Basso Continuo Realization on the Cello and Viol

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BassoContinuo

Realization on the

Cello and Viol

Robert Smith

February 2009

A Masters Thesis at the Conservatorium van Amsterdam


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Table of Contents

Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................5

Introduction..........................................................................................................................................8

Part 1

Historical contexts for basso continuo realization on the cello and viol............................................1

1.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................1!

1. Ital" 1#th $entur" % &irone to &"ra'(iol ...............................................................................1!

1.) *ngland 1+th $entur" % ,he golden age of the &"ra'(iol .....................................................1!

1.! ,he -$ello in Ital" in the 1+th $entur" .................................................................................1#

1.5 /hat0s in a title (iolone o $embalo2 $ello2 har3sichord or both .......................................1

1.# ,he (iol in 1+th and 18th $entur" 4rance .............................................................................)

1.+ ,ra le 4iamme % olo viol continuo........................................................................................8

1.8 4rets ........................................................................................................................................6

1.6 Idiomatic cello accom3animent in the 18th $entur" ..............................................................6

1.17 ,he first cello tutors and the accom3animent of recitativo in o3era ....................................)1

1.11 $onclusion to Part 1...............................................................................................................)#

Part A 3ersonal account of develo3ing and 3ractising basso continuo realizations on the cello and viol.)8

.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................!7

. ,he $ello..................................................................................................................................!7

.) ,he elements of basso continuo realization on the cello.........................................................!1

.! ,he (iol...................................................................................................................................!!

.5 ,he elements of basso continuo realization on the viol...........................................................!!

.# evelo3ing Harmonic kills....................................................................................................!5.+ 9reaking $hords......................................................................................................................!+

.8 :otation % 4igures and 4ingers................................................................................................!8

.6 9ass (iolin...............................................................................................................................!8

.17 In Practice..............................................................................................................................!6

Part )

A short guide for other cellists and violists who wish to realize basso continuo...............................5

).1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................5!). Harmon" *xercises..................................................................................................................5!


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).) ,iming......................................................................................................................................55

).! oubling..................................................................................................................................55

).5 ;ecitative.................................................................................................................................5#

).# ,rack list of audio exam3les on $......................................................................#

A33endix $> &og of basso continuo realizations to date...........................................................#!

9ibliogra3h".......................................................................................................................................#5


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Acno!led"ments

I would like to thank ?ohan Hofmann2 m" har3sichord @ harmon" @ basso continuo teacher2 for his

advice2 interest2 hel3 and encouragement in all the activities that have led to this thesis. r.

Hofmann0s willingness to share his broad knowledge with me and his o3en'mindedness to the

subBect made it a Bo" to ex3lore.

I would also like to thank m" musical colleagues and friends who during recent times have

willingl" endured m" -basso continuo ex3eriments2 not all of which were successful.

I am indebted to m" 3arents whom2 not knowing the ins and outs of the subBect2 s3ent hours

3roofreading this thesis for me.


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#ntroduction

&ong before I had thought of research2 and even before I 3la"ed the viol2 I was fascinated b" the

little numbers a33earing in the bass lines I 3la"ed on the cello2 known to ever"bod" as -figured

bass. /ithout understanding much about the harmon"2 I enBo"ed -3la"ing the numbers and

observing how another element was created in the music % something like an inner'3art.

&earning to 3la" the viol2 and being influenced b" its rich harmonic re3ertoire2 o3ened u3 even

more 3ossibilities of 3la"ing chords over a figured bass.


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Cuestion of what the cello might have done in terms of realization if it was accom3an"ing alone.

,he article b" /atkin was ver" im3ortant to me as the issues discussed raised both m" interest and

Cuestions that I wanted to find answers for m"self Dfor instance2 -is it reall" 3ossible to make a

convincing realization of tradella0s )infonias on the cello aloneF.

I found more fuel for gaining insight in various recordings such as avid /atkin0s accom3animent

of $orelli0s -)onata a Violino2 firstl"

to gain a knowledge of2 and feel for2 what kind of harmonic ca3abilit" would have been be

idiomatic on the cello and violG and secondl" to see what historical instances2 if an"2 would allow

basso continuo realization b" these instruments.

,he second area of m" research is 3ractical and looks at the wa" I have tried2 and continue to tr"2

to bring m" skills of realizing basso continuo to a high level on the cello and viol. ,his area forms

two 3arts> Part is a descri3tion and discussion of the wa" I worked on these techniCues2 and Part

) is a short -instruction book. ,he -instruction book of Part ) is necessar" to hel3 me

summarize the most im3ortant as3ects of m" 3ractical work and also to hel3 others wishing to

realize basso continuo on the cello and viol % since until now no method exists2 at least for the

baroCue 3eriod.

usical exam3les are largel" found in a se3arate accom3an"ing volume2 Appendix A. ,he

intention is that the reader can benefit from seeing music in a larger context than Bust a few barswithout disturbing the flow of the text. Appendix B is a $ of audio exam3les. ,he tracklist for


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this $ can be found at the end of this thesis.

*nglish terminolog" is largel" used for instruments> cello for violoncello2 viol for viola da gamba

or viole2 and bass violin for basse de violon.

9ibliogra3hical references in footnotes contain the name of the author and the date of the

3ublication2 full details of which can be found in the bibliogra3h".


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Part 1Historical contexts for basso

continuo realization on the

cello and viol


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1.1 Introduction

9oth the cello and the viol have been 3la"ing chords as long as the" have been around2 and this has

often been in the context of accom3animent. /hether such chordal 3la"ing could constitute a real

basso continuo line or not is sometimes clear and sometimes debatable. *xamining chordal

3la"ing in both solo and accom3an"ing roles can bring us closer to the nature of an instrument. If

3la"ing chords is really in the nature of an instrument2 then it follows that such an instrument can

make basso continuo realizations.

1.2 Italy 16 th Century – Lirone to Lyra-Viol

@@www.oxfordmusiconline.com@subscriber@article@grove@music@1#+57.


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It is interesting that in the two books of Ayres D1#17 and 1#1F b" /illiam $orkine2 one can find

songs with a chordal accom3animent of the lute and onl" the bass line for the viol D*x.)cF. In the

second half of each book2 onl" 3ieces for one or two l"ra'viols are found. oreover2 in the )econd

Boo/e of A"res D*x.)aF2 a number of songs have accom3animent of -9ase'violl alone D*x.)bF

which is alwa"s a bass'line and never chordal. Perha3s this is $orkine telling us that he likes the

l"ra'viol2 but for harmonic accom3animent of the voice2 the lute cannot be beaten2 and the viol

should stick to the bass'line. If this is the case2 he would be in disagreement with the likes of

,obias Hume and ;obert ?ones D*x.!F who did write l"ra'viol accom3animents for the voice and

for the treble viol.


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Summary

It is almost certain2 looking through his works2 that a violist such as ,obias Hume would have no

trouble in realizing a sim3le bass line on the viol. Alread" b" the beginning of the 1+th centur"2 the

viol 3ossessed the ca3abilit" to 3rovide a full bass realization and the *nglish had gained an

international re3utation for their chord'3la"ing skills. /hether Hume or an" other violist at this

time would have chosen to realize a bass in ensemble settings or even been 3ermitted to2 remains

unanswered.

1.4 The Cello! in Italy in the 17 th Century

In 1+th $entur" Ital"2 bass lines were often intended for either a ke"board instrument or a cello Dor

similar instrumentF alone D,harald 9orgir ! 3351'56F. In the second half of the 1+th $entur"2 along

with the develo3ment of the solo' and trio' sonate da camera we begin to see in 3rinted works the

term -... e violone o cembalo2 a33ear in regard to accom3animent. -/orks in which both violone and s3inet are reCuired normall" refer to the ke"board 3art as the basso continuo. ,he same is true of the organ 3art in church sonatas. ,he ex3ression Mviolone or s3inetM therefore

carries no im3lication that both instruments should be used.


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/atkin2 in his article2 Cuotes 3assages such as the one in *x.#2 which show added notes in the bass

3arts of some of Alessandro tradella0s instrumental works. /ould $orelli have also ex3ected bass

lines to be realized something like this

According to /atkin2 these added notes -suggest a cello accom3animent. ,he bass lines of

tradella0s works for violinDsF and bass are s3arsel" figured and /atkin correctl" 3oints out that2

-an" of these can be realized b" a cellist.

Thought& Having looked at man" of tradella0s instrumental works m"self as a result of reading

/atkin0s article2 I find however that it was not tradella0s main intention that a cellist should 3la"these bass lines and add extra notes. Although the excer3ts /atkin gives do suit the cello ver" well2

there are other 3assages that do not fit the cello well in terms of figuration De.g. -)infonia # mm

!' #2 *x.#F2 and in terms of range De.g. -)infonia 8 DIIF mm 11'12 *x.+F.8 Passages such as these

would seem to fit an archlute better than a ke"board or cello. tradella uses the archlute in the

concertino section of the first known concerto grosso. I find it much more likel" that tradella had

an archlute in mind as the main candidate for 3la"ing the bass of his sinfonias. /atkin onl"

mentions the lute briefl" and seems to 3la" down the 3robabilit" of its use in favour of the cello.

,he evidence is again inconclusive> since tradella did not 3ublish his sinfonias as a set % the"

come down to us through various sources % we will never know if he intended the same instruments

for basso continuo in each of his sinfonias or not and therefore it is difficult to make an"

generalizations regarding 3erformance of his bass lines.

,here is an interesting set of DundatedF 3ieces for bass instrument % violone ' b" =iuse33e $olombi

D1#)5 % 1#6!F. $olombi never worked in 9ologna2 but he shared the 3osition of assistant *aestro

di Capella to uke 4rancesco II with the cellist =. 9. (itali from 1#+!. (itali was new in odena

after man" "ears in 9ologna. ,hough he was known as a violinist2 3erha3s $olombi was ins3ired to

write for -violone b" his colleague. ,he 3ieces in Cuestion a33ear to be for a solo instrument Dwith

an o3tion for a sim3le continuo lineF which we might toda" call the bass violin, that is with four

strings and a tuning one whole'tone below modern cello tuning. ,he 3ieces are interesting because

8 /e could assume that a cello with more strings or higher'3itched strings De.g. one fifth higher than the instrumentwe call a cello toda"F was used2 but then we are still confronted with difficult figures such as a -+ over d0. *ven ifthis was realized on a cello2 the idea of doubling the solo line at 3itch on such a familiar instrument Dthe result of

3la"ing the figuresF is dubious.


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the" are characterized b" man" double'sto3s that ver"2 ver" rarel" go out of first 3osition D*x.8F.

,he lack of shifts in the double'sto33ing 3assages of $olombi is an argument against a full

realization of the works in Cuestion b" $orelli and tradella since these would reCuire man" shifts

in 3osition. I think $olombi0s 3ieces do not re3resent high'level virtuosit" but it is a ver" big Bum3

from 3la"ing his harmonicall"'sim3le realizations to the more com3lex ones of $orelli.

In the Ricercarte and )onatas of omenico =abrielli D1#56 % 1#67F we see the first solo works

written for solo -violoncello in name. ,hese 3ieces contain occasional double'sto3s2 added for

s3ecial or grand effect. ,hese chordal 3assages do 3resent more of a technical challenge than those

of $olombi2 but again are not advanced enough to make a cellistic realization of $orelli0s


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Thought& *xam3le 1 shows sam3le realizations I made of $orelli0s


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$ardinal Pam3hili2 it was onl" when Pam3hili was relocated to 9ologna from 1#67 % 6) that

9ononcini was in his orchestra2 &ulier sta"ing behind in ;ome with $orelli.

Summary

nlike the viol in *ngland2 the cello in its earl" develo3ment as a solo instrument did not show

itself to be as at home 3la"ing chordal 3assages as 3la"ing melodic figures as illustrated b" the

ricercarte and sonatas of =abrielli.


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ore insight into the meaning of MbassM can be easil" found b" looking into a 3ublication to see if

the 3arts s3ecif" the instruments. 4or instance - 2Art de la *odulation 7 ?uatuors 7 @our un !aut-

boy, = Violons, et Basse+:= b" Philidor D1+# ' 1+65F actuall" contains 3arts for Flauto Traversiero,

Violino @rimo, Violino )econdo and Violoncello. ,he Violoncello 3art contains a full figuring so it

is likel" a ke"board instrument is also reCuired to 3la" from this 3art. /here it is not 3ossible or

3ractical to look through the 3arts2 we are left in the dark. In this res3ect2 m" small surve" of

/alsh0s catalogue is not ver" useful. =iven more time2 it would be interesting to look inside the

works to see how the 3arts corres3ond to the title.

In 1+)# the 4rench cellist ?.9. asse Dc. 1+77 % c. 1+5+F 3ublished his -)onates eu1Violonchelles+, >7:=7:D=>;Eprint$php

http://www.goldbergweb.com/en/magazine/composers/2003/12/18206_print.php


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chiffr4eF bass for the viol2 the fagot etc.5

hirle" ,hom3son 3rovides us with more clues in her article - *arc-Antoine Charpentier and the

viol+=; $ /e learn that2 although the 3recise instrumentation of the continuo grou3 often remains a

m"ster"2 $har3entier D1#!) % 1+7!F sometimes offers interesting insights such as an instruction

under the final note of - @salmus avid nonagesimus one viol essentiall" makes a realization of the bass with

2 ) and !'note chords whilst the other adds double sto3s on to3 of this D*x.1+bF. ,his writing for

the two obbligato viols elicits the Cuestions from ,hom3son> -did viols take some 3art in realizing

harmonies And did $har3entier notate the 3arts more full" here because of the 3resence of two

3la"ers2 and the need to avoid collisions+

It is a 3it" that there are no accounts of arais accom3an"ing on the viol % instead we have to

imagine how he might have 3la"ed a bass'line2 and if he would have realized a bass line how would

it have sounded Presumabl"2 and ho3efull" Dhe was -the Angel after allF2 rather different to that

which Ancelet re3orts of 4orCuera" Dthe "oungerF in 1+5+>

-He never executes the bass Bust as it is writtenG he claims to greatl"

im3rove it with the great number of brilliant traits he throws at itG he

fights2 so to sa"2 with the 3erson 3la"ing the soloG and often the

$om3oser is Bust as unha33" as the violinist who is 3la"ing.8

Summary

/e can sa" from looking at the viol re3ertoire in 4rance that to 3la" harmonicall" % or the eu

5 -ordinairement elles sont U (iolon seul ou U deux (iolons diffOrens avec une 9asse'$ontinuV 3our le $lavessin2 et

souvent une 9asse 3lus figurOe 3our la (iolle de =ambe2 le 4agot2 et cetera.

# ,hom3son2 77!

+ Ibid2 33. 571.

8 Ancelet2 bservations sur la musiHue, les musicians, et les instruments, A Amsterdam2 Aux dO3ens de la$om3agnie2 1+5+2 Tuoted in 9ol2 16+!2 3.57.


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d2harmonie S is in the nature of the instrument and therefore it clearl" has the means to make a

basso continuo realization2 but of an idiom clearl" different from the lute and ke"board families.

/e know that viol 3la"ers did realize basso continuo in 3ractice but this knowledge is often brought

down to us through sources that found it done in rather bad taste and it would be good to heed the

warning not to make a pi5ce de viole out of a basso continuo. ome thought the viol should stick to

the bass'line2 like the bass violin2 and in man" circumstances this will be the most useful a33lication

of the instrument. $ould $har3entier have been suggesting that a little bit of realization here and

there goes a long wa" in creating certain colours at s3ecial moments

1.7 Tra le ,ia''e – olo iol continuo

Perha3s two of the most famous exam3les of realization on the viol are in Handel0s oratorio - a

resurrezione+ D*x.18F and cantata -Tra le Fiamme+. ,he viol has its own line of figured bass in

the score of Tra le Fiamme in addition to the line for the other continuo instruments D*x.16F. In the

first movement Handel writes out the first seven chords for the violist Dthough not ver" Mhand"M

chords as far as a viol 3la"er is concerned ' 3erha3s Handel was Bust giving a sketchF. It is a ver"

interesting 3art since it switches from an obbligato instrument to continuo instrument several times.

Handel gives an idea of what kind of realization he wants in each movement2 and leaves the rest u3

to the 3la"er. It is thought this cantata was written for Hesse who had earlier studied Dwith and

abru3t end6F with both arais and 4orCuera". Hesse was a virtuoso 3la"er and could well have

ins3ired Handel to write such a 3art.

,he famous aria2 - omm, )JUes reuz, from ?.. 9ach0s -)t$ *atthe. @assion, is essentiall" a

written out continuo 3art for the viol that onl" occasionall" de3arts from the bass. 9ach saw the

ca3abilit" of the viol to realize figured bass in a similar wa" to that of the theorbo2 since the theorbo

also has a written out accom3animent for the same aria in a different version.

6 unford2 ,he (iola da =amba2 http&77...$goldberg.eb$com7en7magazine7essays7=>>:7>


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1.+ ,ret%

/e tend to assume that the viol is an instrument with frets2 and a cello is an instrument without

frets. ,his is true most of the time2 but not all of the time>

-If the violoncello has frets2 as is customar" u3on the viola da gamba2

the violoncellist must2 in 3la"ing notes marked with flats2 de3ress the

strings a little above the frets2 and a33l" a little more 3ressure with his

fingers2 in order to sto3 them with the additional height Dthat is2 of

about a commaF that their ratios reCuire as o33osed to those of notesmarked with shar3s.)7

In the big switchover from viol to cello I am sure that not ever" violist became a cellist2 and not

ever" cellist was 3reviousl" a violist. urel" there must have been Cuite a number who did switch

from one to the other2 or made the best of each world and 3la"ed both instruments at the same time

Dwhich is the case of this authorF. /ith this categor" of musicians one can imagine that frets would

sometimes have been ke3t as a feature on the new cello2 and with it2 the viol s"stem of fingering

that has a facilit" for chordal 3la"ing.

Thought& ,o what extent does the 3resence of frets affect the nature of an instrument Dmelodic @

harmonicF and even its 3la"er ,he great'grandfather of the viol2 the oud2 is without frets and does

not 3la" chords though it is held and strummed as a guitar ' the Arabic music is much stronger in

the elements of melod" and rh"thm than it is in harmon". At what 3oint were frets added /hen

the musician wanted more resonance or chords2 or both

1./ Idio'atic cello acco'*ani'ent in the 1+ th Century

It is not difficult to find exam3les of Mbasso continuoM lines from the 18th $entur" that are

obviousl" written down with the cello in mind. ,artini would have been onl" one of several

violinists touring at this time with onl" a cellist Dfor obvious logistical reasonsF and it would not be

sur3rising if that cellist took a few liberties in filling out the bass lines. In ,artini0s


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3ossible that ,artini onl" wanted the cellist to 3la" extra notes exactl" where the" were written2 but

that 3ossibilit" could make life less exciting for the cellist.

?ean 9arriXre D1+7+ % 1+!+F ex3anded the virtuoso cello techniCue with his four books of cello

sonatas 3ublished between 1+)) and 1+)6. ,hough double sto3s are rarel" found in the basso

continuo line2 the wa" the harmonic outline is given in 3laces like the Andante of the first sonata of

9ook 1 D*x.1F shows us that it is ver" much for the cello. A different com3oser ma" have onl"

written sim3le re3eated crotchets DCuarter notesF for the bass.

,he solo 3art aside2 it is Cuite common to see 3assages of double sto3s in the bass 3arts of

9occherini0s cello sonatas. A rather interesting exam3le can be found in the first movement of two

different versions of a sonata in *'flat D*x.F. ,he bass 3arts are almost identical exce3t that most

of the double sto3s in one version are inverted in the other. Perha3s 9occherini was of the same

mind as 9audiot2 mentioned below2 in that the 3articular inversion of a chord does not have to be

something of maBor im3ortance. /hatever the reason2 both versions of double'sto3s2 like all the

other double'sto3s I looked at in 9occherini0s bass lines2 fall neatl" under the hand. 9occherini

never asks the accom3anist to 3erform a difficult task with the sole 3ur3ose of filling outharmonies.

Another cellist2 famous for accom3animent of recitativo secco, was ?ames $ervetto D1+!8 % 18)+F2

son of the -4ather of the solo cello in *ngland2 =iacomo $ervetto D1#8 % 1+8)F. ?ames $ervetto

worked in the King0s ,heatre from 1++!2 earlier than ;obert &indle"2 and 3ublished several works

almost entirel" for cellos. In his -Three uets for T.o Violoncellos+,


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certain s3ecial harmon"2 so wh" should we ask it of ourselves DPerha3s the author is referring in

3articular to his own as3irations at 3resent.F &ooking at exam3les such as these show us that there

are also man" other wa"s to add harmon" than Bust 3la"ing chords.

1.10 The fir%t cello tutor% and the acco'*ani'ent of recitatio in o*era

In 1+!1 the first cello tutor was 3ublished b" $orrette in Paris. )1 As well as all the basic instruction

one might ex3ect from a cello tutor Dincluding s3ecial advice for viol 3la"ers who wish to 3la" the

celloF we find cha3ter 1 devoted to chords and ar3eggios D*x.!F. $orrette gives exam3les of the

augmented fourth2 diminished fifth and seventh along with their resolutions. ,he main 3oint seems

to be giving advice on how to finger such intervals. ,he - Arpegio+ section shows a handful of

different wa"s to ar3eggiate a )'note chord2 again with a little fingering advice. Alas $orrette gives

us absolutel" no hint on the context in which we might like to use these skills. /as it too obvious

to even mention ,he onl" other hel3 we get is to hardl" 3la" chords on the lowest string due to the

heav" and obscure sound 3roduced.)

?ohann 9a3tist 9aumgartner D1+) ' 1+8F was a =erman cellist active in :othern *uro3e and

*ngland. 9aumgartner0s - Instructions de musiHue, th4oriHue et pratiHue, l#usage du

violoncelle+ was 3rinted in en Haag in 1++! and it is 3articularl" interesting because of its

em3hasis on accom3animent>

-I give in this method the most sensible and easiest a33roach2 not onl" to

3la" 3ieces but even to accom3an" well since that is its Qthe cello0sR

3rimar" role and conseCuentl" the essential thing to know.)!

$ha3ter :ine of 9aumgartner2 -n techniHue and shifting+, is a much more thorough version of

$orrette0s effort on fingering chords. Perha3s the as3ect that we can most benefit from in this

fingering advice is that it is alwa"s given in a harmonic context2 e.g. - Fourths are al.ays played

)1 $orrette 1+!1

) $orrette2 1+!12 3. )8> -)ur la e corde on ne fait guere d2accords, les sons 4tans tr5s graves, et par conseHuent trop

obscurs$)) 9aumgartner2 1++!.

)! 9aumgartner 1++!2 in -To the Reader+


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.ith the little finger and the second finger since the resolution is to the third$ I am sure an" cellist

thinking of chordal accom3animent would benefit from 9aumgartner0s advice here2 since it is not

onl" the head and the ears that learn good harmon"2 but also the fingers. At the end of the cha3ter

9aumgartner refers the reader to an exercise D*x.5F2 warning2

-It is not sufficient to know the rules. It is also necessar" to have the

techniCue which is the effect of exercise and 3ractice which de3ends on "ou

and not me.

9aumgartner devotes $ha3ter ,welve to the WAccompaniment of Recitatives+& accom3anied andordinar"2 or secco. ;egarding Maccom3aniedM recitatives2 the o3tion of not 3la"ing extra notes is

given2 since the harmon" is 3rovided b" the other instruments. /ith -ordinar" recitatives2 there is

no o3tion but to 3la" chords. Here follows a summar" of his guide>

•

-It is ver" good2 when "ou accom3an" a s"m3hon" or other large

ensemble music2 to sometimes 3la" chords if there is occasion.

)5 9aumgartner 1++!2 $ha3ter 1 - give a dry stro/e .ith your bass note at the same time as the principal chord noteof the melody$ "ou have enough spare time .hile follo.ing the melody to search for your concordant note$


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9aumgartner advises 3la"ing certain chords based on the wa" the bass line moves2 enabling the

cellist to 3la" without figures. He advises 3la"ing without chords onl" when the line is highl"

figured and finishes with the general observation> -The ear, if you have one, .ill guide you$+

In his -0eneral instructions for 0ood Accompanying+, we are told -never hazard to accom3an" a

solo2 trio or a Cuartet$ /hether this means not to 3la" additional notes or onl" to 3la" them if one

is com3letel" sure2 I do not know. I think it is 3robabl" the latter since he immediatel" goes on to

suggest 3racticing realization in s"m3honies as the other cellists will -cover the mista/es you .ill

ma/e+$ /e are also told2 -it is good to 3la" figures when accom3an"ing a s"m3hon" or a choir2

and to 3la" the notes down an octave if there is no contrabass. Again2 regarding accom3animent of

solo2 duet2 trio or Cuartet2 there is an ambiguous instruction of2 -3la" the notes exactl"2 which

could mean without realization or without mistakes DCuite 3ossible given his ironic nature seen

elsewhere in his InstructionsF.

(alerie /alden2 writing on accom3animent in 16682)# summarizes the instructions on

accom3animent of recitative from the maBor earl" cello tutors)+ De.g. 9aillot2 *x.#F and evidence of

its im3lementation>

• It was considered normal for a cello to accom3an" recitatives with chords from around

1+672 across most of *uro3e.

• ,he core instruments of the recitative grou3 were the cello and the contrabass. ,he 3resence

of a ke"board instrument varied in different 3laces2 however there is evidence that in the

absence of a cello2 the ke"board was not able to satisfactoril" 3rovide a strong enough

harmon" on its own.

• It was common for the contrabass to sustain the bass note of the recitative Das writtenF whilst

the cellist ar3eggiated chords in various manners at the changes of harmon".

• ome Dlike 9aumgartnerF said that the bass note must not be changed Dexce3t in the case of

octavation downwardsF2 whilst others D9audiot2 tiastn"F considered that changing the

inversion of the chord did not create an" bad effect for the listener % one can imagine that it

does not matter which inversion the cellist 3la"s so long as the fundamental bass note from

)# /alden2 16682 $ha3ter> The Art of Acoompaniment 33. !1 % #6.

)+ e.g. 9aumgartner2 1++!G 9aillot2 &evasseur2 $atel2 9audiot2 *4thode de violoncelle et de basse d2accompagnement,Paris 1875G 9audiot2 *4thode pour le violoncello, o3. 52 vols2 Paris 18#2 188.


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other instruments is strong enough.

• ome cellists 3la"ed their ar3eggios in a wa" that the highest note was the next note of the

singer.


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schools.

Accom3animent of recitativo secco b" a cello and contrabass2 and often but not alwa"s a ke"board

instrument2 was the norm across *uro3e towards the end of the 18th $entur" and the beginning of

the 16th. D,he score for endelssohn0s recreation of 9ach0s -)t$ *atthe. @assion had a bass 3art

for two solo cellos 3la"ing chords and the double bass on the bass line.!1F $urrentl" this scoring is

not the norm when 3erforming works of that 3eriod2 even with grou3s on historical instruments.

;ealization of basso continuo b" a cello outside of recitative 3robabl" did ha33en2 but the contexts

in which it might have ha33ened are still vague. /hen cello accom3animent of recitativo secco

died out in the second half of the 16th $entur" so did the skills needed for it2 and also the

motivation for the next generation of cellists to continue to learn these skills. ince this 3ractice of

3erforming recitative is well documented2 we can look forward to its rebirth in the field of historical

3erformance in the coming "ears.

!1 9rown2 16662 3.#7).


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1.11 Conclu%ion to art 1

I can summarize the historical evidence I looked at above as follows>

1. ,here is solid evidence that sa"s it was a common 3ractice for able viol 3la"ers to realize

basso continuo.

. :o evidence or accounts have been found that suggest it was common for the cello to realize

normal basso continuo lines.

). It was normal 3ractice for the cello to realize harmonies in the accom3animent of recitative

at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 16th centuries.

1. It would have been useful in com3leting the 3icture of the viol as a harmonic continuo instrument

to have found a tutor or method from that 3eriod. uring this investigation none has been found

and so it seems that the viol 3la"er of the 18 th $entur" might have had to select the relevant 3oints

of tutors for other instruments in order to develo3 their own harmonic continuo skills. Aside from

this the 3icture is com3lete with =anassi0s accom3animents2 *nglish l"ra'viol song2 $har3entier0s

-colourings using the viol2 Handel0s full" inde3endent continuo lines in Tra le Fiamme, and

written accounts from the likes of 9onnet. ,he inde3endent viol lines that Handel wrote2 along

with their figuring2 shows that at least Handel2 if not others2 ex3ected a real continuous basso

continuo from the instrument.

It is no sur3rise that toda" that various viol 3la"ers are using chords as an extra colour in the

continuo grou3 % this can be heard in recordings as varied as 9iber D=unar &etzbor2 166#2 A33endix

92 ,rack 5F2 $i3riano de ;ore DPaolo Pandolfo2 77#2 A33endix 92 ,rack #F and Handel D$ecilia

9artoli2 7752 A33endix 92 ,rack +F. ,he viol was abandoned and la" forgotten for around 157

"ears before it was reanimated in the 7th centur". Perha3s it tells us something about the nature of

this instrument that2 even in the absence of a -viol'continuo tutor2 toda"0s revivalists are

incor3orating continuo realization into their 3la"ing2 Bust as did good viol 3la"ers of the 1+ th and 18th

$enturies. Perha3s it Bust comes naturall".


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2.1 Introduction

,his section charts m" attem3ts to methodicall" develo3 m" skills at realizing basso continuo. ,he

wa" it is written re3resents the wa" I organized m" thoughts and is often intended to be thought

3rovoking % for m" own benefit as much as the reader0s.

fig$iii$


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However the above solution involves a shift to nd 3osition which is not ver" difficult2 but

nevertheless can interru3t the flow of the bass line and has more intonation risk. /e can find a

safer 1st'3osition solution b" octavating the bass>

fig$iv$

4igures iii or iv could both be good solutions.


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minimal Bum3s and a good balance between contrar" and conBunct motion.


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the beginning articulation of each bass note as it would be when 3la"ed without chords

to kee3 the finger on the bass note as long as 3ossible with sufficient 3ressure to sustain its

resonance2 es3eciall" between chords and ) where there is a shift % if the bass note is losttoo earl"2 we have the effect of a different inversion.

All these things taken into account2 the cellist can give an effect of a legato bass line2 whilst

3roviding a full harmon". :eedless to sa" it takes a lot more concentration and 3recision than

3la"ing the bass line alone.

2.4 The Viol

As ection 1 shows2 the viol is an instrument on which chords come naturall". 4rets2 Cuartal'tuning

and a greater number of strings make the viol more flexible than the cello at realizing basso

continuo. ,hese attributes should be ke3t in mind to make good realizations on the viol. ,he

general 3rinci3le of holding down the fingers as long as 3ossible for resonance is as im3ortant as

ever.

2." The ele'ent% of (a%%o continuo realiation on the iol

,he viol shares the same elements of basso continuo realization as the cello2 but since it is a another

instrument2 the" are treated differentl". ,hrough 3ractical ex3erience I have found that these

elements on the viol are more inde3endent than on the cello ' that is to sa" often one element of

basso continuo can be varied with little or no effect to another.

(oice &eading

,he viol usuall" has several 3ossibilities for a chord Dsee figure vii belowF and these 3ossibilities

should be used to make good voice leading.


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oubling

I tr" to avoid doubling the melod" with the to3 note of a chord on the viol Das is the general

3ractice in accom3animent of 4rench musicF2 but it often ha33ens that a melod" note is doubled

within a chord DI often 3la" chords of three or more notes on the viol and mostl" two notes on the

celloF. I have not found doubling the melod" within a chord to be a 3roblem so far2 and it is not

alwa"s unacce3table when the to3 note of a chord doubles the melod". Perha3s this is due to the

more subtle sound the viol 3roduces com3ared to the cello.

,exture

If the cello0s tendenc" is to be a bit too brash in 3la"ing chords2 then 3erha3s the viol tends to be

too water". ,his is often an advantage because it allows the viol to 3la" lots of notes in a chord

without getting in the wa". It is a disadvantage when the bass line needs strong articulation. I

sometimes find m"self 3la"ing a lot of harmon" -Bust because I can2 so it is ver" good to be aware

of moments when the bass alone or a sim3le third is the best solution.

Kee3ing the bass line

ustaining the bass line while 3la"ing chords above it is easier on the viol than the cello because of

the extra resonance that the frets give. ,he fingers on bass notes still need to be ke3t down as long

as 3ossible2 at least until the next bass note and 3erha3s longer if it does not sound bad. hifts in

3osition are sometimes necessar" % in this case it can be hel3ful to organize the fingers so that

the" travel to their new destinations at different times. If all the fingers move at once2 there might

be an undesirable ga3 in the sound.

2.6 eelo*ing ar'onic 5ill%

I knew about andrieu0s @rincipes de l#accompagnement du Clavecin DParis2 1+16F from

elementar" har3sichord studies. It is a sim3le and effective method for learning basso continuo on

the har3sichord. 9ecause of its sim3licit"2 it is also easil" ada3table to other instruments such as

the cello and the viol. ,he method introduces harmonies and harmonic 3rogressions ste3'b"'ste3.


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*ach ste3 consists of three 3ages of 3rogressions2 all identical exce3t the first contains a full

figuring Dobbligato figuring2 to learn and understand what is considered to be good voice leadingF2

the second 3art has the basic -shorthand figures Dthat form the usual abbreviation of whole chords

in scores of that 3eriodF and the third 3art is unfigured. In this wa" andrieu leads us to understand

harmon" without rel"ing on the figures.

I have been 3ractising these exercises regularl" and found them ver" useful. ,he" hel3 to develo3 a

3h"sical feel for the harmon" as well as the aural. ince andrieu0s obbligato figuring is onl"

a33licable to a ke"board instrument I made m" own ada3tations and some of these are to be found

in A33endix A D*x.6F.

I found it useful to set m"self small tasks such as -how man" different = maBor chords can I 3la"

,he answer to this 3articular Cuestion is below in figure vii. ,asks like these hel3ed me to get to

know the cello and viol harmonicall".


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cales in )rds2 !ths and #ths are alwa"s useful on the cello2 but the" become es3eciall" im3ortant

to a cellist wishing to realize basso continuo since he will use them much more freCuentl". ,he

viol does thirds ver" well2 and since thirds are needed in most chords it will hel3 to 3ractice them

in scales as well.

2.7 rea5ing Chord%


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2.+ otation – ,igure% and ,inger%

ince a cello cannot alwa"s 3la" all the figures 3rinted Dif there are figures at allF2 I would often

3re3are a bass b" writing down which figures I wanted to 3la"2 next to the 3rinted ones. /hich

figureDsF I chose2 would de3end on consideration of the elements mentioned in section .. In

addition to figures2 I would sometimes add fingerings to a score2 and lthough the 3age begins to

look rather mess" I have not found a more efficient solution so far. An exam3les of m" working

scores can be seen in A33endix A2 *xam3les )7 and )1.

2./ a%% Violin

Fig$1$ Photo of frets

on bass violin.

Almost one "ear ago I was having difficult" 3re3aring a realization of $orelli0s violin sonata


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,he bass violin which I used is basicall" a large cello which could have been t"3ical in $orelli0s

;ome. ,he hard surfaces of the added frets 2 com3ared to the soft 3ad of the finger2 allow the

strings to resonate much longer. *ver" note a33roaches the Cualit" of an o3en string Das on a violF.

,he main advantage of this is that the bass continues to resonate strongl" under a chord after the

bow has moved to another string.

I often found m"self using -viol fingering Di.e. using two fingers to sto3 two adBacent strings at

the same 3ointF in order to take advantage of the extra resonance2 3articularl" in a chord like the

one shown in figure 1i>

fig$1i$ -(iol fingering used on a cello chord.

to33ing intervals of a fifth without frets is alwa"s a bit trick" as one has to -balance the finger

across two strings. light changes in weight from one string to another can make a fifth obviousl"

im3ure. 9eing able to use two different fingers to 3la" a fifth increases resonance and leaves the

hand in a more natural 3osition. ,he 3resence of frets also makes intonation with two fingers D!

and ) in the case of figure viiF reliable.

,he main disadvantage I have found to the use of frets is 3la"ing for an extended time with no

o33ortunit" for tuning e.g. in an o3era. /hen the strings go out of tune as the" naturall" do2 it is

ver" hard to blend into the continuo grou32 and there is nothing that can 3revent this exce3t beingver" good at tuning ver" Cuickl"2 ver" Cuietl".

2.10 In ractice

I have ke3t a log of all the basso continuo realizations I have made over the last two "ears2 and that

can be found in A33endix $. I have covered a wide variet" of re3ertoire though as can be seen2 it

has mostl" been on the viol.


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I feel more invited to realize basso continuo on the viol2 and it comes ver" naturall". It blends in

with other instruments and is easil" acce3ted b" other musicians whom I 3la" with. " abilities to

realize basso continuo on the viol have reall" benefited from this2 and I ho3e the" will continue to

im3rove. everal recordings2 some more successful than others2 can be heard on the $ of

A33endix 9. ,wo exam3les of accom3an"ing recitative have been written out in A33endix A2

*xam3les ) and )).

;ealizing chords on the cello is Cuite different. I often feel awkward and too 3resent to

continuousl" add notes2 and it is difficult to make a good blend in an ensemble. D,hough it is

notable that when I 3la"ed some chords in a concertino cello 3art2 it was not ver" audible above

the orchestra2 on the recording made of the concert DA33endix 92 ,racks 1 ' 1!F. I have had the

most success on the bass violin with frets but am mostl" ha33" Bust 3la"ing the bass line well on

the cello.

es3ite not realizing basso continuo as extensivel" as on the viol2 I think m" harmonic awareness

on the cello has increased greatl" and m" fingers are often hovering around a 3ossible harmon"

that could be 3la"ed2 even if eventuall" I do not 3la" it.


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$art ' A short "uide &or other cellistsand violists !ho !ish to realize

basso continuo


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mind that ever" dissonance has to resolve and it is useful to finger accordingl". e.g. A diminished

5th resolves to the )rd and there is onl" one 3ossible fingering for this as shown in figure 1ii$

$ha3ter nine of 9aumgartner0s Instructions D1++!F ] gives detailed information on fingering chords

for cellists.

fig$ Xii$ ;esolution of

a diminished 5th.

Hold fingers do$n as long as possible#

,his will create more beautiful resonance. It is es3eciall" im3ortant with regard to the bass note to

kee3 it ringing after the bow has moved to another string2 If the bass note is not strong enough2 or

disa33ears2 there can be the illusion of a different Dor wrongF harmon".

3.3 Ti'ing

Play the bass note on the beat#

o not get distracted awa" from the 3ro3er 3lacement of the written bass note when 3la"ing chords.

Pla"ing chords and kee3ing a good flow in the bass line reCuires more brain 3ower than 3la"ing the

bass alone2 but it should be a 3riorit" that the 3lacement of the bass note in a chord does not suffer.

,he bass note is the most im3ortant note and should usuall" be 3la"ed -on the beat as o33osed to

the to3 note of a chord. ,here ma" be exce3tional circumstances where the bass note is not wanted

on the beat.

3.4 ou(ling

Avoid doubling the melody line&s'#

It usuall" sounds bad when the melod" line is doubled for a note or two b" the highest note of a

chord on the cello or viol. It is fine if the doubled note is within the chord.

] 9aumgartner2 ?ean2 Instructions de musiHue, th4oriHue et pratiHue, l#usage du violoncelle en Haag2 1++!.


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(ead the melody line as $ell as the figures#

,his will hel3 to avoid doubling. It will also show what notes are missing from the chord2 and these

are the best notes to add wherever 3ossible and suitable.

3." 9ecitatie

,he cello usuall" 3la"ed short chords in the accom3animent of recitativo secco from around 1+67 %

18!7. ,his was 3erformed together with sustained notes on the double bass. ,here are several

methods which teach this 3ractice2 including $ha3ter twelve of 9aumgartner0s Instructions D1++!F.

It is 3ossible to make the highest note of the chord the next note of the singer.

3.6 :ther adice

Change the octave if the bass note is too high#

Al$ays as) yourself if playing more notes really improves the music#

Pla"ing lots of extra notes Bust because it is 3ossible is not a good reason to 3la" them. ,he cello

and the viol can 3la" beautiful bass lines without an" chords2 and should also remain beautiful when

3la"ed with chords.

%se your ears Din the s3irit of 9aumgartnerF

If it sounds wrong or bad2 then do not do itN


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(eneral Conclusions


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(eneral Conclusions

Part 1 shows that it was common for the viol to realize basso continuo in the baroCue 3eriod. In

Part 2 along with the recorded exam3les in A33endix 92 it is shown how I ex3lored and develo3ed

basso continuo realization on the viol to a high level2 using it regularl" in concerts.


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I have been struck b" one as3ect of the old cello methods and that is the focus on harmon" % to

know where all the dissonances and their resolutions are and even use it to dictate fingering. ,his

is a ver" interesting as3ect of learning the cello and it is 3erha3s missing from toda"0s cello

teaching. /hen I began to stud" -baroCue cello at the $onservatorium van Amsterdam2 I also

took second stud" basso continuo lessons on the har3sichord.


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A%%endi) A* See se%arate Volume

A%%endi) B* Trac list o& audio e)am%leson C+

Trac)

*o#

Artist+ Composer+ Trac) *ame and ,nfo Comments

71 avid /atkin and ?ohn Hollowa"2 $orelli2


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16 ;. mith and es Qlements2 $am3ra2 Arion recit. -lirone st"le % sustainedchords on viol2 with theorbo.

ee also A33endix A2 *x.).

7 ;. mith and es Qlements2 9ernier2 Aminte et&ucrine recit.

olo viol accom3animent

ee also A33endix A2 *x.)).

1 Ibid As above

;. mith and es Qlements2 9oismoitier2 iane etActeon recit

As above

) Ibid (iol2 then theorbo

accom3animent.

! ;. mith and ;. Kimura2 4rancoeur2 violin sonata

(I.

olo viol Accom3animent.

5 Ars AntiCue Austria2 =unar &etzbor. DArcana A

6712 166#F2 9iber2 "ster" onata 1

Arco and 3izzicato used

# Paolo Pandolfo DIm3rovisando 77#F2 $i3riano de

;ore2 Ancor che col 3artire

Im3rovised accom3animent

+ $ecilia 9artoli D


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A%%endi) C* ,o" o& basso continuorealizations to date


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Biblio"ra%hy

9A$H2 $.P.*2

Qssay on the true art of playing /eyboard instruments by Carl @hilipp Qmanuel Bach$ 9erlin21+5)'1+#2 transl. and ed. b" /illiam ?. itchell2 :ew York :orton2 ca. 1687.

9AI&&> S :3; D*arl" usic2 172 no. 2A3ril 168F.

A:;I*2 ?ean'4ranSois2 @rincipes de l#accompagnement du Clavecin DParis2 1+16F.


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:4@@www.goldbergweb.com@en@magazine@com3osers@77)@1@187#\3rint.3h3

The Viola da 0amba, htt3>@@www.goldbergweb.com@en@magazine@essa"s@771@76@!5\3rint.3h3

H*A&Y2 *rin2. irone, =rove usic


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I,H2 /.$.2 A Bibliography of the *usical 9or/s @ublished by 8ohn 9alsh during the "ears:; D&ondon2 16!82 @16#8F.

I,H2 /.$.2 and Hum3hries2 $. A Bibliography of the *usical 9or/s @ublished by the Firm of 8ohn 9alsh during the "ears :3=:S:3;; D&ondon2 16#8F .

,H S :D>$$ambridge niversit" Press2 1668.

/A,KI:2 avid2 Corelli#s op$% sonatas& 'Violino e violone o cimbalo#( D*arl" usic2 (ol. !2 :o.! :ovember 166#F 33. #!5 % ##)

/I&&IA2 Peter and &*9*,,*;2 avid . Continuo. =rove usic

Basso Continuo Realization on the Cello and Viol

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