Moral Values and Cultural Development in the Arab World: An Analytical Study on Religion and Language

Amani G. Jarrar, Associate professorPhiladelphia University- Jordan

aj8infinity@gmail.com

Abstract

The study reveals the relationship between moral values as an ethical system adopted by the Arab mind and the intellectual cultural development in the Arab world. The study also presented analytically the correlation between moral values adopted by the Arab mind and linguistics, relating it to development in the Arab world. The Arab development situation is studied from the perspective of Arab thinkers who used the linguistic analytical approach to understand the Arab mind, in an attempt to realize Arabs’ moral philosophy as compared to Western intellectual perspective. The study discussed cultural development from a three dimensional perspective (philosophic-ethical-linguistic).Arabs encountered an unprecedented state of chaos and violence, because of their thoughts and therefore moral values adopted. The study concluded that moral values as adopted by Arabs are mainly affected by their language usage, reflecting the intellectual status of the Arab mind, and therefore affecting cultural development of the Arab world.

Key words: Cultural development; moral values; linguistic analysis;Arab world; Arab thinkers,Islam;philosophy; religion; ethics.

1.1 Introduction

Recently there has been an increase of interest in both developed and

developing countries , particulary in problems relating to the preservation

and development of cultures and values which they express. The subject

of 'values' and 'cultural values' is an extremely vast and complex one.

Cultural values may be defined as 'the symbolic relationships which hold

together a given society or a group,that maintain and enhance the sense of

belonging of its particular members; it also perpetuates the wealth of its

social and spiritual heritage, providing a sense of totality of life, and

delivering the criteria of the meaning of individual life (Griswold, 2012).

Cultural values are absolute or relative ethical values, the assumption of

which can be the basis for ethical action. A value system is a set of

consistent values and measures (Arisi, 2013).

Whenever something goes seriously wrong in society one of the first

diagnoses given by conservative leader writers is that of a crisis of values.

Politicians, teachers and other public figures are reminded of their duty of

directly and indirectly supporting the authority of values in society and of

living up to these values in their own public behavior. The values which

are usually meant in these contexts are moral values.

1.2 Study Importance

The study sheds light on moral values adopted by Arabs, trying to

understand moral dilemmas faced in the Arab world. Particularly when

the Arab world is facing a critical period of deterioration in terms of both

moral and intellectual - cultural systems .

The Arab mind is facing divergent moral understanding based on

different perspectives,based on different linguistic and religious

interpretations, which often leads to contradiction in interpreting what

constitutes an acceptable moral position , and therefore which is inflicted

on behavior as such .

The study relies on an attempt to link Arab moral philosophy with the

linguistic analysis of Arabic language, in terms of the concept of utility,

and other associative concepts, that make it cognitively reflected in their

behavior. The study is also concerned with the view of two hypotheses

that reflect the concept of behavior based on moral judgements and its

relation to Islam as religion and when politicized.

1.3 Theoretical background of the study

The study deals with Arab thought of moral philosophy, that was raised

by Arab thinkers such as the Jordanian thinker Sahban Khuleifat ,who

discussed moral issues upon understanding Western philosophy as

compared to Arab Islamic philosophy. The research uses the analytical

method and philosophical analysis of intellectual and philosophical

writings of Arab thinkers analyzing Arabic literature and moral

philosophy that reflect the Arab culture.

Khuleifat is taken as an example and considered to be one of the few

Arab thinkers who have dealth with moral philosophical problems

associated with Arabic language usage.

Khleifat , as a pioneer of Arab thinkers in the field of ethics, discussed

moral philosophy as indicated linguistically by the Austrian philosopher

Ludwig Wittgenstein who based his analysis on the linguistic dillemas ,

mainly discussed in Philosophical Investigation ( Blackwell,1963).

Other ethical dilemmas where discussed by Khuleifat based on the

cultural dimension affecting values as a system (Blackwell , 1980) He

was also affected by Wittgenstein in considering the linguistic element

affecting the mind’s comprehension of ethical statements (Caro,1991).

Influenced by Wittgenstein , Khleifat decided that philosophical language

must be subject to logical linguistic analysis in order to detect errors and

misuse of the language that accompanies philosophical writing. Where he

considered that philosophers have exceeded all the walls and boundaries

drawn by language creating metaphysical entities .He understood the

metaphors of the philosophy of Vittgenstein in contemporary

philosophical issues that may be also seen in Arab thought.

In his book "The Philosophy of Ethics and Language Analysis in Modern

Western Thought", which was about the philosophy of Vittgenstein, he

discussed the convictions of several opinions on the ethical question,

specially focusing on how Arabic language negatively affected Arabs

values and therefore behavior in some situations.

 Khuleifat saw that the language of moral philosophy has been abused by

its users in ethics, since moral language is a metaphysical language

dominated by the abusive usage of language that transcends our world, its

concepts, its vocabulary and its connotations.He thought that "systems of

morality can not be viewed as rational systems, because the concepts of

morality can not be proved by reason." He believed that the best way to

understand the moral issue is intuition, where the moral issue is

represented directly and reliably without being subject to analysis.

The following works have been approved for the purpose of analyzing his

moral thought and his logical analytical linguistic method,which is

«Languistic School of Ethics». In addition to his work entitled "A study

of the contemporary English trend in meta-ethics," where he focused on a

comparative study between the English and Arabic study of the language

of ethics. An Analytical Study of the Logic of the Arabic Language in the

Field of Ethics was raised also in his book on Values entitled ( Method of

linguistic - logical analysis in the Arab Islamic thought). (Khuleifat,1990)

1.4 Cultural Devvelopment of Arab Thought

Khuleifat studied the mystical philosophies of Greek philosophers and

was particularly influenced by Aristotle's philosophy and moral

perspective. He believed that moral philosophies vary in their perspective

in terms of realism, rationality, materialism and idealism.

Whereas I believe that Arab thinkers mostly think of moral values in an

ideal way that only reflect their history of religious invasions , they used

to think of them as acceptable and just wars based on its sacred reason

being the religion of Islam.Arab Islamist consider such wars as just wars ,

while I consider them as invasions , as religion should not be inforced no

matter what.And this concequently reflect their moral set of values.

So one can notice the duality of Arab thought in terms of what is right or

wrong . So that what is ideal is only ideal as it goes with their beleifs, and

rooted ideologies in the Arab history ,and what is ideal is what is

accepted in Islamic teachings according to their linguistic interpretations,

which contradicts in many cases with reason and rationality and even

ethical interpretations.

Arab philosophers generally varied in their adoption of certain positions

in terms of the degree of harmony with the overall perspective of their

intellectual approach. It is obvious that the belief in a moral philosophical

approach is inevitably reflected in our moral doctrine and therefore

behavior.

Aristotle's moral doctrine is characterized by realism, based on its

realistic method in its analysis of human behavior and its transition to

what should be. This doctrine mediates the doctrine of pleasure and duty,

where Aristotle believes that virtue comes in the middle between excess

and negligence ,and it is only an aim to achieve harmony and then

happiness. Also, courage comes as a virtue in the middle between the two

sins of cowardice and recklessness, whereas that criterion does not apply

to honesty and justice. Aristotle's idea of mediation does not mean the

arithmetic mean.Aristotle classifies good in terms of the good things for

the body that achieve pleasure, and external good such as money and

wealth, and the good of the soul as the real good such as meditation and

thinking.It must be noted here that the absence of external manifestations

of happiness for reflection leads to deprivation of full happiness.

Aristotle's philosophy of ethics is reflected in his book, where he

perceives wisdom is the first philosophy or theoretical science; it is not

practical science, and he has defined it as the science of being, or the

knowledge of the first principles. (Khuleifat, 1978)

On the other hand , in Islamic and Arabic literature and history , God is

the first principle, and whatever contradicts with it is underestimated even

if it refers to Man, and I believe this is the problem with Islam as a

religion ,and therefore the Arab mind that it doesn’t accept the Other.

Politics and ethics are important as priorities too. But the problem in

Islam is that it accepted to politicize religion , according to its leaders’

interests, and this makes it compelling to others forcing them to accept

what they may refuse in principle.And this makes it far away from the

theoretical wisdom that arises from the union of intuition with science ,

reason ,or rationality, which in turn is the goal of virtuous human life.

In Aristotle's opinion, there is no such thing as a world of ideals, whereas

the individual is free and responsible for his/her choice. Aristotle agrees

with other philosophers that happiness is the supreme good, while there is

no agreement on the nature of happiness, and he believes that true

happiness is purely personal and virtue is the goal of man and not

political life. Pleasure is only a condition of happiness when it includes

action, and we achieve happiness when we perform a humanistic sublime

act in accordance with human nature.Aristotle also believes that the

supreme good must be ultimate.

Aristotle believes that virtue, which is either mental or moral, is the path

to happiness, and that morality comes through happiness, which is a

condition for it, and that man is another condition of virtue based on

choice .True courage, which is characterized by justice, is different from

political courage that is meant to avoid humiliation ,or either courage as

an experience shown based on danger approaching the natural state.

Honor and virtue, which is the best types of Good, considered as social

virtues are not personal at all, but they represent the rights of others; so

that private justice is either compensatory where it compensates the

oppressed or distributive , as distributing funds to citizens on the basis of

the principle of justice entitlement. Khuleifat believes that fairness is

prior to legal justice. (Khuleifat, 1981)

He finds that friendship is more important than justice, and it is

indispensable. He classifies friendship into types: Friendship as for virtue,

for benefit and for pleasure. The real friendship is only for one.

Therefore, Aristotle's policy is based on the social aspect of practical

ethics, where it is a function.

1.5 Morality and utility in the mind of Arab thinkers

Arab thinkers dealt with the issue of ethics from the perspective of

Muslim philosophers who considered morals in terms of utility ,"benefit"

or "interest" , which is the justification for our actions, morally speaking.

Indeed, a duty is considered to be a duty only if, through the moral

system, it achieved a function or benefit. The scholars of Islam were

interested in identifying the moral interest as Imam Malik who considered

it to be for the good of the community not the individual as such.

(Khuleifat, 2004)

One must realize the nature of this benefit, as it should make human life

better only if it is adopted as a guide to action ,and therefore it is

acceptable on a moral basis. Accordingly, the basis for judging the

content of moral descipline, makes this criterion as not sufficient, since

the rules of the institution of slavery can pass this test according to

Islamic thought , so that we can see also examples of polygamy and

religious invasion as acceptable , and this is from a fair neutral rational

point of view is not acceptable, and may even considered as immoral .

Therefore we need other grounds to judge the content of moral rules.

Thus, the benefit refers to linking the moral acts and judgments with the

content of the fundamental purpose of morality. The fact that our actions

and moral judgments are utilitarian means that they are tools to achieve

that end beneficial to man and humanity. So that what we define as "evil"

is "prohibited" and harmful. Accordingly, the taboo or moral evil is

"which does not benefit" or is (causing harm to the individual or

community). (Khuleifat, 1977)

Arab thinkers like him believe that the "enlightened personal benefit" is

the interest of morality, given the essential elements of rationality in

human life.(Khuleifat, 1984) The utility perspective is sometimes

characterized by personal benefit, or by the benefit of others, while the

moral benefit often conflicts with self-interest, and therefore our actions

and self-interest, whatever they may be, are necessarily subject to these

objective conditions. Thus, the determination of the objective purposes or

conditions of rational life is based on rational human experience. Human

experience has a set of fundamental principles necessary for the

continuation of rational life,which is rejecting harming the community.

(Khuleifat, 1988)

Moral ends derive from the nature of our existence as social beings that

can only survive with certain conditions.Thus any humanitarian

community needs mutual support and cooperation to defend against any

aggression against it. However, the problem appears in the fact that man

has a tendency to destroy the society.(Khuleifat , 1979) Unfortunately , I

believe this is what Islamic thinkers believed in as an excuse for war

against non-religious ,non-Islamists, they thought it is their duty to fight

them since not accepting Islam ,or otherwise they should pay for them,

and that is what is called (Aljizyah).

When man becomes selfish in motives, we reach a state of war, where

every person becomes against every other human being, so that man will

live in constant fear of violence. (Khuleifat, 1985) If we truely need to

avoid this destructive war of humanity, we can only adhere to a self-

sustaining moral order , away from religious bias that Islam as a

comprehensive totalitarian regime adheres to. Thus, no one can be

reasonably separated from moral norms, because these are not rules

imposed on him, these are the laws of existence as a human being who

needs to be truly rational.

A proper analysis must take into account the nature of ends as the ground

for our obedience to the provisions of moral duty. We can not criticize or

reject false moral judgments, nor choose between conflicting judgments

on a mental , or rational basis unless we take into account the relevance

of their outcomes to the moral purpose. If morality is to be more than a

taboo, that can not be doubted on any systematic mental basis, then we

must resort to the end in one way or another.

Thus, the idea of moral philosophy necessitates the idea of the necessary

interest as an objective to make morality a matter of reason and

responsibility, not just emotion. To say that interests are goals is what

makes the difference in moral issues and its solution possible. If two rules

conflict, and the general choice of a proposed rule is not conducive to this

purpose, the rule must be rejected as a moral basis on a teleological basis.

If the proposed act leads to the necessary, universal interest, we must

accept it as moral. Thus, the issue of ethics is discussed benefiting from

the perspective of Arab philosophers and Western philosophers as such in

this regard, on a philosophical analysis basis.

1.6 Philosophy of language and moral justification from the

perspective of Arab thinkers:

Philosophers tried to remove different problems in the history of

philosophy. Perhaps the most important of these was language , where

Moore and Wittgenstein  used analytical and logical approaches. Bergson

also defined a method in understanding language based on a set of rules,

where logic is the set of rules to be followed in the use of symbols. Since

the subject of philosophy lies beyond the body, the ordinary language is

not competent to discuss philosophical topics.

Gestalt psychologists advocated a new theory that understood the

meaning through all that is part of it as componants , that is through the

linguistic system, and they discussed the associative theory that analyzes

the meaning into atomic elements, losing its unity and its relation to the

object to which it belongs. While Piaget had succeeded in revealing the

social character of our language. Dewey beleived that language is the tool

by which experience can be shaped and formulated, and that the

meanings are only "the rules of the use and interpretation of things."

Russell discussed the construction of an artificial language that translates

ambiguous meanings in ordinary language. (Khalifeat, 2010)

Ludwig Vittgenstein was the first to announce the curriculum that

examines our uses of language, to reveal the logical rules governing

language usage, so that we can then identify the place of "ambiguity" as

poorly formulated phrases, words that did not take into account the

logical rules of use. And the more we use these rules, in a precise way,

the less ambiguities there are. Vittgenstein is convinced of the possibility

of reaching reality by thinking about symbols, and that metaphysics must

always begin with the study of symbolic forms, and that the essence of

existence and being, is always connected to the naming process. The

logic of our ordinary language is a complex logic for imaging. Thus,

Vittgenstein recognizes the ambiguity inherent in our ordinary language,

paying attention to the logical part in philosophy, warning against the

consequences of becoming victims of the linguistic characteristics of our

language.

Khuleifat-the Arab philosopher- was just like Vittgenstein , aware of the

limits of language, since language reflected facts as understood

rationally.He agrees with Vittgenstein’s understanding of the application

of language to express issues in ethics: "Every rule of relative value is a

purely expression of facts, and therefore we can formulate it in a form

that loses every aspect of value judgment,because absolute value falls

outside the realm of facts , "Just as logical necessity is outside the realm

of reality ". So he thought that there is some kind of abuse in language

usage in all moral and religious expressions . He understood that there are

no moral facts. (Khuleifat, 1979)

He agrees with Kant that the problem stems from not observing the rules

of the logical structure of the language, which does not compromise the

reality of metaphysics and the truth of normative ethics, and he agrees

with Kant understanding that through a psychological theory that explains

our metaphysical and normative tendencies, which is "writing or speaking

in ethics or religion, is a collision of the boundaries of language, caged

within our walls". Thus, metaphysics and ethics are manifestations of our

human mind that collide with boundaries of world and language as

well.So that understanding the human mind, is the way to understand

morality and metaphysics, on the basis that linguistic effectiveness is the

essence of mind (Khulaifat, 2012) . He therefore agrees with Vittgenstein

that the problem of philosophy deals with how to remove

misunderstandings about the use of words, which may arise from a

special analogy between expressions at different levels of language.

Philosophy explains the forms in which words are used at different

linguistic levels. The task of philosophy is understanding the logic of

language. Thus, the moral philosopher should transcend the boundaries of

this meta-language to normative research. He thus believed that the task

of meta-ethical research is limited to the logical aspect of language.

Vittgenstein believed in a dynamic theory of meaning,saying that we

need to study language in its reality. Language has a very complex

historical presence. Khuleifat as well believed that language has several

functions, (Naming) is one of them, and its function is evident in the way

it is used in the language, which is determined by the rules of the

language - game. Thus, the theory of meaning must be reconsidered by

removing any ambiguity.

He therefore agrees with Austen's theory, which referred to the

expressive, and instrumental uses of language. Language has levels and

uses, the first of which is the name, as a preliminary step to the use of the

word , where language has three levels: Naming, description, usage and

meaning.(Khuleifat, 1978)

Thus, the theory of proof or moral justification, as stated by Vittgenstein,

saying that judgment has distinctive characteristics, the most important of

which is performance, since language is an instrument, and the meaning

of a term is its use. He believes that we justify any rule through the rules

of the game, as the rules of the morality - game. Therefore ,his

understanding , based on contemporary meta-ethics and meta-language, is

to be a tool for building metaphysics and ethics based on the search for

the place of reason in metaphysics and morality, according to the

Language School of Ethics.

1.7 Moral perspectives and linguistic analysis

One can study ethics through understanding the moral rules and the

rational foundations of moral perspectives based on preconceptions of

provisions of duty , end, as associated with "benefit". The linguistic

analysis is linked to several topics, such as thought, reality, and culture.

Thinkers also studied "metaphor" as part of language, pointing to the

importance of studying several epistemological issues, including

philosophy of reason and religion.

I hereby revealed the falsity of many moral provisions , especially when

analyzing the political, social, and religious aspects of Arab history.

Some Arab philosophers namely Khuleifat sought to prove the

independence of morality from religion for example, where he was

interested in a detailed study of ethics, its elements, discussing the

metaphysical views, , and its relation to religion, whether primitive

religions or heavenly religions. (Khuleifat, 1984)

One should consider a fai comparison among philosophies , western and

eastern. So that the ethical behavior of individuals represents the status of

morality in any society. It has been viewed by American society,

referring to " utilitarianism" as an ideology that may affect the destruction

of moral values. He also looked at European society, such as French

society, by studying Sartre's philosophy of morality and politics, where

he found the same predicament. It is clear that the ethical status is linked

to the economic, social, political, and religious lifestyle of the West in

general. He was interested in understanding the method of moral

knowledge and the nature of intuition, where he studied intuition in

mathematics, philosophy, and ethics as such. He explained his

understanding of the philosophy of morality and moral intuition through

his article entitled "The ethical standard as defined by intuition . This

clarified the nature of intuition, its subjects, the school of moral sense

according to Butler's ethical theory.

Based on such philosophers views that I do share , there is a distinct kind

of misuse in all ethical and religious expressions, which are based on the

use of analogies and misleading language usage . He sees this use of

language as expressing a metaphysical tendency in us transcending the

world of reality and experience, which is part of the philosophical

problem. This may be the direct cause for having an Arab moral sytem of

beleifs that is far from being realistic and true.

One may say that Vittgenstein did a great deal of damage to ethical

philosophy, when the mission of "meta-ethics" destroyed the existing

philosophical structures, while it must be a tool to build Metaphysics and

rational ethics (Vittgenstein, 1930)

Hegel dealt with the connection of language to philosophy in modern

Western thought, where he felt that the task of language is to express

presence in the language of perceptions, as philosophy is associated with

language and a tool to express existence. Martin Heidegger also saw that

the task of the first language made the human existence truly revealed, for

speech is an expression of existence. He believes that man is the being

based on language, and that language is the supreme event,and the first

cause of human existence. In Heidegger's thought ,poetry,is the most

transparent language patterns in the world of being, language is part of

our existence, and he believes that the history of words is the history of

existence.

According to the theory of "linguistic relativism" language forms

people’s thought, and that it is difficult to provide accurate translation of

thought in a different language, because of the wholistic unity between

"thought" and "language”. So that we exist as much as we speak, and

Socrates realized this fact when he said to one of his disciples: (Speak so

that I can see you). It therefore clear that the attempt to unify the

languages of different societies, culturally means the destruction of these

societies in favor of a society whose language is dominant. Language is

the essence of human existence, inseparable from it, and no person is

human without it . (Khuleifat, 1988)

Language then has two basic characteristics: Being symbolic in

representation, and invocative. Symbolic representation is what

strengthens the relationship of the human elements of the situation

surrounding it, but being invocative, is a tool to request the intervention

of the other in the framework of our thinking, and our presence. So that

necessitates a joint action and communication between individuals,

particularly emotional communication, and the expression of the human

need for security; those are the most important necessities of language.

The unity of the meaning of the word or sentence is the basis of the

language's communicative function, which is determined by the "context"

and the "rules of use" of the language. Language is a social activity, a

"game" governed by rules.

Some philosophers think of metaphor as a way of thinking, examples of

which when used in the case of myth and poetry, while others believe in

the independence of metaphorical language. The first use of words in

experimental science was metaphorical, the "model" in science was a

striking metaphor, also the expression of religious books about the

"absolute" or "God", and His qualities were used in metaphorical

language like the language of Sufism in Islam , as well as metaphysics is

essentially metaphorical.

Moral judgment is an examination of rationality ; it is morally persuasive

as moral judgments . The preconceptions of moral judgments are morally

neutral;it is a croterion by which the mind can make a moral decision,

since our moral judgments, especially the provisions of duty, are tools for

determining behavior. Human behavior is utilitarian, purposeful, and the

value of moral judgments relates to purpose. The teleological aspect of

the act determines the future, and the individual's commitment to ends is

necessarily a mental obligation. And this is in contrast to what Bentham

and Mill have pointed out in their definition of the concept of "utility or

pleasure" (Khuleifat, 1979).

The ultimate purpose (interest) should also govern the functions of acts

according to the moral order , that is important for the survival of rational

human life, and our moral acts are subject to the teleological foundations.

One must believe in the rational basis of morality, linking moral acts with

preconceived assumptions, and the ultimate goal of rational human life.

In his article ( Moral Point of View: A Rational Basis of Ethics) , Kurt

Baier discussed the reasonable basis of morality," he understood the

terms of the moral perspective on the basis of rationality rather than on

the basis of personal interests. In his book (The Rational and the Moral

Order ), he pointed that in the case of conflicts of interests, it is necessary

to resort to the total moral perspective. It applies to every individual, and

it also assumes the principle of "reversibility", which means that the

moral principle is in the interest of every individual on an equal basis. He

agrees with Kant that the moral act is the act that we want, to be fully

legal.This also points up the importance of discussing what is called the

community's moral concept (Baier, 1965) .

It is clear that moral philosophers distinguish between terms such as :

Moral, Ethical, Amoral, Non-moral, Immoral.(Khuleifat,1985) Both Milo

and Richard Hare discussed (Immorality); they have analyzed the cases of

some psychopathic patients , determining the characteristics of the

immoral position, seeing that it is the person who simply refuses to even

consider whether his/her actions are wrong or not morally wrong. He/she

is seen as a "morally deaf" person (Hare, 1993).

1.8 Ethics and religion from the perspective of thinkers

One of the Arab thinkers ,Khuleifat, in his article entitled "religion and

morality" discusses the ethical connection to religion. He discusses the

ideas of Patrick Nowell Smith in his study of "Morality: Religious and

Secular" , including his criticism of “religious morality” indicating that

morality is wholly concerned with the relationships between individuals

and how they should act, and the general rules governing relations

between them and society. He believes that we are motivated by our

obedience to selfish and enlightened ethics, to avoid the penalties

imposed by society such as social retaliation and the penalties of law, as

well as our respect to rules as general rules of conduct, as well as other

motives such as love. He believes that, according to religious people,if

these rules are attributed to a transcendent creator, we obey them because

they come from a source of trust, respect and obedience (Nowell,1948) .

There are different views concerning the relationship between ethics and

religion. While some anthropologists, who studied primitive religions,

believed that morality - in primitive societies - depended entirely on

religion, so that it was impossible for morality to exist without religion,

while other contemporary anthropologists who assert that primitives are

perfectly capable of learning from experience .It is a natural phenomena,

which is not linked to their religious beliefs.

Malinowski's view that the moral rules of primitive society are obeyed

because they have a binding social force, away from any metaphysical

reason like religion, or that they are declared in the name of God. Their

source and reason for obedience derives from their practical, conscious

and experiential utility. Bound by obedience to these moral rules, is the

exchange of services, and respect for the rights of others, all of which are

moral rather than religious. The moral independence of religion proves

that different societies have different religious beliefs and a similar

constitution. So logically, if religions were the cause of moral existence,

different religions would have to generate different ethics. But having a

similar moral constitution, despite different religions, is a proof that these

religions are not the source of morality. But two studies of the impact of

religion on moral attitudes, conducted in Europe and the United States,

demonstrated that the impact of religion on morality is not clear. This

reminds us of such views of John Stuart Mill and Bentham investigating

cases of behavior in which religion never affects morality unless it

supports worldly authority, education, and public opinion (Fortes, 1987).

Islamic thinkers believe that religion has an effect on morality, where the

moral attributes of God,according to their views such as justice,

compassion, and love, makes "God" the source of moral rules. Smith also

argues that morality is dependent on religion and that morality is similar

to law. One can argue the independence of morality from religion. If we

want to avoid God's creation of morality by an arbitrary will, in the sense

that it is His will that makes the thing moral or immoral, not the specific

attributes of God.

Provisions of responsibility in particular political, religious, social and

international issues are objective based on moral claims, that justify

utilitarianism, where "public interest" often conceals a "personal interest"

or a particular "community" or "state" interest.

According to Dewey’s views on advanced Western societies, leaders of

this society may be leaders in the field of finance and industry, but they

can not be leaders who direct their lives, beliefs and goals. So that the

standards of evaluation in Dewey's political reform are material rather

than ethical.

 In Sartre's study (Philosophy of Ethics and Politics); he argues that

individual freedom is the unique foundation of values and its justification.

He emphasizes the need to respect the freedom of others, represented in

the Kantian principle, that I can not make my freedom my goal unless I

make the freedom of others a similar goal, and that my choice is like

legislation to all humanity (McBride, 1991).

The theological conception of history by St. Augustine in his book (The

City of God) was explained in the sense that if our moral judgments are

part of our moral life, and this was part of our public life, it is therefore

part of history; that is the law of history, and its inevitability (Augustine,

2010) .

Thus, Giovanni Battista Vico depicts civilization in its three phases:

Divine, heroic, and human. He believes that the second conception of

history is the ideal perception, which is based on the interpretation of

history of the development of nature, ideas, and opinions, just as Hegel

confirmed the idealist leader, where he believed in the reality of evolution

through conflict. Hegel adopted the mental nature of history, describing

his facts as reasonably necessary. The mind has the essence of existence,

the essence of history, and the content of facts. It is the history of thought

that is inherent from the beginning at the very essence of reality, and

therefore every development of this reality reveals the evolution of

thought or what is called (Absolute Spirit) (Corsano,1977).

The philosophy of history is summarized in fundamental factors, namely

the engines of civilization and history of thought. According to Auguste

Comte Law of the (Three Stages of Humanity): Theological,

metaphysical, and positive. (Comte, 1876) Positivism is the best example

of a positive perception of history, as is Arnold Toynbee's analysis of that

positive perception, according to the theory of challenge and response

(Toynbee, 1978).

In the Arab-Islamic thought, a distinction is made between the

philosophical intuition that emerged in the form of sensory intuition ,

where intuition is sincere and certain, as it is with the case of Arab

philosophers al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and Ibn Rushd. There is general

intuition, namely, an abnormal knowledge of a category of things or acts,

which is similar to that of George Moore in Western philosophy, such as

knowing the duty of honoring parents. There is a total intuition in which

we realize the universes of the mathematical, moral, and the first-world

reason of the universe. The Arab-Islamic thought of "Sufi intuition"

emerged directing its attention towards the realization of absolute truth

acknowledged by the "heart," not by the senses or the mind. The truths of

the "preserved panel" in the Sufis appear to be compared to Platonic

ideals. Comparative studies have demonstrated the different concepts of

"good", "evil", "right" and "wrong". On the other hand the evolutionary

doctrine, as shown in Bergson, makes "the mind" within the "instinct",

where the intuitive nature of knowledge is defined as knowing the inner

by penetrating into the interior, away from any preconceptions or ideas

about it (Stewart,1913).

Intuitive moral knowledge is the doctrine that presupposes the existence

of "sense" or " faculty of mind " in man ,named as (moral intuition),

which enables it to perceive the moral subject directly, i.e. without any

evidentiary processes. Here we refer to the School of Shaftesbury and the

Doctrine of Moral Sense in the Eighteenth Century . The Doctrine of

Moral Sense recognizes "moral sense" as objective and universal, and

that it is not possible to distinguish between good and evil deeds

(Alderman, 1931).

On the other hand , Butler’s moral philosophy has proved that knowing

"right" and "wrong" is more about reason than feeling. The idea of

"conscience" is an intuitive perception of the moral value of deeds, so

that moral judgement is based on consciousness (Duncan-Jones, 1952).

Intuition and apriori dogma, as discussed by Richard Pearce and Thomas

Reid, suggested that what we know intuitively is true or false, but this

claim is not as objective and holistic as it is a concept of self- regulated

rules,since circumstances of act occurances are not considered.

Philosophical intuition presents intuition as a holistic issue that

determines what is right or wrong, good or evil, which makes the subject

of philosophical intuition a total moral principle.

1.9 Results

The method of linguistic analysis affects our understanding of the

philosophy of ethics, which is reflected in our understanding of morality

and therefore our behavior. It is clear that our morality and ethics differ

whether it is considered from the perspective of Western or Arab thought.

It is clearly possible to benefit from the Western thought and its criticism

of the perspective of Arab and Islamic thought, particularly when trying

to study the moral problems and ethical dilemma encountering Arabs and

Muslims. In this intellectual moral research project, the study focusses on

intellectual approaches dealing with criticism of moral issues based on

recognizing linguistic and ethical relations.To reform Arab societies, a

new philosophy must be advocated , so that it should take into

consideration the major economic and political problems, particularly

problems related to lack of morality ,human values and freedom.

1.10 Recommendations:

- The study recommends further research on the relation between

philosophy and Arab thought reality , so that light should be shed

on ethics and behavior of Arab Muslims to be able to comprehend

and anticipate their behavior and moral understanding from

different intellectual perspectives .

- The need for further studies to understand the relationship between

Western and Arab philosophy ,and its impact on the Arab

intellectual reality, in an attempt to deal with the moral problems

that Arabs and Muslims face because of their beleifs and thoughts

that respectively affect their extremist violent behavior in some

occasions .

- Facing such different challenges of Arab thought reality and based

on their prospectives that one can see in their politics, Arabs and

Muslims need more interfaith programs and cooperation with the

West, especially in light of an intellectually changing world.

- The need to conduct research focusing on the moral perspective in

Arab thought so as to accommodate all intellectual open ideas

presented in Western thought, dealing with different patterns of

ethics and behavior, so that should be flexible and open towards

accepting other cultures.

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