Basic structure of Matter and the Earth

By Doba D. Jackson, Ph.D.

Associate Professor of Chemistry & Biochemistry

Huntingdon College

Information on the Professor

Name: Doba Jackson, Ph.D.Specialty: Biophysical ChemistryRank: Associate ProfessorDepartment: Chemistry & BiochemistryCollege: Huntingdon College (main campus)Primary courses: Physical Chemistry, Biochemistry, Organic Chemistry, General ChemistryContact Email: doba.jackson@hawks.huntingdon.eduContact Office: 334-833-4269 (Montgomery)

How to Study for this class

Time: For every 1 hour class, you should spend 2 hrs of studying (minimum). Thus 8 hours on average for a 4 hour class period.

Taking Notes:Unlike most classes, you don’t need to write down my conversation. Occasionally I will give you something you need to remember but not often. Also the PowerPoint's will be made available.

How to Study for this classIn Class QuestionsYou should pay particular attention to questions we work on in class. These questions will be very similar to test problems. Try to follow in class and review them after class and prior to the test.

Homework: End of Chapter Problems:You must work on the end of chapter questions outlined in the syllabus. The selected questions may or may not be similar to the quiz or exam questions given in class.

Outline of Lecture 1• Part I: Matter & Matter changes

– Natural Science-Physical Science– Physical & Chemical Properties– Elements of Nature– Temperature, Pressure– Physical States of Matter

• Part II: Origin of the Universe and matter– Big Bang (video)– Formation of atoms, elements– Formation of galaxies, our solar system

Outline of Lecture 1• Part III: Structure & Components of Earth

– Earth’s Core– Earth’s Mantle– Earth’s Crust– Lithosphere– Asthenosphere– Rock Cycle (sedimentary, Metamorphic, Igneous)– Plate Tectonic Theory (intro)– Geologic Time (intro)

Part I: Matter and Matter Changes

Part I: Matter and matter changes Learning Outcomes

1. Describe the different elements and states of matter and their general physical properties

2. Distinguish between different physical states of matter.

3. Distinguish between Physical changes and chemical changes

4. Understand how the universe and matter was created (Big Bang)

Natural Science, Physical Science

Natural Science- a branch of science that is concerned with the knowledge of natural phenomena, based on observation, experience, or experimentation.

Natural Science

Physical Science

Biological Science

Biology Chemistry

Physics

Earth Science

Astronomy

Science follows the scientific method which is an ongoing process

Organization of the Periodic Table

Elements are listed in groups (columns) and rows.

Elements in a specific column and row have properties that are similar.

Elements that are on the left are called metals because they are solids at room temperature.

Elements on the right are liquids and gases at room temperature

Elements at the top are small atoms and the bottom are large atoms

Simple Atomic Model

Some Chemical Properties of the Elements

MetalsNonmetals

Chemistry and the Elements

You should know the boxed elements and their symbols.

Each Element has its own properties

Physical Properties: Characteristics that do not involve a change in a sample’s chemical makeup.

Chemical Properties: Characteristics that do involve a change in a sample’s chemical makeup.

Mass & MatterMass: Amount of matter in an object.

Matter: Describes anything with a physical presence—anything you can touch, taste, or smell. All matter has a mass.

Weight: Measures the force with which gravity pulls on an object. Weight is proportional to mass because gravity on the earth’s crust is a constant

Temperature and Its Measurement

(°F - 32 °F)5 °C9 °F

°C =

°C + 32 °F9 °F5 °C

°F =

K = °C + 273.15

Fahrenheit to Celsius

Celsius to Fahrenheit

Celsius to Kelvin

Absolute Temperature

You don’t have to know the equations

Pressure

Pressure = Force/Area

Measurement of Pressure

• Evangelista Torricelli, in 1863 first devised

a method for measuring the pressure of an

atmosphere using a mercury barometer.

Aneroid Barometer

Mercury Barometer

Water Barometer

Pressure:Unit area

Force

Gases and Gas Pressure

Phase change is a Physical Change

• Phase- A form of matter that is uniform throughout in chemical composition and physical state

• Phase Transition- The spontaneous conversion of one phase to another

Single Phase Multiple Phase

Phase changes are spontaneous events depend on the temperature and pressure

Phase diagrams illustrates the most stable phase at a each temperature and pressure

Phase Diagram for Carbon Dioxide

Phase Diagram for Water showing multiple solid forms of Ice I-XI

Ice- I

Phase diagram of SiO2 (sand)

Part II: Origin of the Universe, Solar System

The history of the universe can be divided up into several phases

Big Bang0 seconds

The universe began with a vast explosion that generated space and time, and created all the matter and energy in the universe. Exactly what triggered this sudden expansion remains a mystery.

The history of the universe can be divided up into several phases

Forces, protons, neutrons, electron form1 second after

The universe began cooling and the most basic forces in nature emerged: first gravity, then the strong force, which holds nuclei of atoms together, followed by the weak and electromagnetic forces. In its first second of existence, the universe was made up of fundamental particles, including electrons, photons, and neutrinos.

The history of the universe can be divided up into several phases

Hydrogen nuclei form3 minutes afterProtons and neutrons form and the nuclei of simple elements Hydrogen and Helium form. That the universe remains largely made up of these elements—hydrogen and helium—is considered strong evidence of the validity of the big-bang model

Hydrogen: 1 proton, 1 electron

Helium: 2 protons, 2 neutrons 2 electrons

The history of the universe can be divided up into several phases

Basic elementsH, He form500,000 yrs afterIts protons, neutrons and electrons came together to form the nuclei of simple elements Hydrogen and Helium. That the universe remains largely made up of these elements—hydrogen and helium—is considered strong evidence of the validity of the big-bang model

Hydrogen: 1 proton, 1 electron

Helium: 2 protons, 2 neutrons 2 electrons

The history of the universe can be divided up into several phases

Stars, Galaxies form1,000,000,000 yrs afterAs time moved forward, the pull of gravity exerted its influence on the early universe. Even as the universe as a whole continued to expand, pockets of gas became more and more dense. Stars ignited within these pockets. Groups of stars then became the earliest galaxies. Modern telescopes can detect these primordial galaxies as they appeared when the universe was only one billion years old, just 7 percent of its present age.

The history of the universe can be divided up into several phases

Our sun, Milky Way5,000,000,000 yrs after

The sun formed within a cloud of gas in a spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy. A vast disk of gas and debris that swirled around this new star coalesced into planets, moons, and asteroids

The history of the universe can be divided up into several phases

End of the universe1099 yrs afterExpansion and cooling will continue until all stars (& Sun) lose energy. At this late stage, protons will have decayed and black holes will have almost completely evaporated. Only the byproducts of these processes remain: mostly neutrinos, electrons, positrons, and photons of enormous wavelengths. For all intents and purposes, the universe as we know it will have come to an end.

Solar System; Milky Way

Terrestrial planets

Jovian planets

Planet systems• Terrestrial Planets- Mercury, Venus,

Earth, Mars. • Jovian Planets- Jupitor, Saturn, Uranus,

Neptune. (Pluto not included)

Terrestrial Planets Jovian Planets

Distance from the sun

Close to the Sun Far from the Sun

Size Small size Large size

Internal Core Metallic core surrounded by rock

Rocky core surrounded by gases

Surface Atmosphere

Nitrogen, Oxygen, CO2 Hydrogen, Helium, Methane

Moons Few if any moons Large number of moons

Part III: Structure of the Earth

Earth can be looked at as a complex system consisting of many parts

Atmosphere is the gases surrounding the earth that are part of the earth’s gravitational field

Hydrosphere is the sum of allthe water of various physical states in and

around the earth

Biosphere is the sum of all ecosystems in and around the earth

Lithosphere is the combination of the upper mantle, athenosphere and earth’s crust that surrounds

the surface of the earth

Earth formed from a swirling eddy of nebular material 4.6 billion years ago, accreting as a solid body and soon thereafter differentiating into a layered planet during a period of internal heating.

How did the Earth Form?

Core- consists mostly of Fe and a small amount of Ni.

Volume- 16% of earth

Outer core- Liquid with density of 10-12 g/cm3

Inner core- Solid with density 12-13 g/cm3

Earth core is a solid Metallic Fe and Ni

Outer core- estimated at 2500*C to 5000*C

Inner Core- estimated at 6500*C

- Temperature measurements are estimated based on the melting points of the minerals and elements.

Earth core is very hot with temperatures estimated at

6500˚C

Origin of Earth’s Heat:

1) Residual heat left over from the Big Bang occupies the inner core.

2) Radioactive decay of mineral isotopes Uranium, Thorium and Potassium which occupy the mantle.

Where does Earth’s heat come from?

Rock is a poor conductor of heat so it insulates the heat internally within the earth.

- Pressure of the Earth’s core is estimated at 3.5 million times the Atmospheric pressure (3,500,000 atm).

Earth core is under extremely high pressure

The Earth and all other planets have a Magnetic Field

- Electrical currents in the (liquid Iron) outer core probably generate Earth's magnetic field. The lines of magnetic field surrounding Earth resemble those of a bar magnet.

Where and how is Earth’s magnetic field generated?

Ferromagnetism

Although it is not clear how exactly the Earth generates amagnetic field, magnetic fields are generated by certainmaterials that have unpaired electrons or generate anelectrical current.

Ferromagnetic- materials that have magnetic properties. They are strongly attracted to magnets and that includes the earths magnetic field.

Ferromagnetic RocksNorth

South

When an rock solidifies with a element that has an unpaired electron, the element tends to orient its magnetic field against the earth’s magnetic field.

Curie Point- the temperature at which a rock containing magnetic elements will solidify.

Lodestone, Magnetite, Maghemite- iron containing mineral rocks with magnetic properties (Fe3O4).

Mantle- dark dense rock containing Fe and Mg (silicates- SiO4).

Volume- 83% of earth

Density- solid rock of peridotite has a density of 3.3-5.7 g/cm3

Earth’s Mantle consists mainly of a rock called

Peridotite

Earth's Mantle—The Layer Below the Crust

• How did geologists come to the conclusion that the mantle is probably made up of peridotite?

• Experiments indicate that peridotite has the physical properties and density to account for seismic wave velocity in the mantle.

• Peridotite is also found as inclusions in kimberlite pipes that came from depths of 100 to 300 km.

Continental Crust- Density of 2.7 g/cm3. Rock- granite.

Depth- 20-90 km Oceanic Crust-

Density of 3.0 g/cm3. Rock- Basalt.Depth- 5-10 km

Volume- 1% of earth

Earth’s Crust consists of an Oceanic and Continental crust

forms

Seismic Waves are used to probe Earth’s Internal Structure

• How do geologists study Earth’s interior?– When an Earthquake

occurs, energy in the form of seismic waves radiate out from the point of release.

– P-waves (push-pull waves) similar to sound waves and can travel through solids, liquids and gases.

– S-waves (shear waves) move material perpendicular to the direction of travel and can only travel through solids

Seismic waves used to probe the Earth’s Core

• How do P & S-waves travel through the Earth?

Earth's Crust—Mantle Boundary was found by seismic wave experiments– The boundary between the crust and mantle is known

as the Mohorovicic Discontinuity. It was named after It was discovered when Yugoslavian Seismologist Andrija Mohorovičić who noticed that seismic stations received two sets of P- and S-waves.

The boundary between the Mantle and the Earth’s Crust makes up

the Lithosphere

The crust and upper mantle comprise the lithosphere.

The lithosphere is composedof rigid plates that diverge,converge, or slide sidewayspast one another.

Asthenosphere- region between the upper mantle and lower mantle. This is a region known to produce magma (lava).

The Asthenosphere is plastic rock due to high temperature and

pressure

Asthenosphere- region between the upper mantle and lower mantle.

Temperature- 1000-2500*C

Depth- 80-200 km (beginning) - 700 km (ending)

This is the temperature and pressure that most rocks found on the crust will melt.

Plate Tectonic theory• Plate tectonic theory states that the lithosphere is

divided into rigid plates that diverge, converge, or slide past each other as they move over the asthenosphere.

Plate Tectonic theoryThe movements of the plates and the interactions of plates along their boundaries cause volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, the formation of mountain ranges and ocean basins, and recycling of rock material.

The Rock Cycle

• What is a rock?– A rock is an aggregate of minerals.

Granite Limestone Conglomerate

Slate GneissQuartzite

The Rock Cycle

The Rock Cycle• What are the characteristics of each of

the three major rock groups?

• Igneous rocks result from the crystallization of magma or the consolidation of volcanic ejecta.

The Rock Cycle• Sedimentary rocks are typically

deposited in layers formed by the:

– consolidation of rock fragments

– precipitation of mineral matter from solution

– compaction of plant or animal remains

The Rock Cycle• Metamorphic Rocks- that result from the

alteration of other rocks;

– Metamorphic rocks usually form beneath Earth’s surface, by• Heat• Pressure• Chemically active

fluids.

The Rock Cycle connects the internal and external processes of the earth

Plate Tectonic theory• Plate tectonic theory states that the lithosphere is

divided into rigid plates that diverge, converge, or slide past each other as they move over the asthenosphere.

Plate interaction is a major factor that determines when, where and what kind

of rock develops.

Plate Tectonics?

Geological Time

Radioactive Decay Example

e-1

0C

6

14N

7

14+

- N is the number of radioactive atoms per minute per gram Carbon

- N0 is the initial number of radioactive atoms per and per gram Carbon

- k is the decay constant for carbon- t is the age of the sample

Nt

N0

Ln = -ktEquation:

Geological Time• Eon- Time periods around .5 to 1 billion

years.• Era- Time periods between 100 million

and 500 million years. These occur within Eons.

• Periods- Time periods between 10 million and 100 million years.

• Ages-

No

Early Evidence for Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift Hypothesis

The idea that continents have moved in the past is not new and goes back to the first maps, in which one could see that the east coast of South America looks like it fits into the west coast of Africa.

Pangaea

Scientists responsible for Continental Drift hypothesis

• Abraham Ortelius (1596)- developed the first map and theorized that continents drifted across oceans to their present positions.

• Edward Suess (1885)- First to propose that continents were connected based on fossil evidence. Named southern continents as Gonwana.

• Alfred Wegener (1915)- credited for the continental drift hypothesis. (Named supercontinent Pangaea)

• Harry Hess (1962)- revised the continental drift theory into the Plate Tectonic theory.

Abraham Ortelius developed the first map of the worldOrtelius was a world renown English geographer in his day. He spent his life making regional and continental maps. Through lots of partnerships, and traveling, he was able to develop the first maps of the world.

Latin: Theater of the World He suggested after publishing his 33rd map of the world: “The America’s may had originally been joined together but later drifted away by earthquakes and floods” in 1578

Edward Suess was the first to provided fossil evidence for the continental drift hypothesis Edward Suess

1831-1914

Glossopteris flora- The fossil flora that succeeds the Permian glacial deposits of South Africa, Australia, South America, and Antarctica. It grew in a cold, wet climates. Plants with elongate, tongueshaped leaves dominated the southern flora.

Austrian Geologist Edward Suess proposed the southern continents were once

connected and used the term Gondwana

Alfred Wegener noted similairities of rock sequences for southern

continents

Glacial Evidence in bedrock found in South America, India, South

Africa and Australia

Fossil evidence supports a continental drift hypothesis