Basic in Accounting
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Transcript of Basic in Accounting
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From Financial Statementto Business Analysis
Step 1: Business strategy analysis
Step 2: Accounting analysis
Step 3: Financial analysis
Step 4: Prospective analysis
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Financial & Accounting Analysis
Financial Statement
Financial AnalysisAccounting Analysis
Recasting Financial Statement: firms could adopt different classifications
Unbiased Accounting
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Accrual Accounting
Fundamental features of corporate financial reports
On the basis of expected cash receipt and payments
Recording of economic transactions
Not necessarily actual
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Income statement
ExpensesRevenues
realizationprinciple
economic resources
earned during used up in
a time period
economic resources
matching and conservatismprinciple
Profit = revenues - expenses
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Balance sheet
LiabilitiesAssets
economic resources owned by a firm economic obbligations arising from past benefit
Equity = assets - liabilities
future economic benefit
measurable with reasonable certainty
met with reasonable certainty
time reasonably well defined
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Delegation of reporting to management
Corporate managers
Benefits
intimate knowledge of firm’s businesses
management manipulation of accounting numbers
accounting discretion
Costs
preserved reduced
Accounting rules and auditing
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Accounting analysis
Evaluate the quality of disclosure
(4)
Identify key accounting policies
(1)
Assessaccounting flexibility
(2)
Evaluateaccounting strategy
(3)
Six steps to evaluatea firm’s accounting
quality
Identify potential red flags(5)
Undo accounting distortions
(6)
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Accounting analysis
How well the success factors and risks are being managed by the firm
•Bank: interest and credit risk management•Retail: inventory management•Pharmaceuticals: research and development•…
Identify key accounting policies
(1)
Business strategy analysis
Accounting measures
Business events
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Accounting analysis
•Expense or capitalize costs•Estimate expected defaults on loans•Estimate long-terms projects•Depreciation policy (straight.line or accelerated methods)•Inventory accounting policy (LIFO, FIFO, or average cost)•…
Assessaccounting flexibility
(2)
Trade Off
More flexibility
Less flexibility
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Accounting analysis
•How do the firm’s accounting policies compare to the norms in the industry?•Do managers face strong incentives to use accounting discretion to manage earnings? (tax policy)•What is the impact of the changes in policies? (warranty expenses)•Does the firm structure any significant business transactions so that it can achieve certain accounting objectives? (leasing firms)•…
Evaluateaccounting strategy
(3)
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Accounting analysis
•Does the company provide adequate disclosure to assess the firm’s business strategy and its economic consequences? (industry condition, competitive position, plans for the future)•Does the firm adequately explain its current performance? (financial notes)•Does the firm provide adequate additional disclosure to help outsiders understand how key success factors are being managed? (decrasing in profit)•If a firm is in multiple business segments, what is the quality of segment disclosure?•How forthcoming is the management with respect to bad news?•How good is the firm’s investor program?•…
Evaluate the quality of disclosure
(4)
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Accounting analysis
Certain items must be examined more closely•Unexplained changes in accounting, especially when performance is poor•Unexplained transaction that boost profits•Unusual increases in trade receivables in relation to sales increases•Unusual increases in inventories in relation to sales increases•An increasing gap between a firm’s reported profit and its cash flow from operations•An increasing gap between a firm’s reported profit anche its tax profit•Unexpected large asset write-offs•Large year-end adjustments•Qualified audit opinions or changes in independent auditors that are not well justified•Poor internal governance mechanisms•…
Identify potential red flags(5)
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Accounting analysis
•Restate numbers to reduce the distortion to the extent possible•Impossibility to perfectly undo the distortion using outside information alone•Use the cash flow statement and the notes to the financial statements•Use the tax notes•…
Undo accounting distortions
(6)
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Accounting analysis pitfalls
Potential pitfalls and common misconceptions
Conservative accountingis not the same as“good” accounting
Not all unusual accounting
is questionable
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Accounting analysis
The Airline Industry
Most airlines have frequent flyer programs that promise customers free flightsonce they have accumulated 25,000 miles of travel with the same airline.
How should these programs be reflected in the airlines’financial statements?
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Accounting analysis
Liabilities
economic obbligation arising from past benefit
met with reasonable certainty
time reasonably well defined
Promises that require future expenditure
ticket sales in the past
for example: 1.2 milion free trips
within 3 to 5 years after the revenue ticket sales are made
Balance sheet
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Accounting analysis
Expenses
cost associated
with benefit that are comsumed in this time period
matching concept
Free-trip tickets in the future
increase in revenue ticket sales
Income statement
Administrative cost Costs related to the flight Opportunity cost
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Implement accounting analysis
Accounting Analysis
Analyst
Undo distortions
Adjustments to the financial statement
Balance Sheet
Income Statement(revenue/expenses)
Process
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Implement accounting analysis
RECASTING FINANCIALSTATEMENT
DIFFERENCES
Nomenclature Classifications Formats
New Template Time-series & cross sectional comparison
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Implement accounting analysisDifferent format
IFRS: format for operating expenses
By nature By function
- Cost of materials
- Cost of personnel
- Cost of non currentassets
- Cost of sold
-SG&A (selling, General & Administrative)
Cause Purpose
Recast using Financial Notes