel and/or military materiel as adeterrent outside of the continental United States (OCONUS) at any point along the operational continuumshort of involving major US conventional forces in combat . My simplistic definition could be subject to endless scholarlydebate. It includes small unit combat operations of limited scope and duration and peacetime contingency operations such as Desert Shield inSaudi Arabia, but it excludes the subsequent combat operation designated Desert Storm. It includes our military activities in Alaska and Hawaii.It excludes any diplomatic, economic, social or psychological activities that do not have a military component.

Presence excludes crisis response and combat forces.Bradford Dismukes , representative of the Center for Naval Analyses to the London staff of the Commander inChief, U.S. Naval Forces Europe , October 2003 , National Security Strategy and Forward Presence: Implicationsfor Acquisition and Use of Forces, http://cna.org/sites/default/files/research/2793019200.pdf Beyond the direct defense of the United States, U.S. conventional forces fulfill three strategic functions: overseas presence,immediate crisis response, and sustained, large-scale combat . The definitions of the three provide the framework for decision onforces. Basically, forces needed for other tasksfor example, peace-keeping and peace enforcementare lesser cases of these three. (The BushAdministration grouped the latter two together under the label "Crisis Response." The Bottom-Up Review does not address crisis response except

by implication as part of phase 1, before large-scale combat in a "major regional contingency." Mr. Aspin tends to put the label presence on allforward forces whether they are forces for presence (as will be specified) or whether they are engaged in the tasks of crisis response.) A basic

problem with overseas presence is that the term describes both a military posture (military means) and a military mission(military means and political objectives). In the case of presence as a mission, the objective is influence on behalf of a variety of U.S.

political goals. This ambiguity is made worse by the fact that the term has been in use since at least the 1960s, but it hasnever been defined in the JCS dictionary of military terms . As a strategic task of the armed forces, overseaspresence is here defined as the routine operation of forces forward (the means) to influence what foreigngovernments , 113 both adversary and friend, think and do (the ends) without combat .114 Overseas presence does not constitutea strategy, though it or a similar term may in time become the shorthand name for the national strategy. The national strategy is one of engagement of U.S. power in the key regions to promote their stability and democratic development. As described in the body of this paper, anational strategy would integrate the components of U.S. power to achieve stability in the short term and build cooperative relations in the longterm. The latter would address the dangers inherent in the international system, outlined in table 1, on page 23. An importantdistinguishing characteristic of overseas presence 115 the absence of combat places it on a continuum of

increasing violence with the other strategic tasks, crisis response and sustained combat . Each form of the applicationof power aims to influence political behavior. Presence is nonviolent (though it is their potential for violence that makes forwardforces influential); crisis response involves the threat, or the actual practice, of limited violence; sustained combatseeks to change an adversary's behavior through largescale violence aimed at destroying his armed forces in the field, denyinghim the means to control or continue to support his operations, and so on. Thinking about the three strategic functions as points or bands on acontinuum fits the real world; yet the three define the need for distinct kinds of capabilities.

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C/I - Presence = Only Military Aid, Combat Operations, and Bases

Presence is only military aid, combat operations, and bases.American Observer quoting DOD Reports US military presence in foreign countries exceeds rest of world November 10, 2009 http://inews6.americanobserver.net/articles/us-military-presence-foreign-countries-exceeds-rest-worldThe United States has military presence in over 130 countries, according to a Department of Defense reportfor 2008. No other nation in the world has such widespread global military presence. According to The Center for Research and Globalization, an independent research organization, The United States Military is currently deployed to more locations than it has

been throughout history. Not only does the U.S. have military in a significant number of countries, but it also has diplomatic relations withalmost every country. A June 29, 2009 report from the State Department indicated that there are 192 countries in the world. The U.S. hasdiplomatic relations with all but four: Bhutan, Cuba, Iran and North Korea. Simply put, foreign policy decisions made by leaders elected in theUnited States directly impact the rest of the world. While the effects of our military deployment impact those who know someone in uniform,many U.S. citizens rarely see the consequences, unless they make headline news. U.S. troops today are stationed throughout the Middle East,including Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkey and Kuwait. While some countries are home to military bases, others require military disaster relief after acrisis, like a tsunami. Others have become battlefields, resulting in the deaths of U.S. soldiers and foreign civilians. Military presence isdefined by any nation where the U.S. has a military base , where the U.S. is providing military aid , active duty military

personnel, or where U.S. soldiers are engaged in combat theaters.

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Aff - Presence = Combat Operations

Presence includes both combat and non-combat operations official budget planning forIraq proves.Congressional Budget Office ( CBO ), September 20, 2007 , The Possible Costs to the United States of Maintaining a Long-Term Military Presence in Iraq, http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/86xx/doc8641/09-20-ConradLTpresenceinIraq.pdf At the request of Senator Kent Conrad, Chairman of the Senate Committee on the Budget, the Congressional Budget Office ( CBO ) hasestimated the possible costs to the United States of maintaining a long-term military presence in Iraq similar tothe U.S. forces in the Republic of Korea and the Northeast Asia region. The nature and pace of operations of such a presence, if any, in Iraq for one or more decades into the future are uncertain. To accommodate a range of possibilities, CBO has projected costs under twoscenarios: a combat scenario , which would involve rotating military units into and out of Iraq to sustain U.S. operations in a combatenvironment (as is now being done); and a noncombat scenario , which would involve stationing specific military units indefinitely atestablished bases in the region in a less hostile environment. If U.S. military operations in Iraq were to develop into a long-term presence, suchforces could differ substantially from those assumed in either of the scenarios used in this analysis. Moreover, the two scenarios are notmutually exclusive over time: The more intensive pace of combat operations could give way to the slower pace of noncombat operationsover some number of years. In any event, the ultimate costs of any long-term U.S. military presence in Iraq would depend heavily on the scaleand pace of future operations. Under the combat scenario that CBO considered, the United States would maintain along-term presence of approximately 55,000 military personnel in Iraq, deploying military units and their associatedpersonnel there for specific periods and then returning them to their permanent bases either in the United States or overseas. The scenario also incorporates the assumption that units deployed to Iraq would operate at the same pace and conduct the same types of missions as the forces currently deployed there. In CBOs estimation, this scenario could have one-time costs of $4 billion to $8 billion andannual costs of approximately $25 billion. (All costs in this analysis are expressed as 2008 dollars; see Table 1.) Under the noncombatscenario that CBO analyzed, the United States would maintain a long-term presence of approximately 55,000 militarypersonnel in Iraq by indefinitely stationing specific units at established bases there in a manner similar to the current

practice of assigning personnel to units based in Korea or Germany. The scenario incorporates the assumption of much less intense militaryoperations than those under the combat scenario. Under this noncombat alternative, units stationed in Iraq would rarely, if ever, be engaged incombat operations. Up-front costs (mainly for construction) under the noncombat scenario would be approximately $8 billion, with annual costsof $10 billion or less, CBO estimates.

Korea proves.Congressional Budget Office ( CBO ), September 20, 2007 , The Possible Costs to the United States of Maintaining a Long-Term Military Presence in Iraq, http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/86xx/doc8641/09-20-ConradLTpresenceinIraq.pdf Senator Conrad requested that CBO estimate the costs of a long-term U.S. military presence in Iraq, similar tothe presence maintained by the United States in and around the Republic of Korea since the 1950s. Those forces , which arespread throughout the Northeast Asia region, include Army ground combat units stationed in Korea itself and Marine Corpsground combat units stationed in Okinawa , Japan. Similarly, the Air Force maintains units in both Korea and Japan, and theMarine Corps has aviation equipment and personnel in Okinawa. In particular, from 1991 to 2004 (until a recent Army reorganization), theUnited States had maintained the current equivalent of four brigade combat teams, divisional and higher-level Army and Marine headquarters andsupport units, six land-based tactical fighter squadrons, and an aircraft carrier battle group in the Northeast Asia regiona total force comprisingabout 80,000 personnel.

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Combat Distinction Excludes Iraq/Afghanistan

Their interpretation excludes Iraq and Afghanistan no distinction between combat andnon-combat troops.Heather S. Ingrum Gipson , J.D. Candidate, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Winter 2005 , UMKC LawReview, 74 UMKC L. Rev. 383, Lexis Academicn136 Ann Scott Tyson, Bid to Limit Women In Combat Withdrawn, THE WASHINGTON POST, May 26, 2005, at A01. See also ThomShanker, House Bill Would Preserve, and Limit, the Role of Women in Combat Zones, N.Y. TIMES, May 20, 2005, at 20. Currently, there areover 22,000 positions open to women in "forward support companies." Id. Furthermore, given the nature of the warfare in Iraq andAfghanistan, the "front lines" are ambiguous; therefore, it is harder to differentiate between combat andnon-combat positions . Id.

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Combat Distinction Fails

Combat distinction fails no way to separate combat and non-combat activities.Colonel David A. Fastabend , Writing Team at the School of Advanced Military Studies, US Army Commandand General Staff College, former Army National Security Fellow at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University,Summer 1997 , Parameters, http://www.carlisle.army.mil/usawc/parameters/Articles/97summer/fastaben.htmRecognizing that a strategic distinction between war and OOTW is problematic at the tactical level, others are prepared to use tactical distinctionsas the basis of categorization. Combat and non-combat is an alluring way to categorize operations , for there is widespreadagreement that the use or threat of violence dramatically alters the nature of human activity. Fair enough. This distinction is present (but oftenoverlooked) in the joint doctrine elaboration of MOOTW activities, and it is the basis for discriminating between stability operations and supportoperations in the draft revision of FM 100-5. But combat, real or potential, is so interwoven with non-combat activitiesin most military operations that it is an impractical means of categorization . To categorize by combat wouldsuggest that D Company , 3-5 Cav, was on a non-combat operation until the drunk staggered into his front yardand started firing; then the operation instantly transmuted to combat. It is impossible to associate substantiveplanning and execution guidance with such a fleeting , transient model of categorization . As Major General Carl F. Ernstnoted in the Joint Task Force Somalia After Action Report, "All commanders must believe they are always only a heartbeat away from agunfight."[27]

Their distinction is outdated current conflict has collapsed the difference between combatand non-combat.Diane H. Mazur , Professor of Law, University of Florida College of Law; former Captain, United States Air Force, May, 2007 , Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy, 14 Duke J. Gender L. & Pol'y 977, Lexis Academicn56. In 2005, the Army opened Ranger training to men serving in non-combat roles, recognizing that the IraqWar had made formal distinctions between combat and non-combat arms less important :The Global War on Terrorism (GWOT) created many new challenges for our Army. Traditional branch roles onthe battlefield are no longer the norm for our force s and the threat facing us today requires that we ensureadditional select leaders of CS [combat support] and CSS [combat service support] units receive the unique skillstaught at Ranger School. MILPER Message No. 05-067, Expansion of Ranger School Attendance to CombatSupport (CS) and Combat Service Support (CSS) Branches (Mar. 9, 2005) (alterations added), available athttp://www. military.com/MilitaryCareers/Content/0,14556,MPDC CareerNews Ar my Enlisted 030905,00.html.The mission-oriented sentiment applies unless, of course, they are women: "Attendance at Ranger school willremain limited to Soldiers for whom the combat exclusion policy does not apply." Id.

Nature of conflict has changed cant distinguish between combat and non-combat.Steven K. Berenson , Associate Professor of Law, Thomas Jefferson School of Law, Fall 2009 , Hamline Journalof Public Law & Policy, 31 Hamline J. Pub. L. & Pol'y 101, Lexis AcademicOf course, psychological and other less visible forms of injuries have been a feature of warfare from the beginning of human existence. n129However, a number of features of the current conflicts may be influencing an increase in the prevalence of such injuries. The first of these relatesto changes in military operations, [*127] including extended deployments. n130 "Troops are seeing more-frequent deployments, of greater lengths, with shorter rest periods in between - factors thought to create a more stressful environment for servicemembers." n131 Additionally,the line between combat and non-combat situations has blurred in the current conflicts . Thus, rather thanexperiencing distinct periods of combat , followed by periods of rest, service members face a constant threat of guerilla type attacks . n132 The constant vigilance required to defend oneself is a type of stressor that has been linked to PTSD.

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AT: Greer Evidence

Greer admits that his definition is not universal and only applies to his research preferour evidence, which cites US law.Lieutenant Colonel Charles Greer , United States Army, February 19, 1991 , The Future of Forward Presence,http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA234227&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf

The definition may not be scholastically airtight . It is only offered to provide a conceptual frame of reference for the study . So for the purpose of this study, let us accept that forward presence is the visibleemployment of US military personnel and/or military materiel as a deterrent outside of the continental UnitedStates (OCONUS) at any point along the operational continuum short of involving major US conventional forces incomba t.

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1NC Presence is Only Troops

A. Interpretation - Presence is limited to troops.The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military, 2001 , Oxford Reference Onlinepresence n.a group of people, especially soldiers or police, stationed in a particular place : maintain a

presence in the region.

B. Violation the aff changes military doctrine or weapons policy it does not removetroops from _______________

C. Vote neg our interpretation is key to preserve fairness and educational clash

- Key to limits Expanding the topic to include both troops, missions, and weapons leads toinfinite small affs this destroys negative generic and specific ground, which is key tofairness

- Key to predictability Limiting the topic to troops allows viable affs within each topiccountry but still guarantees negative ability to predict affirmatives this is key to researchand clash which are key to education

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Ext: Presence = Troops

Presence is measured based on troops.Jessie PH Poon, et al , Professor in the Department of Geography, University at Buffalo-SUNY, September 2006 ,Political Geography, ScienceDirectThe major source of defense trade data comes from the United States International Trade Commission (USITC) where 1989 forms the earliest

year that the data are available and 2004 the most recent (http://dataweb.usitc.gov/scripts/user_set.asp). From this database, current and historicalrecords may be searched for U.S. exports to Asia Pacific countries with the end use category defense. This ensured that dual use products wereexcluded from the search. Seven sectors may be identified for defense trade including military aircrafts, aircraft launching gear/parachutes, etc.,engines/turbines for military aircraft, military trucks/armored vehicles, etc., military ships/boats, tanks/artillery/missiles/rockets/guns/ammunition, and parts/special goods, etc. Not all of the sectors will be analyzed because many countries contain only verysparse data. Approximately thirty Asia Pacific countries are identified to be engaged in defense trade with the US although this number variesfrom sector to sector. The countries include all members of APEC and the ARF but also extend to other countries that have been excluded fromthese arrangements such as Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Oceania. Defense exports are supplemented by two other sourcesof data, that is, US military presence and countries military expenditure. US military presence is measured by the number andshares of active military personnel in the region. This information is compiled by the US Department of Defense(http://www.dior.whs.mil/mmid/military/miltop.htm). Statistics on military expenditures may be obtained from the Stockholm International PeaceResearch Institute (www.sipri. org). In addition, contextual information is also collected from research monographs on US military strategies.These reports are compiled by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) in Washington, D.C., and CRS constitutes the public policy researcharm of the US Congress. Many of these reports include testimonials to the Congress regarding defense and strategic events in the Asia Pacific,and provide important documentation as well as evidence of US geopolitical interests, policies and developments in the region .

There is no official military definition of presence common usage proves that troops arethe best definition of presence.Craig W. Mastapeter , Senior Planning Officer, Department of Homeland Security, December 2008 , TheInstruments of National Power: Achieving the Strategic Advantage in a Changing World,According to Websters Unabridged Dictionary, presence is defined as the state of being present , or of beingwithin sight or call, or at hand; as opposed to absence.438 YourDictionary defines presence as the fact or condition of being present; existence,ccurrence, or attendance at some place or in some thing.439 From the perspective of the purpose of this paper, the FreeDictionaryprovides the most relevant definition: the diplomatic, political, or military influence of a nation in a foreigncountry, especially as evidenced by the posting of its diplomats or its troops there .440 Interestingly enough,The Joint Publications 1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms does notinclude a definition of presence . However, Joint Publication 1-0, Doctrine for the Armed Forces of the United States, clearly states thatan extended U.S. presence will be required, post-termination, to conduct stability operations to enable legitimate civil authority and attain thenational strategic end state441 and that, as a nation, the United States wages war employing all instruments of national power to achieve national

strategic objectives on terms favorable to the United States.442 It can therefore be inferred from this entry that a U.S. presence is necessary prior to and during operations because presence demonstrates U.S. commitment, facilitates access, enhances deterrence, and supports the transitionfrom peace to war and a return to peace once hostilities have ended on terms favorable to the U.S .

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Aff Presence Includes Both Troops and Infrastructure

Presence includes both troops infrastructure.Barry M. Blechman et al , President of DFI International, Spring, 1997 , Strategic Review, p.14Given its multifaceted nature, neither practitioners nor scholars have yet settled on a single definition of presence . Technically, the termrefers to both a military posture and a military objective. This study uses the term presence to refer to a continuum of military

activities , from a variety of interactions during peacetime to crisis response involving both forces on the scene and those based in the UnitedStates. Our definition follows that articulated by the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff: Presence is the totality of U.S. instruments of power deployed overseas (both permanently and temporarily) along with the requisiteinfrastructure and sustainment capabilities ."

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Aff Presence is Defined Broadly

Official usage of presence is broad includes forward-deployed troops.Mary L. Scala , Office of the Secretary of Defense, May 18, 1998 , Theater Engagement Planning: An InteragencyOpportunity, http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA351762&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf During the run-up to the 1997 Quadrennial Defense Review ( QDR) , the Joint Staff and the Office of the Under

Secretary of Defense for Policy undertook a comprehensive review of overseas presence requirements and issues. Theintention was to ensure the resources committed to presence were consistent with national priorities in the regionand to identify overseascommitments that were potentially excess to the emerging defense strategy. To make sure everything was considered, the definition of presence was made as broad as possiblefrom forward-stationed troops, to prepositioned stocks, to navaldeployments, to joint and combined military exercises, to mil-to-mil contacts .3 At about the same time, the Joint Staff was working to create a notional baseline engagement force in order to get a clearer historical picture of how many U.S. forces worldwide wereengaged routinely in engagement or crisis-response operations. Both the overseas presence study and the baseline engagement force analysiswere intended to form one point of departure for the formulation of a new defense strategy. Planners hoped to find relatively painless ways toincrease spending on military readiness and procurement, without undercutting essential warfighting forces or technology

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Broad Aff Interpretations of Presence

Five categories of military presence permanently stationed forces, rotational forces,temporary deployments for training, defense cooperation, and academic centers.Richard J. Samuels , Ford International Professor of Political Science and Director of the Center for InternationalStudies, 2006 , "Forward Basing." Encyclopedia of U.S. National Security, p.370There are five primary categories of U.S. military presence abroad. Thes e include U.S. forces permanentlystationed overseas; U.S. forces deployed abroad on a rotational basis; U.S. forces deployed temporarily forexercises, combined training, or mili tary-to-military interactions; programs such as defense cooperation,security assistance, and international arms cooperation; and regional academic centers that provide trainingin Western concepts of civilian control of the military, conflict resolution, and sound defense-resource management for foreign military andcivilian officials.

Military presence includes a broad range of military activities.US Joint Chiefs of Staff , June 16, 1995 , Joint Doctrine for Military Operations other than War, Joint Pub 3-07, http://smallwarsjournal.com/documents/jp3-07.pdf

b. Forward Presence. Forward presence activities demonstrate our commitment, lend credibility to our alliances,enhance regional stability, and provide a crisis response capability while promoting US influence and access. Inaddition to forces stationed overseas and afloat, forward presence activities include periodic and rotationaldeployments, access and storage agreements, multinational exercises, port visits, foreign military training,foreign community support and military-to-military contacts . Given their location and knowledge of the region,forward presence forces could be the first which the combatant commander commits to MOOTW.

Presence includes forward basing and broad list of deployments.Richard J. Samuels , Ford International Professor of Political Science and Director of the Center for InternationalStudies, 2006 , "Forward Basing." Encyclopedia of U.S. National Security, pp.272-3During peacetime, U.S. overseas military presence in strategic regions of the world, established to supportinternational security objectives and national interests. Forward basing refers to the equipment, U.S. armedforces, and military facilities that are stationed in a foreign country or deployed at sea during peacetime. Themore general term forward presence encompasses noncombat overseas U.S. military activities and includes ,

but is not limited to, bases, fixed and rotational deployments, access agreements, foreign military assistance,training of foreign armed forces, joint training exercises, intelligence sharing, and mili tary-to-militarycontacts .

Presence includes physical stationing of forces.Captain Mark A. Patterson , US Navy Reserve, pursuing Master of Strategic Studies Degree , 9-5- 2008 , Defendthe Approaches! http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA486738&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf Throughout history, U.S. maritime strategy has evolved in response to the realities of a changing world. As world geo-political dynamics change,US national priorities may change and with it the threats, risks and potential operating environment for the nations armed forces. In response, the

Navy (including the Marine Corps) develops new strategies or modifies existing ones to support US national strategy and priorities. One constantsince the end of World War II has been the enduring principle of forward presence as a mainstay of US maritime strategy. The termpresence encompasses many activities from port visits to stationing ships within sight of shore to full scaleoperations .1 For this paper, presence is the visible positioning or stationing of ships, aircraft and/or personnel forthe purpose of influencing, assuring or engaging other state actors or non-state actors. The scope of this definitionincludes the full range of traditional and emerging military missions, including port visits, training (personnel and forces),Theater Security Cooperation Programs (TSCP), personnel exchanges, humanitarian assistance and limited or full scalepermissive and non-permissive military operations .

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Broad Aff Interpretations of Presence

Military presence includes a broad list of non-combat activities.Barry M. Blechman et al , President of DFI International, Spring, 1997 , Strategic Review, p.13Occupying a continuum of operations short of actual combat, presence missions have included the permanentbasing of troops overseas, routine military-to-military contacts, mili tary exercises and training with other

nations, participation in multinational peace and humanitarian operations, the provision of timelyintelligence information and other data to leaders of other nations, military deployments in response to crises,and , when necessary, the deployment of forces in anticipation of combat .

Military presence includes a broad list of actions, including peacekeeping.James Thomason Project Leader, Institute for Defense Analysis, Transforming US Overseas Military Presence: Evidence and Optionsfor DoD, July, 2002 http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.122.1144&rep=rep1&type=pdf Overseas military presence activities are generally viewed as a subset of the overall class of activities that theUS government uses i n its efforts to promote important military/security objectives [Dismukes, 1994]. A variety of recurrent, overseas military activities are normally placed under the umbrella concept of military presence. Theseinclude but are not limited to US military efforts overseas to train foreign militaries; to improve inter-operability of US and friendly forces; to peacefully and visibly demonstrate US commitment and/or ability todefend US interests; to gain intelligence and familiarity with a locale; to conduct peacekeeping activities; andto position relevant, capable US military assets such that they are likely to be available sooner rather than later incase an evolving security operation or contingency should call for them.2

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**Police Presence**

1NC Police Presence = Actual Police Deployments (vs. affs thatclaim their withdrawal of military decrease police)

A. Interpretation Police presence is distinct from military presence it is limited to actualdeployments of police for training and substitution for indigenous forces.James Dobbins et al, Director, International Security and Defense Policy Center, RAND National SecurityResearch Division, 2003 , America's Role in Nation-Building: From Germany to Iraq,http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1753/MR1753.ch9.pdf INTERNATIONAL POLICE PRESENCE OVER TIMEA more recent innovation has been dispatching U.S. and international police to supplement the efforts of military forces to provide security for local inhabitants. These initiatives have differed greatly in scope and scale. Some haveprincipally consisted of training programs for local law enforcement officers; others have been major

operations that have included deploying hundreds or thousands of armed international police to monitor,train, mentor, and even substitute for indigenous forces until the creation of a proficient domestic police force. Figure 9.3shows numbers of foreign police per thousand inhabitants over time for the four cases that featured significant deployments of international

police.

B. Violation Withdrawing military troops cant reduce police presence the two conceptsare distinct

C. Vote neg Our interpretation of the topic is key to preserve fairness and education

- Key to limits Defining police based on make-up rather than mission is key to preservelimits on this topic police missions have no clear defined meaning which explodes thetopic, destroying clash and negative ground

- Key to precision The framers included both terms in the topic, proving they were meantto have distinct meanings - Our interpretation is based in literature comparing militaryand police presence Which proves its more predictable and boosts clash

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Ext: Police Presence Refers to Civilian Police

Police refers to civilian police forces proves that police presence should be distinct fromthe military.Mathieu Deflem and Suzanne S u tphin, Professor of Sociology at the University of South Carolina and ResearchAssistant Professor in the Research, Evaluation, and Emerging Community Issues Division, November 2006 ,Policing Post-War Iraq: Insurgency, Civilian Police, and the Reconstruction of Society, Sociological Focus,http://www.cas.sc.edu/socy/faculty/deflem/zpoliraq.htmlOur analysis of the police situation in Iraq focuses on developments since an end to major combat operations was announced in the Spring of 2003. Unless explicitly noted otherwise, the term police in this paper refers to the institution and function of civilian publicpolice forces that are formally legitimated within the context of national states with the tasks of crime controland order maintenance . Importantly, we make no assertion that the police in Iraq has acquired a degree of popular legitimacy comparableto that of law enforcement agencies in other nations, especially those with a long history of democratization. Relatedly, when we use such termsas insurgency and terrorism in this paper, we imply no essentialist positions but instead rely on a constructionist viewpoint and therefore preciselyrely on the terms that are being used, especially on the part of the agents of control, to refer to acts of violence that are responded to accordingly

by police agencies and other institutions of social control. Considering the rapidly evolving and changing nature of the Iraqi situation, also, it isimportant to note that this article was completed in August 2006, at a time when discussions on the insurgency in Iraq were for several monthsalready implying a shift towards civil war.

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Ext: Police Presence refers to post-conflict peacekeeping

Police presence refers to peacekeepers.Mary Hope Schwoebel , program officer in USIPs Education and Training Center/International, July, 2009 ,United States Institute of Peace Teaches International Security Personnel to Resolve Conflicts without Resorting tothe Use of Force, USIPeace Briefing, http://www.usip.org/files/resources/usip_teaches.pdf

The G-8 Action Plan pledged to train 75,000 international peacekeepers by 2010, 7,500 of whom were to be gendarme-type peacekeepers specializing in managing the transition from armed violent conflict to a post-conflictstabilization and reconstruction context . Gendarme-type forces are prepared for rapid deployment, have self-sustainedlogistics, have interoperability with military components, and have the capability to establish a strong police presence inhostile neighborhoods. Stability Police Units (SPUs) are flexible and adaptable, operating in contexts in which both military and civilian tasksmay be required in different combinations and at different times during the course of stabilization and reconstruction. Due to their hybrid nature,SPUs may be put under both military and civilian chains of command.

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**Other Words**

United States federal governmentUnited States federal government refers to the three branches of the federal government.US Legal, No Date (United States Federal Government Law and Legal Definition,http://definitions.uslegal.com/u/united-states-federal-government/)The United States Federal Government is established by the US Constitution. The Federal Government shares sovereignty over theUnited Sates with the individual governments of the States of US. The Federal government has three branches: i) the legislature,which is the US Congress, ii) Executive , comprised of the President and Vice president of the US and iii) Judiciary . The USConstitution prescribes a system of separation of powers and checks and balances for the smooth functioning of all the three branches of theFederal Government. The US Constitution limits the powers of the Federal Government to the powers assigned to it; all powers not expresslyassigned to the Federal Government are reserved to the States or to the people.

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And/Or Does Means Both or Either (AT: It Only Means Both)

And/Or does not mean both it means you can do both or either.Pocket Fowler's Modern English Usage, 2008 , Ed. Robert Allen, Oxford Reference Onlineand/or is a formula indicating that the items connected by it can be taken either together or as alternatives . Its principal uses are in legal and other formal documents (These ratios indicated that the changes in the order of crystallinitywere similar to those with the water content and/or dehydration and temperature for gelatinization among and/or within cultivarsAnnals of Botany, BrE 2001), and in logic (The best philosophyembodies a picture of the world and/or a set of valuesE. Craig, 2002).In general use the effect can be ungainly:Stalin, characteristically insensitive to Western public opinion and/or relying on the political ambiguity of these phrases in the existing context,signed itCambridge Review, 1959.A more comfortable way of expressing the same idea is to use X or Y or both, and in some cases or by itself will do.

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In = Within

In means within the relevant country.The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2009 , Fourth Edition,http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/inin 1 (n)

prep.1. a. Within the limits, bounds, or area of : was hit in the face; born in the spring; a chair in the garden.

b. From the outside to a point within; into: threw the letter in the wastebasket.c. Having the activity, occupation, or function of: a life in politics; the officer in command.d. During the act or process of: tripped in racing for the bus.e.With the arrangement or order of: fabric that fell in luxuriant folds; arranged to purchase the car in equal payments.f.After the style or form of: a poem in iambic pentameter.g. By means of: paid in cash.h. Made with or through the medium of: a statue in bronze; a note written in German.

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