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Digital Image ProcessingIntroduction, Advantages, and Applications
By:
Syed Muhammad Munavvar HussainB.Sc. Electrical Engineering
University College of Engineering and TechnologyBahauddin Zakariya University, ultan
2004-EE-17
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Table of Contents
Chapter No.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
Introduction to Digital Image Processing 3
Chapter No. "
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Origins of Digital Image Processing
Chapter No. #
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!"e Basics of Digital Image Processing #ystems 12
Chapter No. $
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$%%lications of Digital Image Processing 1
Chapter No. %
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&itations 27
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&"a%ter o,
!ne picture is "orth #ore than ten thousand "ords.
Anony#ous
Introduction of Digital ImageProcessing
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'hat is the Digital Image Processing(
It .ill /e /etter to start /y dictionary definitions of t"e .ords:
Digital) o%erating /y t"e use of discrete signals to re%resent data in t"eform of num/ers, 2
Image)an image from atin imago or %icture is an artifact5 usually t.o-
dimensional5 t"at "as a similar a%%earance to some su/6ect--usually a
%"ysical o/6ect or a %erson, 1
Processing) to %erform o%erations on data according to %rogrammed
instructions,[2]
!"us t".e definition of t"e digital image %rocessing may /e gien as:
$%igital i#age processing is the use of co#puter algorith#sto perfor# i#age
processingon digital i#ages.&
Digital image %rocessing is electronic data %rocessing on a 2-D array of num/ers,
!"e array is a numeric re%resentation of an i#age, +
It is a su/field of digital signal %rocessing5 and digital image %rocessing "as many
adantages oer analog image %rocessing8 it allo.s a muc" .ider range of
algorit"ms to /e a%%lied to t"e in%ut data5 and can aoid %ro/lems suc" as t"e
/uild-u% of noise and signal distortion during %rocessing, 3
Image %rocessing o%erations can /e roug"ly diided into t"ree ma6or categories:
1, Image &om%ression
2, Image En"ancement and 9estoration
3, easurement E;traction
Image com%ression is familiar to most %eo%le, It inoles reducing t"e amount of
memory needed to store a digital image, 4
5
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processing -
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Interest in digital image %rocessing stems from t.o %rinci%al a%%lications areas:
1. Im%roement of %ictorial information for "uman inter%retation
2. Processing of image data for storage5 transmission5 and re%resentation for
autonomous mac"ine %erce%tion )
$n image nay /e defined as a t.o-dimensional function5 f;5 y5 ."ere ; and y are
s%atial %lane coordinates5 and t"e am%litude of f at any %air of coordinates ;5 y
is called t"e intensity or gray leel of t"e image at t"at %oint,
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!"ere is no general agreement among aut"ors regarding ."ere image %rocessing
sto%s and ot"er related areas5 suc" as image analysis and com%uter ision5 start,
#ometimes a distinction is made /y defining image %rocessing as a disci%line in
."ic" /ot" t"e in%ut and out%ut of a %rocess are images, !"is is /elieed to /e a
limiting and some."at artificial /oundary, 'or e;am%le5 under t"is definition5
een t"e triial tas@ of com%uting t"e aerage intensity of an image ."ic" yields
a single num/er .ould not /e considered an image %rocessing o%eration, On t"e
ot"er "and5 t"ere are fields suc" as com%uter ision5 including learning and /eing
a/le to ma@e inferences and ta@e actions /ased on isual in%uts, !"is area itself is
a /ranc" of artificial intelligence $I ."ose o/6ectie is to emulate "uman
intelligence, !"e field of $I is in its earliest stages of infancy in terms of
deelo%ment5 .it" %rogress "aing /een muc" slo.er t"an originally antici%ated,!"e area of image analysis also called image understanding is in /et.een image
%rocessing and com%uter ision, )
!"ere are no clear-cut /oundaries in t"e continuum from image %rocessing at one
end to com%uter ision at t"e ot"er, ?o.eer5 one useful %aradigm is to consider
t"ree ty%es of com%uteriAed %rocesses in t"is continuum: lo.-5 mid-5 and "ig"-
leel %rocesses, !"e logical %lace /et.een image %rocessing and image analysis is
t"e area of recognition of indiidual regions or o/6ects in an image, !"us5 ."at is
called t"e digital image %rocessing encom%asses %rocesses ."ose in%uts and
out%uts are images and5 in addition5 encom%asses %rocesses t"at e;tract
attri/utes from images5 u% to and including t"e recognition of indiidual o/6ects5
as a sim%le illustration to clarify t"ese conce%ts5 consider t"e area of automated
analysis of te;t, !"e %rocess of ac=uiring an image of t"e area containing t"e te;t5
%re%rocessing t"at image5 e;tracting segmenting t"e indiidual c"aracters5
descri/ing t"e indiidual c"aracters in a form suita/le for com%uter %rocessing5
and recogniAing t"ose indiidual c"aracters are in t"e sco%e of ."at is called
digital image %rocessing in t"is re%ort, )
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The *uture of Digital Image Processing
!"e digital Image Processing is no. finding .ide range of uses in differenrt
modern a%%lications, 'e. of t"em in ."ic" researc"er are trying deelo%ments
include:
E;%ert #ystems
Parallel Processing
eural et.or@s 7
$nd many more(
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&"a%ter o, "
Things "hich "e see are not 'y the#selves "hat "e see (..
It re#ains co#pletely unkno"n to u
"hat the o')ects #ay 'e 'y the#selves and
apart fro# the receptivity of our senses.
*e kno" nothing 'ut our #anner of perceiving the#.
Immanual ant
!"e Origins of Digital ImageProcessing
+rief history
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One of t"e first a%%lications of digital images .as in t"e ne.s%a%er industry5
."en %ictures .ere first sent /y su/marine ca/le /et.een ondon and e. Cor@,
Introduction of t"e Bart-lane ca/le %icture transmission system in t"e early
1*20s reduced t"e time re=uired to trans%ort a %icture across t"e $tlantic from
more t"an a .ee@ to less t"an t"ree "ours, #%ecialiAed %rinting e=ui%ment coded
%ictures for ca/le transmission and t"en reconstructed t"em at t"e receiing end,
!"e first digital %icture .as %roduced in 1*21 from a coded ta%e /y a telegra%"
%rinter .it" s%ecial ty%e faces,
*igure ")
$ digital %icture %roduced in 1*21 from a coded ta%e /y a telegra%" %rinter )
$fter 1*215 t"e ca%a/ility of coding images .as im%roed ra%idly, ?o.eer5 t"e
/asis for ."at .e call a modern digital signal %rocessing is due to t"e
reolutionary inention of t"e digital com%uter, 1
!"e formal esta/lis"ing of t"e De%artment of Image Processing DIP at t"e
$stronomical O/seratory of "ar@o ational niersity s"ould /e referred to
t"e middle of t"e 70-t"s ."ile its origin can /e traced u% to t"e +0-t"s ."en t"e
first attem%ts to correct t"e errors of %"otometry of %lanetary discs for t"e effects
of atmos%"eric /lurring "ad /een underta@en at t"e $O ", ust at t"at time
t"e %ro/lem of seeing t"roug" t"e tur/ulent atmos%"ere /ecame of great
im%ortance for astronomical studies5 as .ell as for some a%%lied tas@s connected
.it" t"e international safety monitoring, $s a result5 a great num/er of ne.
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met"ods to o/tain information a/out t"e fine s%atial structure of astronomical
o/6ects "ad a%%eared ."ic" stimulated deelo%ment of t"e o/sering and
%rocessing tec"ni=ue5 and5 t"at is een more im%ortant5 a noticea/le %rogress in
understanding t"e %ro/lem "as /een ac"ieed,
*igure #)
!"e first %icture of t"e oon /y a ,#, spacecraft +angerta@en in 1*+4
Inestigation of statistical %arameters of t"e atmos%"ere res%onsi/le for t"e
image degradation .as fulfilled /y t"e DIP staff in 1*74-05 ."ic" "ad "el%ed
t"em to formulate t"e general strategy to reac" t"e "ig" angular resolution in
ground-/ased o/serations *,
$%%lication of interferometeric tec"ni=ue to telesco%ic o/serations /ecame an
im%ortant ste% in oercoming t"e natural limit of resolution %osed /y t"e
atmos%"ere, ?o.eer5 all t"ese met"ods needed a rat"er %o.erful image
%rocessing tec"ni=ue, But at t"at time a digital %rocessing tec"ni=ue could not
%roide %rocessing of "ig"-informatie astronomical images in a reasona/le time,
In addition5 no digital lig"t detectors e;isted at t"at time, !"at is ."y a co"erent
o%tical %rocessor /ecame t"e most natural instrument to fulfill image %rocessing
in t"e +0-t"s5 ."en t"e first industrial lasers a%%eared,
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!"e first attem%t to a%%ly a co"erent o%tical deice for %rocessing astronomical
images .as underta@en at t"e $O " in 1*70, By 1*73 a co"erent o%tical
%rocessor .it" t"e e;cellent tec"nical %arameters "ad /een created /y t"e efforts
of t"e DIP staff5 3545 and for long /ecame t"e main instrument for soling a
.ide range of %ro/lems connected .it" image %rocessing, *
any of t"e tec"ni=ues of digital image %rocessing5 or digital %icture %rocessing
as it .as often called5 .ere deelo%ed in t"e 1*+0s at t"e et Pro%ulsion
a/oratory5I!5Bell a/s5niersity of aryland5 and a fe. ot"er %laces5 .it"
a%%lication to satellite imagery5 .ire%"oto standards conersion5 medical
imaging5 ideo%"one5 c"aracter recognition5 and %"oto en"ancement,1But t"e
cost of %rocessing .as fairly "ig" .it" t"e com%uting e=ui%ment of t"at era, In
t"e 1*70s5 digital image %rocessing %roliferated5 ."en c"ea%er com%uters and
dedicated "ard.are /ecame aaila/le, Images could t"en /e %rocessed in real
time5 for some dedicated %ro/lems suc" as teleision standards conersion, $s
general-%ur%ose com%uters /ecame faster5 t"ey started to ta@e oer t"e role of
dedicated "ard.are for all /ut t"e most s%ecialiAed and com%ute-intensie
o%erations,
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&"a%ter o, #
There-s #ore to it than #eets the eye.
F1*t" century %roer/
!"e Basics of Digital ImageProcessing #ystems
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*undamental Steps in Digital Image Processing
!"ere are seeral different ste%s inolced in t"e image %rocessing8 listed a fe.
of t"em are:
*igure $)
'undamental ste%s in digital8 image %rocessing
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*igure %)
Im%ortant ste%s inoled in digital image %rocessing
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Image ,nhancement
Image defects ."ic" could /e caused /y t"e digitiAation %rocess or /y faults in t"e
imaging set-u% for e;am%le5 /ad lig"ting can /e corrected using Image
En"ancement tec"ni=ues, 11
*igure -)
Image En"ancement and 9estoration
!"e image at t"e left of 'igure ) "as /een corru%ted /y noise during t"e
digitiAation %rocess, !"e GcleanG image at t"e rig"t of 'igure ) .as o/tained /y
a%%lying a median filter to t"e image,
*igure )
$d6usting t"e image "istogram to im%roe image contrast
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$n image .it" %oor contrast5 suc" as t"e one at t"e left of 'igure +5 can /e
im%roed /y ad6usting t"e image "istogram to %roduce t"e image s"o.n at t"e
rig"t of 'igure +,
*igure /)
&orrecting for a /ac@ground gradient
Components of an Image Processing System
$s recently as t"e mid-1*0s5 numerous models of image %rocessing systems
/eing sold t"roug"out t"e .orld .ere rat"er su/stantial %eri%"eral deices t"at
attac"ed to e=ually su/stantial "ost com%uters, ate in t"e 1*0s and early in t"e
1**0s5 t"e mar@et s"ifted to image, 1
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*igure 0)
&om%onents of a digital image %rocessing sytem
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&"a%ter o, $
or a long ti#e, I li#ited #yself to one color////
as a for#of discipline.
Pa/lo Picasso
$%%lications of Digital Image
Processing #ystems
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1pplications)
There is a 2ide range of applications of the digital image processing3
all of 2hich may not be discussed in this short report. That is 2hy 2e
shall enlist them and discuss only a fe2 in detail in this section later.
1. &om%uter ision
2. 'ace detection
3. 'eature detection
4. ane de%arture .arning system
5. on-%"otorealistic rendering
6. edical image %rocessing
7. icrosco%e image %rocessing
8. or%"ological image %rocessing
9. 9emote sensing13
Images from 4arious 1pplications
. ,ngineering
*igure 5)
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_visionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_detectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_detection_(computer_vision)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lane_departure_warning_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-photorealistic_renderinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope_image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_visionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_detectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_detection_(computer_vision)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lane_departure_warning_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-photorealistic_renderinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope_image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensing -
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Engineering a%%lication
". Medicine 6M7 Image8
*igure )
$ edical a%%lication---agnetic resonance imaging
$ magnetic resonance imaging instrument 9I scanner uses %o.erful magnets
to %olarise and e;cite "ydrogen nuclei single %roton in .ater molecules in
"uman tissue5 %roducing a detecta/le signal ."ic" is s%atially encoded resulting
in images of t"e /ody, In /rief5 9I inoles t"e use of t"ree @inds of
electromagnetic field: a ery strong of t"e order of units of teslas static magnetic
field to %olariAe t"e "ydrogen nuclei5 called t"e static field8 a .ea@er time-arying
of t"e order of 1 @?A for s%atial encoding5 called t"e gradient fields8 and a
.ea@radio-fre=uency 9' field for mani%ulation of t"e "ydrogen nuclei to
%roduce measura/le signals5 collected t"roug" an9' antenna,
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRI_scannerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(radio)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRI_scannerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(radio) -
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*igure ")
P"otogra%"y and Digital Image Processing
*igure #)
Digital Image Processing in $stronomy
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*igure $)
'ingure Prints Detection
*igure %)
icense Plate 9eaders
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Digital camera images
Digital cameras generally include dedicated digital image %rocessing c"i%s to
conert t"e ra. data from t"e image sensor into a color-corrected image in a
standard image file format, Images from digital cameras often receie furt"er
%rocessing to im%roe t"eir =uality5 a distinct adantage digital cameras "ae
oer film cameras, !"e digital image %rocessing is ty%ically done /y s%ecial
soft.are %rograms t"at can mani%ulate t"e images in many .ays, 12
Computer vision
Computer vision is t"e science and tec"nology of mac"ines t"at see, $s a
scientific disci%line5 com%uter ision is concerned .it" t"e t"eory for /uilding
artificial systems t"at o/tain information from images, !"e image data can ta@e
many forms5 suc" as a ideo se=uence5 ie.s from multi%le cameras5 or multi-
dimensional data from a medical scanner,
$s a tec"nological disci%line5 com%uter ision see@s to a%%ly t"e t"eories and
models of com%uter ision to t"e construction of com%uter ision systems,
E;am%les of a%%lications of com%uter ision systems include systems for:
&ontrolling %rocesses e,g, an industrial ro/otor an autonomous e"icle,
Detecting eents e,g, for isual sureillance or%eo%le counting,
OrganiAing information e,g, for inde;ing data/ases of images and image
se=uences,
odeling o/6ects or enironments e,g, industrial ins%ection5 medical
image analysis or to%ogra%"ical modeling,
Interaction e,g, as t"e in%ut to a deice for com%uter-"uman interaction,
1nimal Trac9ing
In order to collect s%atial information a/out an animalGs moement /y means of
digital image %rocessing tec"ni=ues t"e information "as to /e collected
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_counterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-human_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_counterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-human_interaction -
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se=uentially, !"is can /e ac"ieed /y analyAing su/se=uent image frames of a
digitiAed ideo, By means of e;tracting t"e H- and C- coordinates re%resenting
t"e %osition of a mouse for eac" indiidual image frame5 t"e %at" can /e
measured, Ideally5 time as an additional information5 s"ould /e included, If t"e
images are ca%tured and analyAed at a constant framerate or5 alternatiely5 t"e
e;act time for eac" coordinate %air is e;tracted simultaneously5 alua/le
information li@e s%eed5 sto%s5 etc, can /e calculated from t"e data, !al@ing a/out
timelines5 it "as to /e noted t"at de%ending u%on t"e framerate time resolution
t"e total %at"lengt" may ary to a great e;tend,
*igure -)
$ mouse is digitiAed to c"ec@ its moements 13
Medical imaging
edical imaging refers to t"e tec"ni=ues and %rocesses used to create imagesof
t"e "uman /ody or %arts t"ereof for clinical %ur%oses medical %rocedures
see@ing to reeal5 diagnoseor e;amine disease or medical science including t"e
study of normalanatomyand %"ysiology,
$s a disci%line and in its .idest sense5 it is %art of /iological imaging and
incor%orates radiology in t"e .ider sense5 radiological sciences5 endosco%y5
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_procedurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_imaginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiological_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_procedurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_imaginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiological_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoscopy -
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medical t"ermogra%"y5 medical %"otogra%"y and microsco%ye,g, for "uman
%at"ological inestigations,
easurement and recording tec"ni=ues ."ic" are not %rimarily designed to
%roduce images5 suc" as electroence%"alogra%"y EE and
magnetoence%"alogra%"yE and ot"ers5 /ut ."ic" %roduce data susce%ti/le
to /e re%resented asma%si,e, containing %ositional information5 can /e seen as
forms of medical imaging, 14
,lectron microscopy
!"e electron microsco%e is a microsco%e t"at can magnify ery small details .it"
"ig" resoling %o.er due to t"e use of electrons as t"e source of illumination5
magnifying at leels u% to 250005000 times,
Electron microsco%y is em%loyed in anatomic %at"ology to identify organelles
.it"in t"e cells, Its usefulness "as /een greatly reduced /y immun"istoc"emistry
/ut it is still irre%lacea/le for t"e diagnosis of @idney disease5 identification of
immotile cilia syndrome and many ot"er tas@s
*luoroscopy
'luorosco%y %roduces real-time images of internal structures of t"e /ody in a
similar fas"ion to radiogra%"y5 /ut em%loys a constant in%ut of ; rays5 at a lo.er
dose rate, &ontrast media5 suc" as /arium5 iodine5 and air are used to isualiAe
internal organs as t"ey .or@, 'luorosco%y is also used in image-guided
%rocedures ."en constant feed/ac@ during a %rocedure is re=uired, $n image
rece%tor is re=uired to conert t"e radiation into an image after it "as %assed
t"roug" t"e area of interest, Early on t"is .as a fluorescing screen5 ."ic" gae
.ay to an Image $m%lifier I$ ."ic" .as a large acuum tu/e t"at "ad t"e
receiing end coated .it" cesium iodide5 and a mirror at t"e o%%osite end,
Eentually t"e mirror .as re%laced .it" a !> camera,
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoencephalographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomic_pathologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunhistochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_rayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesium_iodidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoencephalographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomic_pathologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunhistochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_rayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesium_iodide -
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Nuclear medicine
Images from gamma camerasare used in nuclear medicine to detect regions of
/iological actiity t"at are often associated .it" diseases, $ s"ort lied isoto%e5
suc" as 123I is administered to t"e %atient, !"ese isoto%es are more readily
a/sor/ed /y /iologically actie regions of t"e /ody5 suc" as tumors or fracture
%oints in /ones,
Pro:ection radiography
9adiogra%"s5 more commonly @no.n as ;-rays5 are often used to determine t"e
ty%e and e;tent of a fracture as .ell as for detecting %at"ological c"anges in t"e
lungs,
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&"a%ter o, %
*hen so#ething can 'e read "ithout effort,
0reat effort has gone into its "riting.
Enri1ue 2ardiel 3oncela
&itations
28
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, c'arlane
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