Battle of Lepanto

Battle of Lepanto

Part of the Fourth Ottoman-Venetian War and the Ottoman-Habsburg wars

Battle of Lepanto, Paolo Veronese, Accademia di Belle Arti, Venezia.

Date 7 October 1571Location Gulf of Corinth, Ionian Sea

Result Decisive Holy League victory

Belligerents

Holy League

Habsburg Spain

Republic of Venice

Papal States

(other Belligerents)

Ottoman Empire

Commanders and leaders

Holy League: Christian Center:

John of AustriaSebastiano VenierMarcantonio Colonna

Christian Left:Agostino Barbarigo (KIA)

Christian Right:Gianandrea Doria

Christian Reserve:

Álvaro de Bazán

Ottoman Fleet: Turkish Center:

Ali Pasha (KIA)Turkish Right:

Mehmed Siroco (KIA)Turkish Left:

Uluç Ali Reis

StrengthTotal: 212 ships6 Venetian galleasses109 Venetian galleys55 Spanish galleys27 Genoese galleys12 Papal galleys3 Maltese galleysTotal: 28,500 soldiers8,000 Spanish5,000 Venetian1,500 Papal5,000 German5,000 Italian4,000 noble adventurersTotal: 1,815 guns

251 ships

206 galleys 45 galliots

31,490 soldiers50,000 sailors and oarsmen741 guns (est.)

Casualties and losses

7,500 dead17 ships lost

20,000 dead, wounded or captured137 ships captured50 ships sunk10,000 Christians freed

.

The Battle of Lepanto took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of southern European Catholic maritime states, decisively defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire in five hours of fighting on the northern edge of the Gulf of Corinth, off western Greece. The Ottoman forces sailing westwards from their naval station in Lepanto (Turkish: İnebahtı; Greek: Ναύπακτος or Έπαχτος Naupaktos or Épahtos) met the Holy League forces, which had come from Messina.

The victory of the Holy League prevented the Ottoman Empire expanding further along the European side of the Mediterranean. Lepanto was the last major naval battle in the Mediterranean fought entirely between galleys and has been assigned great symbolic importance.

Background

Depictions of the Ottoman Navy during the battle of Lepanto

The Christian coalition had been promoted by Pope Pius V to rescue the Venetian colony of Famagusta, on the island of Cyprus, which was being besieged by the Turks in early 1571 subsequent to the fall of Nicosia and other Venetian possessions in Cyprus in the course of 1570.

The banner for the fleet, blessed by the pope, reached the Kingdom of Naples (then ruled by the King of Spain) on August 14, 1571. There in the Basilica of Santa Chiara it was solemnly consigned to John of Austria, who had been named leader of the coalition after long discussions between the allies. The fleet moved to Sicily and

leaving Messina reached (after several stops) the port of Viscardo in Cephalonia, where news arrived of the fall of Famagusta and of the torture inflicted by the Turks on the Venetian commander of the fortress, Marco Antonio Bragadin.

On August 1 the Venetians had surrendered after being reassured that they could leave Cyprus freely. However, the Ottoman commander, Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, who had lost some 52,000 men in the siege (including his son), broke his word, imprisoning the Venetians. On 17 August Bragadin was flayed alive and his corpse hung on Mustafa's galley together with the heads of the Venetian commanders, Astorre Baglioni, Alvise Martinengo and Gianantonio Querini.

Despite bad weather, the Christian ships sailed south and on October 6 they reached the port of Sami, Cephalonia then also called Val d'Alessandria, where they remained for a while. On 7 October they sailed toward the Gulf of Patras, where they encountered the Ottoman fleet. While neither fleet had immediate strategic resources or objectives in the gulf, both chose to engage. The Ottoman fleet had an express order from the Sultan to fight, and John of Austria found it necessary to attack in order to maintain the integrity of the expedition in the face of personal and political disagreements within the Holy League.

Forces

The members of the Holy League were Spain (including the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sicily and the Kingdom of Sardinia as part of the Spanish possessions), the Republic of Venice, the Papacy, the Republic of Genoa, the Duchy of Savoy, the Duchy of Urbino, the Knights Hospitaller and others. Its fleet consisted of 206 galleys and 6 galleasses (large new galleys, invented by the Venetians, which carried substantial artillery) and was commanded by Don John of Austria, the illegitimate son of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles I of Spain and V of the Holy Roman Empire, and half-brother of Philip II of Spain, supported by the Spanish commanders Don Luis de Requesens and Don Álvaro de Bazán, and Genoan commander Gianandrea Doria.

Vessels had been contributed by the various Christian states: 109 galleys and 6 galleasses from the Republic of Venice, 56 from the Spanish Empire (32 galleys from the Kingdom of Naples, 14 galleys from Spain, and 10 galleys from the Kingdom of Sicily), 7 galleys from the Pope, 27 galleys from the Republic of Genoa (partly financed by Spain), 3 galleys of the Order of Saint Stephen from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, 3 galleys each from the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Malta, and some privately owned galleys in Spanish service. All members of the alliance viewed the Ottoman navy as a significant threat, both to the security of maritime trade in the

Mediterranean Sea and to the security of continental Europe itself. Spain was the largest financial contributor, though the Spaniards preferred to preserve most of their galleys for Spain's own wars against the nearby sultanates of the Barbary Coast rather than expend its naval strength for the benefit of Venice. The various Christian contingents met the main force, that of Venice (under Venier), in July and August 1571 at Messina, Sicily. John of Austria arrived on 23 August.

This fleet of the Christian alliance was manned by 40,000 sailors and oarsmen. In addition, it carried almost 28,000 fighting troops: 10,000 Spanish regular infantry of excellent quality, 7,000 Germans and Croatians and 5,000 Italian mercenaries in Spanish pay, and 5,000 Venetian soldiers,. Also, Venetian oarsmen were mainly free citizens and were able to bear arms adding to the fighting power of their ship, whereas convicts were used to row many of the galleys in other Holy League squadrons.

Many of the galleys in the Ottoman fleet were also rowed by slaves, often Christians who had been captured in previous conquests and engagements. Free oarsmen were generally acknowledged to be superior by all combatants, but were gradually replaced in all galley fleets (including those of Venice from 1549) during the 16th century by cheaper slaves, convicts and prisoners-of-war owing to rapidly rising costs.

The Ottoman galleys were manned by 13,000 experienced sailors—generally drawn from the maritime nations of the Ottoman Empire, namely Berbers, Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians—and 34,000 soldiers. Ali Pasha, the Ottoman admiral (Kapudan-i Derya ), supported by the corsairs Chulouk Bey of Alexandria and Uluç Ali, commanded an Ottoman force of 222 war galleys, 56 galliots, and some smaller vessels. The Turks had skilled and experienced crews of sailors but were significantly deficient in their elite corps of Janissaries. The number of oarsmen was about 37,000, virtually all of them slaves.

An advantage for the Christians was their numerical superiority in guns and cannon aboard their ships. It is estimated the Christians had 1,815 guns, while the Turks had only 750 with insufficient ammunition. The Christians embarked with their much improved arquebusier and musketeer forces, while the Ottomans trusted in their greatly feared composite bowmen.[19]

Deployment

Formation of the fleets just before contact.

The Christian fleet formed up in four divisions in a North-South line. At the northern end, closest to the coast, was the Left Division of 53 galleys, mainly Venetian, led by Agostino Barbarigo (admiral), with Marco Querini and Antonio da Canale in support. The Centre Division consisted of 62 galleys under John of Austria himself in his Real, along with Sebastiano Venier, later Doge of Venice, Mathurin Romegas and Marcantonio Colonna.

The Right Division to the south consisted of another 53 galleys under the Genoese Giovanni Andrea Doria, great-nephew of admiral Andrea Doria. Two galleasses, which had side-mounted cannon, were positioned in front of each main division, for the purpose, according to Miguel de Cervantes (who served on the galley Marquesa during the battle), of preventing the Turks from sneaking in small boats and sapping, sabotaging or boarding the Christian vessels. A Reserve Division was stationed

behind (that is, to the west of) the main fleet, to lend support wherever it might be needed.

This reserve division consisted of 38 galleys - 30 behind the Centre Division commanded by Álvaro de Bazán, and four behind each wing. A scouting group was formed, from two Right Wing and six Reserve Division galleys. As the Christian fleet was slowly turning around Point Scropha, Doria's Right Division, at the off-shore side, was delayed at the start of the battle and the Right's galleasses did not get into position.

The Ottoman fleet consisted of 57 galleys and 2 galliots on its Right under Chulouk Bey, 61 galleys and 32 galliots in the Centre under Ali Pasha in the Sultana, and about 63 galleys and 30 galliots in the South off-shore under Uluç Ali. A small reserve existed of 8 galleys, 22 galliots and 64 fustas, behind the Centre body. Ali Pasha is supposed to have told his Christian galley-slaves: "If I win the battle, I promise you your liberty. If the day is yours, then God has given it to you." John of Austria, more laconically, warned his crew: "There is no paradise for cowards."

The battle

The Victors of Lepanto (from left: John of Austria, Marcantonio Colonna, Sebastiano Venier).

The left and centre galleasses had been towed half a mile ahead of the Christian line. When the battle started, the Turks mistook the galleasses to be merchant supply vessels and set out to attack them. This proved to be disastrous; the galleasses, with their many guns, alone were said to have sunk up to 70 Ottoman galleys, before the Ottoman fleet left them behind. Their attacks also disrupted the Ottoman formations.

As the battle started, Doria found that Uluç Ali's galleys extended further to the south than his own, and so headed south to avoid being outflanked, instead of holding the Christian line. After the battle Doria was accused of having maneuvered his fleet away from the bulk of the battle to avoid taking damage and casualties. Regardless, he ended up being outmaneuvered by Uluç Ali, who turned back and attacked the southern end of the Centre Division, taking advantage of the big gap that Doria had left.

In the north, Chulouk Bey had managed to get between the shore and the Christian North Division, with six galleys in an outflanking move, and initially the Christian fleet suffered. Commander Barbarigo was killed by an arrow, but the Venetians, turning to face the threat, held their line. The return of a galleass saved the Christian North Division. The Christian Centre also held the line with the help of the Reserve, after taking a great deal of damage, and caused great damage to the Muslim Centre. In the south, off-shore side, Doria was engaged in a melee with Uluç Ali's ships, taking the worse part. Meanwhile Uluç Ali himself commanded 16 galleys in a fast attack on the Christian Centre, taking six galleys—amongst them the Maltese Capitana, killing all but three men on board. Its commander, Pietro Giustiniani, Prior to the Order of St. John, was severely wounded by five arrows, but was found alive in his cabin. The intervention of the Spaniards Álvaro de Bazán and Juan de Cardona with the reserve turned the battle, both in the Centre and in Doria's South Wing.

Uluç Ali was forced to flee with 16 galleys and 24 galliots, abandoning all but one of his captures. During the course of the battle, the Ottoman Commander's ship was boarded and the Spanish tercios from 3 galleys and the Ottoman Janissaries from seven galleys fought on the deck of the Sultana. Twice the Spanish were repelled with heavy casualties, but at the third attempt, with reinforcements from Álvaro de Bazán's galley, they took the ship. Müezzinzade Ali Pasha was killed and beheaded, against the wishes of Don Juan. However, when his severed head was displayed on a pike from the Spanish flagship, it contributed greatly to the destruction of Turkish morale. Even after the battle had clearly turned against the Turks, groups of Janissaries still kept fighting with all they had. It is said that at some point the Janissaries ran out of weapons and started throwing oranges and lemons at their Christian adversaries, leading to awkward scenes of laughter among the general misery of battle.

The battle concluded around 4 pm. The Ottoman fleet suffered the loss of about 210 ships—of which 117 galleys, 10 galliots and three fustas were captured and in good enough condition for the Christians to keep. On the Christian side 20 galleys were destroyed and 30 were damaged so seriously that they had to be scuttled. One Venetian galley was the only prize kept by the Turks; all others were abandoned by them and recaptured.

Uluç Ali, who had captured the flagship of the Maltese Knights, succeeded in extricating most of his ships from the battle when defeat was certain. Although he had cut the tow on the Maltese flagship in order to get away, he sailed to Constantinople, gathering up other Ottoman ships along the way and finally arriving there with 87 vessels. He presented the huge Maltese flag to Sultan Selim II who thereupon bestowed upon him the honorary title of "kιlιç" (Sword); Uluç thus became known as Kılıç Ali Pasha.

The Holy League had suffered around 7,500 soldiers, sailors and rowers dead, but freed about as many Christian prisoners. Ottoman casualties were around 15,000, and at least 3,500 were captured.

Aftermath

A sinking Ottoman Navy vessel, painting by Pieter Brünniche, 1762.

The engagement was a significant defeat for the Ottomans, who had not lost a major naval battle since the fifteenth century. The defeat was mourned by them as an act of Divine Will, contemporary chronicles recording that "the Imperial Fleet encountered the fleet of the wretched infidels and the will of God turned another way." To half of Christendom, this event encouraged hope for the downfall of "the Turk", the Satan-like personification of the Ottoman Empire, who was regarded as the "Sempiternal Enemy of the Christian". Indeed, the Empire lost all but 30 of its ships and as many as 30,000 men, and some Western historians have held it to be the most decisive naval battle anywhere on the globe since the Battle of Actium of 31 BC.

Despite the decisive defeat, the Ottoman Empire rebuilt its navy with a massive effort, by largely imitating the successful Venetian galeasses, in a very short time. By 1572, about six months after the defeat, more than 150 galleys and 8 galleasses, in total 250 ships had been built, including eight of the largest capital ships ever seen in the Mediterranean. With this new fleet the Ottoman Empire was able to reassert its supremacy in the Eastern Mediterranean. On 7 March 1573 the Venetians thus

recognized by treaty the Ottoman possession of Cyprus, whose last Venetian possession, Famagosta, had fallen to the Turks under Piyale Pasha on 3 August 1571, just two months before Lepanto, and remained Turkish for the next three centuries, and that summer the Ottoman Navy attacked the geographically vulnerable coasts of Sicily and southern Italy. Sultan Selim II's Chief Minister, the Grand Vizier Mehmed Sokullu, argued to the Venetian emissary Marcantonio Barbaro that the Christian triumph at Lepanto made no lasting harm to the Ottoman Empire, while the capture of Cyprus by the Ottomans in the same year was a significant blow, saying that:

You come to see how we bear our misfortune. But I would have you know the difference between your loss and ours. In wresting Cyprus from you, we deprived you of an arm; in defeating our fleet, you have only shaved our beard. An arm when cut off cannot grow again; but a shorn beard will grow all the better for the razor.

Numerous historians pointed out the historical importance of the battle and how it served as a turning point in history. For instance, it is argued that while the ships were relatively easily replaced, it proved much harder to man them, since so many experienced sailors, oarsmen and soldiers had been lost. The loss of so many of its experienced sailors at Lepanto sapped the fighting effectiveness of the Ottoman Navy, a fact emphasized by its avoidance of major confrontations with Christian navies in the years following the battle. Other historians have suggested that the reason for the Turks being contained at the time had less to do with the battle of Lepanto but the fact that they had to contend with a series of wars with Persia, a strong military power at the time.

After 1580, the discouraged Ottomans left the fleet to rot in the waters of the Horn. Especially critical was the loss of most of the caliphate's composite bowmen, which, far beyond ship rams and early firearms, were the Ottoman's main embarked weapon. British historian John Keegan noted that the losses in this highly specialized class of warrior were irreplaceable in a generation, and in fact represented "the death of a living tradition" for the Ottomans. Historian Paul K. Davis has argued that:

This Turkish defeat stopped Ottomans' expansion into the Mediterranean, thus maintaining western dominance, and confidence grew in the west that Turks, previously unstoppable, could be beaten.

Detailed positions of both forces during the battle.

Thus, this victory for the Holy League was historically important not only because the Turks lost 80 ships sunk and 130 captured by the Allies, and 30,000 men killed (not including 12,000 Christian galley slaves who were freed) while allied losses were 7,500 men and 17 galleys—but because the victory heralded the end of Turkish supremacy in the Mediterranean.

However, in 1574, the Ottomans retook the strategic city of Tunis from the Spanish-supported Hafsid dynasty, which had been re-installed after Don Juan's forces reconquered the city from the Ottomans the year before. Thanks to the long-standing Franco-Ottoman alliance, the Ottomans were able to resume naval activity in the western Mediterranean. In 1576 the Ottomans helped Abdul Malik's capture of Fez reinforced Ottoman indirect conquests in Morocco that had begun under Süleyman the Magnificent. The establishment of Ottoman suzerainty over the area placed the entire southern coast of the Mediterranean from the Straits of Gibraltar to Greece under

Ottoman authority, with the exceptions of the Spanish-controlled trading city of Oran and strategic settlements such as Melilla and Ceuta.

Religious significance

The Holy League credited the victory to the Virgin Mary, whose intercession with God they had implored for victory through the use of the Rosary. Andrea Doria had kept a copy of the miraculous image of Our Lady of Guadalupe given to him by King Philip II of Spain in his ship's state room. Pope Pius V instituted a new Catholic feast day of Our Lady of Victory to commemorate the battle, which is now celebrated by the Catholic Church as the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary.

Depictions in art and culture

Battle of Lepanto, part of a 19th-century carpet in a museum in Gennep, Netherlands.

The significance of Lepanto has inspired artists in various fields.

The only known commemorative music composed after the victory is the motet Canticum Moysis (Song of Moses Exodus 15) Pro victoria navali contra Turcas by the Spanish composer based in Rome Fernando de las Infantas.

There were celebrations and festivities with triumphs and pageants at Rome and Venice with Turkish slaves in chains.

There are many pictorial representations of the battle, including one in the Doge's Palace in Venice, by Andrea Vicentino on the walls of the Sala dello Scrutinio, which replaced Tintoretto's Victory of Lepanto, destroyed by fire in 1577. A painting by Paolo Veronese is in the collection of the Gallerie dell'Accademia in Venice and Titian's Allegory of the Battle of Lepanto, using the battle as a background, hangs in the Prado in Madrid. A painting by Filipino painter Juan Luna depicting the Battle of Lepanto is also displayed at the Spanish Senate in Madrid.

The battle has also appeared in literature and poetry. Spanish poet Fernando de Herrera wrote the poem "Canción en alabanza de la divina majestad por la victoria del Señor Don Juan" in 1572. The English author G. K. Chesterton wrote a poem Lepanto, first published in 1911 and republished many times since. It provides a series of poetic visions of the major characters in the battle, particularly the leader of the Christian forces, Don Juan of Austria (John of Austria). It closes with verses linking Miguel de Cervantes, who fought in the battle, with the "lean and foolish knight" he would later immortalize in Don Quixote. Miguel de Cervantes lost the use of an arm in this battle and therefore he is known as el manco de Lepanto in the Hispanic world.

The battle also features prominently in Scenes from an Execution by British playwright Howard Barker, in which a fictional artist is commissioned to create a painting of the battle.

The battle is also depicted as a mission in the game, Age of Empires 2: The Conquerors, where the player is required to defend the region from Turkish fleets, with or without the help of the Greeks.

A musical piece composed by Andreas Waldetoft for the game Europa Universalis IV is named after the battle of Lepanto.

Mediterranean Melee - The Battle of Lepanto (1571 AD)By Matt Fritz

Historical Background: From its origin in the thirteenth century the Ottoman Empire had rapidly grown into a superpower. The Ottoman Turks and their powerful armies of Janissaries controlled a vast area including the Middle East, North Africa, Byzantium, and the Balkans. Their expansion into Europe was a direct threat to the Christian Kingdoms, but political rivalries prevented the Christians from uniting to oppose the growing threat. Finally in 1571 Pope Pius V succeeded in uniting Spain, Venice, and the other Mediterranean Christian powers into the Holy League. The Holy League fleet was commanded by Don Juan. They encountered the Turkish fleet near Lepanto and won a decisive victory. The defeat was a major blow to the Ottoman Empire, which would begin a long period of decline. The Holy League, however, soon broke apart and was unable to follow up on their great victory. Lepanto was the largest naval battle of the renaissance, and the last great battle of the oared galleys. The galleys would were soon made obsolete by sailing ships that could out maneuver the oared warships and fire a powerful broadside of cannon fire.

Battle 1: In the early stages of the battle the Holy League scored several hits on the Turks, concentrating their fire on the flag ships. This convinced Don Juan and his men that they could win the battle with firepower. Consequently they did their best to keep the Turks at a distance, in some cases even moving backward to increase the range. The Turks were not impressed and mocked the Holy League for their "cowardice." Mehmet Pasha was the most aggressive attacker and led his ships against Barbarigo and the League's left wing. Mehmet succeeded in enveloping the wing and sank two Christian ships with ramming attacks. The fight on that flank turned decisively for the Turks when they succeeded in boarding the galleass and destroying it. The Turks overwhelmed the Holy League's left flank and had soon isolated their center. Only on the right wing was the Holy League winning the battle with devastating gunnery. The Holy League's plan seemed to be working well on the right flank. The Turks boarded the galleass on the right but were thrown back. Once their attack on that flank had been neutralized Gian Andrea Doria sent his ships to aid Don Juan in the center. They

arrived just in time to turn the momentum and deliver a close victory for the Holy League.

The Fleets: Right now there aren't any cheap plastic models available in a small enough scale for this battle. Here are some paper ships you can print and user. Ships should be mounted on 2" x 1" bases.

The Board: The battle was fought on the open seas so there is no terrain to be modeled. One table edge can represent the coastline.

Deployment: The fleets should begin at least 12" inches apart as shown on the map. The Holy League should deploy their galleasses in front of their main fleet. There are no formations. The ships should deployed in one or two lines facing the enemy.

Order of Battle: Each ship model will represent approximately three galleys. The flagships represent the large galleys known as Lanternas. Both fleets had a reserve which included many smaller ships. These were primarily used to bring reinforcements to the front line ships. The reserve fleets have been omitted for the sake of simplicity.

Holy League Fleet Turkish Fleet

Left Wing - Agostin Barbarigo1 Galleass2 Flagships 14 Galleys

Center - Don Juan (Fleet Commander)1 Galleass4 Flagships17 Galleys

Right Wing - Gian Andrea Doria1 Galleass2 Flagships15 Galleys

Left Wing - Uluch Ali4 Flagships16 Galleys

Center - Ali Pahsa (Fleet Commander)4 Flagships24 Galleys

Right Wing - Mehmet Sulik Pasha2 Flagships18 Galleys

Battle of LepantoThe Battle of Lepanto was a decisive naval engagement fought on 7 October 1571. A Turkish fleet of about 275 galleys and other ships under Ali Pasha clashed with a Christian force of about 230 galleys and galleasses (hybrid oar-powered and wind-driven vessels, much larger than galleys). The Christian fleet was mostly from the nations of Spain and Venice, and was commanded by Don John of Austria, the illegitimate son of Emperor Charles V and half-brother of Philip II of Spain.

The battle was fought in the Gulf of Patras, off western Greece, and the outcome was a massive victory for the Christian fleet. The Turks suffered about 15,000-20,000 killed, out of 88,000 engaged; Christians lost 7,650 dead and 8,000 injured from a force of 84,000. Out of 230 Ottoman galleys, 80 were sunk and 130 captured.

Background

For over a century the Ottoman Empire had tried to expand west and north into Christian areas. Europe was increasingly fearful. Suleiman I, the Magnificent (1520-66), captured Belgrade and Rhodes, but failed in his siege of Vienna (1529). His son, Selim II (1566-74), was under the sway of Don Joseph Nasi, who persuaded Selim to declare war on Venice for the purpose of taking Cyprus, which at the time was under Venetian control.

The delicate military balance of power in the eastern Mediterranean finally tipped when the Turks invaded Cyprus, massacred the people of Nicosia, and laid siege to Famagusta, which fell on August 4, 1571. Pope Pius V then unified most of the Christian forces into a "Holy League" against the Turks. Spain gave command to Don Juan of Austria (1547-1578), the illegitimate half brother of King Philip II of Spain. The master engineers of Venice provided the fleet with the galleass, a ship able to carry numerous heavy guns.

Battle

Spanish novelist Cervantes, hit three times at Lepanto by gunfire which ruined his left hand ("...to the power of my right..."), called it "the most noble and memorable event that past centuries have seen or future can ever hope to witness."

Don John split his fleet into three squadrons and took personal command of the center with some sixty galleys. The right and left, under Gianandrea Doria and Admiral Barbarigo respectively, each had about sixty ships. Two reserve flotillas sailed behind them.

The Turkish admiral Ali Pasha split his fleet into three wings and commanded the center himself. His right wing, under Mehmed Suluk, faced against Barbarigo's squadron and Uluch Ali, with another Ottoman squadron, moved to the south with the intention of outflanking Gianandrea Doria's squadron and attacking them in the rear. The Turkish reserve, about ninety galleys in three lines, stood behind Ali's battle fleet. Both fleets presented a battle line of about three miles in length. The flagships of Don John and Ali Pasha headed straight for each other. Leading the Christian armada was a secret weapon provided by the Venetians: six very large galleasses carried immense batteries of heavy guns. The Turks had nothing like them, and nothing to answer their smashing cannonades. The Turkish formations broke apart.

As the galleys locked into close combat, the arquebus, arrow and sword became the basic weapons, for Lepanto now became a fight between soldiers using their ships as a base for small arms fire and hand-to-hand combat. Don John led the boarding party onto the Turkish flagship and soon overwhelmed it; Ali Pasha was killed by an arquebus shot. In the five-hour battle the Christians did as well on other wings; only Uluch Ali escaped, returning to Istanbul with most of his flotilla.

Turkish historians attribute the defeat to the inexperience of Uluç Ali Pasha, the admiral; the inefficiency of Pertev Pasha, commander of the marines; the misconceived orders from headquarters; and the fleet's undermanned complement.

The battle was the last major battle between oared vessels and was the climax of a century-long advance in oar-propelled warships. (The first battle between wind-driven ships was 17 years later in the engagements known as the Spanish Armada.) In marked the first major use of naval artillery in the west. The galleasses used sails, not oars; their high sides suited the harsh ocean conditions and made an ideal gun platforms. The Turks relied too long on oar-driven manpower-intensive galleys, unfit for long voyages or heavy seas. The great European sailing ships with their big guns and huge cargo capacity gave the West a decisive advantage in the conquest and colonization of the globe. The Ottoman Empire, still by far the leading Muslim power, fell further and further behind.

Financially the Spanish imperial cost was approximately 1,225,000 escudos, of which the main Italian dependencies of Naples, Milan, and Sicily contributed over 440,000. These costs were partly offset by papal grants of income to the Spanish monarchy from religious taxes collected in Spain. With loot, sale of captured vessels, slaves, and the papal grants, the campaign showed a net profit to Spain. No estimates are available of the financial cost to Venice and the Ottoman Empire.

Memory

To Europeans at the time the victory seemed to mark a turning point in the fortunes of Christendom. The impact was especially important in the first military triumph for decades in which Venice could take pride, and its effect on Venetian morale at all levels of society was incalculable. Venice had been at peace for a generation as Turkish pressure kept growing. Ever since the Turks had retreated from Malta in 1565, the Venetians had feared that Crete or Cyprus would be the next target for the unstoppable galleys of the Ottoman fleet. Victory was celebrated by drawing on the arts to create a popular iconography that reinforced civic unity by stressing the myth that Venetians lived in a perfect state. The Turks were portrayed as instruments of God's wrath at Venice and Christendom for their sins that could only be overcome with moral regeneration led by an angelic pope.

Pope Pius V (r. 1566-72) in gratitude for the victory inaugurated the feast of the Holy Rosary. He interpreted the Christian victory as the beginning of fulfillment of messianic prophecies current in the popular culture of the day. He specifically believed that the allied Christian princes were destined to reconquer Jerusalem and the Holy Land in a new crusade, and that would unite all Christians, including Protestants and Eastern Orthodox. However the Spanish king Philip II was reluctant to pursue that particular messianic quest because he was much more concerned about the Muslims in North Africa.

The English writer G. K. Chesterton (1874-1936) wrote a famous epic poem on Lepanto in 1911.

Recent historians have emphasized that the symbolic and emotional importance outweighed the military or diplomatic results, which were mixed. The Turks rapidly rebuilt their navy in the winter of 1571-72, launching over 150 galleys in 1572; Venice subsequently reached a separate peace in return for the cession of Cyprus and the payment of a large sum in war indemnities.

The Gulf of Lepanto is a long arm of the Ionian Sea running from east to west and separating the Pelloponnesian peninsula to the south from the Greek mainland to the north.

Jutting headlands divide the Gulf into two portions: the inner one, called the Gulf of Corinth today , ends with the isthmus of the same name , and the outer one is an irregular , funnel-shaped inlet now called the Gulf of Patras. For six weeks Ali Pasha's ships had been anchored inside the fortified harbor of Lepanto located in the gulf's inner portion, and on October 5 they began to move slowly westward past the dividing headlands into the outer Gulf of Patras. Still unsure of the enemy's position , Ali Pasha ordered his fleet to drop anchor for the night in a sheltered bay fifteen miles from the entrance to the inlet, where it remained all the next day anxiously awaiting the return of the scouting vessels. Around midnight Kara Kosh reached the anchorage with the news that the Christian fleet was then at Cephalonia , an Ionian island almost directly opposite and parallel to the mouth of the Gulf of Lepanto. With the first light of dawn the following morning , October 7 , 1571 , lookouts stationed high on a peak guarding the northern shore of the gulf's entrance signaled to Kara Kosh that the enemy was heading south along the coast and would soon round the headland into the gulf itself. The signal was relayed to Ali Pasha , who gave the order to weigh anchor. Everyone scrambled to battle stations and , as the fleet advanced , strained for the first sight of the enemy force.

The Christian fleet had started to move southward toward the Gulf of Lepanto. Now only fiteen miles of open water separated the forces of Islam and those of Christendom. The Turkish fleet , which numbered over two hundred and thirty galleys and one hundred auxiliary vessels , Ali Pasha commanded the center squadron , which faced the one commanded by Don Juan of Austria.

According to naval practice in those days , the moment two rival fleets finally assumed their respective battle formations , the leader of one would fire a piece of artillery as a challenge to fight , and the opponent would answer by firing two cannon

to signify that he was ready to give battle. This day it was the Turks who made the challenge , and the sharp report from Ali Pasha's flagship was quickly followed by double round from Don Juan's artillery. At this time a large green silk banner , decorated with the Moslem crescent and holy inscriptions in Arabic , was hoisted on the Turkish flagship.

Now the setting was complete. The cross and the crescent fluttered aloft , symbolizing the two religions and the two hostile Civilizations of Christendom and Islam , whose forces were about to meet in the decisive battle of their long and bitter holy war. With the very first barrage many Turkish galleys were sunk and over a score badly damaged. After an hour of heavy fighting it was captured , the first Christian prize of the battle. The Christians were more than a match for them. In fact , they fought with such incredible ferocity that the battle soon became a slaughter. The defeat of the Turk's right wing was complete. Not one galley escaped. Those that were not sunk , burned , or grounded ashore were captured by their Christian opponents. The whole battle was over by four o'clock that afternoon , even though many of the Christian galleys were still giving chase to the Turkish ships and other solitary escaping Turkish vessels. The waters of the gulf for miles around were stained red from the great amount of blood shed that day and the sea was strewn with the bodies of both victors and vanquished. At sunset there were signs of approaching bad weather , Don Juan ordered the fleet to regroup quickly and head for a sheltered bay near the northwestern limits of the gulf. Around midnight they anchored in the bay and immediately all the fleet's leaders , with the exception of those badly wounded , came on board.

Don Juan's galley gatherd to congratulate him and celebrate the victory. The losses suffered by the Holy League fleet were between seven and eight thousand killed and about twice that number wounded , and only ten or fifteen ships had been sunk during the battle. These losses were comparatively light. Of the three hundred and thirty Turkish ships , fewer than fifty managed to escape and most of them were burned because they could not be made sufficiently seaworthy for further use; one hundred and seventeen Moslem galleys were captured intact and the rest were sunk or destroyed after they had been run ashore by the fleeing Turks. A large majority of the seventy-five thousand men who had entered the battle on the Moslem side were killed , five thousand were taken prisoner (with at least teice that number of Christian galley slaves liberated) , and only a few were able to escape either by ship or by swimming ashore.Turkey , for the first time in several centuries , was left without a navy.

Word of the fleet's splendid victory at Lepanto preceded Don Juan's return and quickly spread throughout Europe. The Republic of Venice was the first allied state to receive

the happy news. The Doge quickly ordered a week of public celebrations and the seventh of October was declared a perpetual holiday in memory of the Battle of Lepanto. Hundreds of poems , songs , and paintings were produced all over Christendom in commemoration of the victory. All of Christendom took heart.

The famous Spanish writer , Miguel de Cervantes , who himself was wounded in the Battle of Lepanto , serving in the Spanish infantry , and who had also been a captive of the Barbary pirates until ransomed , recounted many of his experiences in the novel Don Quixote. The Battle of Lepanto marked the end of Turkish naval supremacy and the beginning of the Ottoman Empire's decline on both land and sea. Perhaps the most important result of the battle was its effect on men's minds: the victory had ended the myth that the Turks could not be beaten.

The Turkish fleet had 208 Galleys, 66 small ships; The Christian fleet about the same number. The crusaders lost 17 ships and 7,500 men; 15 Turkish ships were sunk and 177 taken, from 20,000 to 30,000 men disabled , and from 12,000 to 15,000 Christian rowers, slaves on the Turkish Gaileys, were delivered. Though this Victory did not accomplish all that was hoped for, since the Turks appeared the very next year with a fleet of 250 ships before Modon and Cape Matapan, and in vain offered battle to the Christians, it was of great importance as being the first great defeat of the infidels on the sea.

Held by the Venetians from 1687 to 1689, and thence by the Turks until 1827, it became in the latter year part of the new Greek realm. Today Nafpaktos (Naupactus,) chief town of the district in the province of Arcarnania Aetolia, has (12,000 inhabitants), all Orthodox Greeks.

The Naval Battle of Lepanto

Battles involving the Ottoman Empire by era

Land battles

Bapheus Dimbos Pelekanon Ihtiman Sırp Sındığı Maritsa Dubrovnika Savra Bileca 1st Kosovo Rovine Nicopolis Ankara Varna 2nd Kosovo

Land battles Albulena Jajce Ohrid Vaslui Valea Albă Breadfield Otlukbeli Krbava Çaldıran Mercidabık Han Yunus Ridanieh

Tlemcen Mohács Sokhoista Mostaganem Szigeth Çıldır Torches Wadi al Laban Sisak Keresztes

Naval battles

Zonchio Modon Algiers (1516) Formentera Algiers (1529) Tunis Preveza Alborán Algiers (1541) Ponza Djerba Lepanto

Land battles Tutora 1st Khotyn Candia Köbölkút

Saint Gotthard Ladyzhyn Krasnobród Nemyriv 2nd Khotyn 2nd Vienna 2nd Mohács Slankamen Cenei Ustechko Ulaş Zenta

Naval battles

Cape Corvo Cape Celidonia Focchies 1st Dardanelles 2nd Dardanelles 3rd Dardanelles 4th Dardanelles Oinousses Andros

Land battles Pruth Petrovaradin Banja Luka Grocka Stavunchany

Aspindza Larga Kozludzha Kagul Focşani Rymnik Măcin

Naval battles

Imbros Matapan Chesma 1st Kerch Strait 2nd Kerch Strait

Land battles Pyramids Abukir Arpachai Al-Safra Jeddah Čegar Alamana Gravia Valtetsi Doliana Dragashani Skuleni Vassilika Peta

Dervenakia Kamatero Karpenisi Arachova Kamatero Phaleron Petra Kulevicha Algiers Konya Nezib Kurekdere Oltenitza Eupatoria Kızıl Tepe Shipka Pass Plevna Philippopolis Tashkessen Mouzaki

(Land battles after 1900 excluded)

Naval battles

Athos Nauplia Samos Gerontas Navarino Sinop Beirut

Elli Lemnos Imbros

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