1800: The First Battery (Voltaic Pile)1801: Volta presenting his battery to Napoleon.

2 CLASSES OF BATTERIES

PRIMARY CELLS

SECONDARY CELLS

PRIMARY CELLSCANNOT BE RECHARGED

CHEMICAL PROCESS NOT REVERSABLE

ZINC CARBON (1.5V)ALKALINE (1.5V)

SECONDARY CELLSCAN BE RECHARGED

CHEMICAL REACTION REVERSABLE

LEAD ACID (2.0V)NICKEL - CADMIUM (1.2V)NICKEL - METAL HYDRIDE (1.2V)LITHIUM ION (3.3V)

COMPOSITION OF A BATTERYThe Lead Acid battery is made up of seperator plates, lead plates, and lead oxide plates (various other elements are used to change density, hardness, porosity, etc.) with a 35% sulphuric acid and 65% water solution. This solution is called electrolyte which causes a chemical reaction that produce electrons.When a battery discharges the electrolyte dilutes and the sulphur deposits on the lead plates.When the battery is recharged the process reverses and the sulphur dissolves into the electrolyte.

BATTERY CROSS SECTION

Battery (Ancient) History1800Voltaic pile: silver zinc1836Daniell cell: copper zinc1859Plant: rechargeable lead-acid cell1868Leclanch: carbon zinc wet cell1888Gassner: carbon zinc dry cell1898Commercial flashlight, D cell1899Junger: nickel cadmium cell

Battery History1946Neumann: sealed NiCd1960sAlkaline, rechargeable NiCd1970sLithium, sealed lead acid1990Nickel metal hydride (NiMH)1991Lithium ion1992Rechargeable alkaline1999Lithium ion polymer

Battery NomenclatureDuracell batteries6v dry cell9v battery

The Electrochemical Cell

The Electrochemical Cell (2)Zinc is (much) more easily oxidized than Copper

Maintain equilibrium electron densitiesAdd copper ions in solution to Half Cell IISalt bridge only carries negative ionsThis is the limiting factor for current flowPick a low-resistance bridge

The Electrochemical SeriesMost wants to reduce (gain electrons)GoldMercurySilverCopperLeadNickelCadmiumIronZincAluminumMagnesiumSodiumPotassiumLithiumMost wants to oxidize (lose electrons)

But, theres a reason its a sodium drop

Battery CharacteristicsSizePhysical: button, AAA, AA, C, D, ... Energy density (watts per kg or cm3)LongevityCapacity (Ah, for drain of C/10 at 20C)Number of recharge cyclesDischarge characteristics (voltage drop)

Further CharacteristicsCostBehavioral factorsTemperature range (storage, operation)Self dischargeMemory effectEnvironmental factorsLeakage, gassing, toxicityShock resistance

Primary (Disposable) BatteriesZinc carbon (flashlights, toys)Heavy duty zinc chloride (radios, recorders)Alkaline (all of the above)Lithium (photoflash)Silver, mercury oxide (hearing aid, watches)Zinc air

Silver Oxide/Zn cellA silver-oxide battery is a Primary cell with a very high energy/weight ratio. Available either in small sizes button cells (where the amount of silver used is minimal and not a significant contributor to the product cost)

Silver Oxide/Zn cellA silver-oxide battery uses silver oxide as the positive electrode (cathode), zinc as the negative electrode (anode) plus an alkaline electrolyte, usually sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH). The silver is reduced at the cathode from Ag(I) to Ag and the zinc is oxidized from Zn to Zn(II). The chemical reaction that takes place inside the battery is the following .Ag(I) + e Ag ReductionZn Zn(II) Oxidation

Silver Oxide/Zn cell

Diagram

Zn-air cell

Zn-air cellZincair batteries (non-rechargeable), and zincair fuel cells are metal-air batteries powered by oxidizing zinc with oxygen from the air. These batteries have high energy densities and are relatively inexpensive to produce. Sizes range from very small button cells for hearing aids, larger batteries used in film cameras that previously used mercury batteries, to very large batteries used for electric vehicle propulsion.

ELECTROCHEMISTRYthe chemical equations for the zincair cell:Anode: Zn + 4OH Zn(OH)42 + 2e

Cathode: 1/2 O2 + H2O + 2e 2OH Overall: 2Zn + O2 2ZnO Zincair batteries cannot be used in a sealed battery holder since some air must come in; the oxygen in 1 liter of air is required for every ampere-hour of capacity used.

Ni Metal Hydride BaterryA nickelmetal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH or NiMH, is a type of rechargeable battery. Its chemical reactions are somewhat similar to the nickelcadmium cell (NiCd). NiMH use positive electrodes of nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) but the negative electrodes use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy instead of cadmium, being in essence a practical application of nickelhydrogen battery chemistry. A NiMH battery can have two to three times the capacity of an equivalent size NiCd, and their energy density approaches that of a lithium-ion cell.

ElecrochemistryThe negative electrode reaction occurring in a NiMH cell is:H2O + M + e OH + MH The charge reaction is read left-to-right and the discharge reaction is read right-to-left.On the positive electrode, nickel oxyhydroxide, NiO(OH), is formed:Ni(OH)2 + OH NiO(OH) + H2O + e

applicationsApplications of NiMH electric vehicle batteries include all-electric plug-in vehicles such as the General Motors EV1, Honda EV Plus, Ford Ranger EV and Vectrix scooter. Hybrid vehicles such as the Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, Ford Escape Hybrid, Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid, and Honda Civic Hybrid also use them. NiMH technology is used extensively in rechargeable batteries for consumer electronics like robotic vacuum cleaners of iRobot Roomba, and it will also be used on the Alstom Citadis low floor tram ordered for Nice, France; as well as the humanoid prototype robot ASIMO designed by Honda. NiMH batteries are also commonly used in remote control cars.

Diagram

Li-ion baterry

lithium-ion batteryA lithium-ion battery (sometimes Li-ion battery or LIB) is a member of a family of rechargeable battery types in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries .

The electrolyte which allows for ionic movement, and the two electrodes are the consistent components of a lithium-ion cell.

electrochemistry

Li-ion baterry

Li/MnO2 Cell

Li MnO2 batteryAt anode:Li Li+ + e-

At cathode:Mn(IV)O2 + Li+ + e- Mn(III)O2(Li+)

Phosphoric acid fuel cell

Phosphoric acid fuel cellPhosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) are a type of fuel cell that uses liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte. They were the first fuel cells to be commercialized. Developed in the mid-1960s and field-tested since the 1970s, they have improved significantly in stability, performance, and cost. Such characteristics have made the PAFC a good candidate for early stationary applications.

Lead acid batteryReserve batterylong storage.Lead-perchloric acid and lead-hydrobouric acid

Lead acid batteryAn automotive battery is a type of rechargeable battery that supplies electric energy to an automobile.Lead-acid batteries are made up of plates of lead and separate plates of lead dioxide, which are submerged into an electrolyte solution of about 38% sulfuric acid and 62% water.

Lead acid battery

reactions

Standard Zinc Carbon BatteriesChemistryZinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)Zinc, ammonium chloride aqueous electrolyteFeaturesInexpensive, widely availableInefficient at high current drainPoor discharge curve (sloping)Poor performance at low temperatures

Heavy Duty Zinc Chloride BatteriesChemistry Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)Zinc chloride aqueous electrolyteFeatures (compared to zinc carbon)Better resistance to leakageBetter at high current drainBetter performance at low temperature

Standard Alkaline BatteriesChemistry Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyteFeatures 50-100% more energy than carbon zincLow self-discharge (10 year shelf life)Good for low current (< 400mA), long-life usePoor discharge curve

Alkaline-Manganese Batteries (2)

Lithium Manganese DioxideChemistryLithium (-), manganese dioxide (+)Alkali metal salt in organic solvent electrolyteFeatures High energy densityLong shelf life (20 years at 70C)Capable of high rate dischargeExpensive

Lithium v Alkaline Discharge

Secondary (Rechargeable) BatteriesNickel cadmiumNickel metal hydrideAlkalineLithium ionLithium ion polymerLead acid

Nickel Cadmium BatteriesChemistryCadmium (-), nickel hydroxide (+)Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyteFeaturesRugged, long life, economicalGood high discharge rate (for power tools)Relatively low energy densityToxic

NiCd RechargingOver 1000 cycles (if properly maintained)Fast, simple charge (even after long storage)C/3 to 4C with temperature monitoringSelf discharge10% in first day, then 10%/moTrickle charge (C/16) will maintain chargeMemory effectOvercome by 60% discharges to 1.1V

Nickel Metal Hydride BatteriesChemistryLaNi5, TiMn2, ZrMn2 (-), nickel hydroxide (+)Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyteFeaturesHigher energy density (40%) than NiCdNontoxicReduced life, discharge rate (0.2-0.5C)More expensive (20%) than NiCd

NiMH RechargingLess prone to memory than NiCdShallow discharge better than deepDegrades after 200-300 deep cyclesNeed regular full discharge to avoid crystalsSelf discharge 1.5-2.0 more than NiCdLonger charge time than for NiCdTo avoid overheating

Secondary Alkaline BatteriesFeatures50 cycles at 50% dischargeNo memory effectShallow discharge better than deeper

NiCd v Alkaline Discharge

Lead Acid BatteriesChemistryLeadSulfuric acid electrolyteFeaturesLeast expensiveDurableLow energy densityToxic

Lead Acid RechargingLow self-discharge40% in one year (three months for NiCd)No memoryCannot be stored when dischargedLimited number of full dischargesDanger of overheating during charging

Lead Acid BatteriesRatingsCCA: cold cranking amps (0F for 30 sec)RC: reserve capacity (minutes at 10.5v, 25amp)Deep discharge batteriesUsed in golf carts, solar power systems2-3x RC, 0.5-0.75 CCA of car batteriesSeveral hundred cycles

Lithium Ion BatteriesChemistryGraphite (-), cobalt or manganese (+) Nonaqueous electrolyteFeatures40% more capacity than NiCdFlat discharge (like NiCd)Self-discharge 50% less than NiCdExpensive

Lithium Ion Recharging300 cycles50% capacity at 500 cycles

Lithium Ion Polymer BatteriesChemistryGraphite (-), cobalt or manganese (+)Nonaqueous electrolyteFeaturesSlim geometry, flexible shape, light weightPotentially lower cost (but currently expensive)Lower energy density, fewer cycles than Li-ion

Battery Capacity

TypeCapacity (mAh)Density (Wh/kg)Alkaline AA2850124 Rechargeable160080NiCd AA75041NiMH AA110051Lithium ion1200100 Lead acid200030

Discharge Rates

TypeVoltagePeak DrainOptimal DrainAlkaline1.50.5C< 0.2CNiCd1.2520C1CNickel metal1.255C< 0.5CLead acid25C0.2CLithium ion3.62C< 1C

Recharging

TypeCycles (to 80%)Charge timeDischarge per monthCost per kWhAlkaline50 (50%)3-10h0.3%$95.00NiCd15001h20%$7.50NiMH300-5002-4h30%$18.50Li-ion500-10002-4h10%$24.00 Polymer300-5002-4h10%Lead acid200-20008-16h5%$8.50

Lithium-ion Batteries in NotebooksLithium: greatest electrochemical potential, lightest weight of all metalsBut, Lithium metal is explosiveSo, use Lithium-{cobalt, manganese, nickel} dioxideOvercharging would convert lithium-x dioxide to metallic lithium, with risk of explosion

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*Daniell cell was first reliable source of energySolved corrosion problems in Voltaic cell*1957 9v battery introduced1991 Early lithium battery recall (mobile phone battery burst into flame)

*A battery contains two or more cellsAll products here are dry cells (car batteries are wet cells) **********Used in power toolsUse restricted in some countries

**Alternative to NiCd

**Sold by Rayovac

********Sources differ as to exact numbersDensity should take packaging into account, not just chemistryConsult product specification sheets*Drain of one C exhausts capacity in one day

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