Back to Normalcy (1918-1923)Back to Normalcy (1918-1923)

Sections:I. “Red Scare” and Terrorism

Book Ch. 4, Sec. 4II. Peace and Economic Recovery

Ch. 4, Sec. 4; Ch. 5, Sec. 1-2III. Immigration and Race Relations

Ch. 4, Sec. 2; Ch. 5, Sec. 3

Red Scare and TerrorismRed Scare and Terrorism“One of the questions on the paper was, 'Are you an

anarchist?' To which a detached philosopher would naturally feel inclined to answer, 'What the devil has that to do with you? .... Then there was the question, 'Are you in favour of subverting the government of the United States by force?' Against this I should write, 'I prefer to answer that question at the end of my tour and not the beginning.'”

– British humorist and essayist G.K. Chesterton, on visiting America for his 1922 book, What I Saw in America

Immigration Act of 1918

“That aliens who are anarchists; aliens who believe in or advocate the overthrow by force or violence of the Government of the United States or of all forms of law; aliens who disbelieve in or are opposed to all organized government; aliens who advocate or teach the assassination of public officials; aliens who advocate or teach the unlawful destruction of public property … shall be excluded from admission into the United States.”

Chesterton:

“America is the only nation in the world that is founded on a creed. That creed is set forth with dogmatic and even theological lucidity in the Declaration of Independence; perhaps the only piece of practical politics that is also theoretical politics and also great literature. It enunciates that all men are equal in their claim to justice, that governments exist to give them that justice, and that their authority is for that reason just. It certainly does condemn anarchism, and it does also by inference condemn atheism, since it clearly names the Creator as the ultimate authority from whom these equal rights are derived.”

– What I Saw in America (1922)

“Red Scare” 1917-1920 Nearly 125 bombings, bombing attempts or robberies across the country, including attempts in Bridgewater (Sacco and Vanzetti) and Franklin (botched bombing). Bombings include mail bombs Bombings target Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, judges, legislators and other prominent persons. Perpetrators include mostly followers of Italian immigrant Luigi Galleani (1917-18), Russian Bolsheviks and their German sympathizers (1918-20) Targeted groups included: Galleanists, Union of Russian Workers, Communist Party, Communist Labor Party, IWW, and a few others.

Basic Terms of the “Red Scare”

Socialism: Government ownership of “the means of production,” i.e., factories and businesses. It may be combined in a democratic society or a dictatorship

Communism: A socialist society that follows the teachings of Karl Marx, inevitably a conspiratorial dictatorship that uses centralizing Marx’s economic agenda as an excuse to claim political power. Usually involves mass murder (democide).

Basic terms of the “Red Scare” cont’d

Bolshevik: A revolutionary communist attached to Russia’s communist leaders, specifically V.I. Lenin, Josef Stalin and/or Leon Trotsky. Usually has little objection to violence and terrorism.

Anarchist: A person who does not believe in any government at all. An anarchist may believe in using violence to bring down the state (like the Galleanists) or to simply use non-violent resistance (like today’s anarcho-capitalists). Violent anarchists sometimes partner with communists (who believe government should control virtually everything).

A. Mitchell Palmer

Wilson’s Attorney General• Targeted twice with bombs

• Leads “raids” against communists, anarchists

• Focuses upon immigrants from Russia, Germany, Italy

• Does not have legislative authority (Labor Dep’t)

• Violates some constitutional provisions regarding specifics on warrants (4th amendment), no attorney during questioning (6th amendment), detention without trial (6th amendment), mistreatment (rare) in prison (8th amendment)

J. Edgar Hoover

Director of the Bureau of Investigation, Intelligence Division

BOI becomes FBI

Hoover serves under ten Presidents (until his death in 1972).

Known in his day for restraint of law enforcement, his FBI wiretapped (with warrants) some Civil Rights leaders, such as Martin Luther King.

Overman CommitteeChaired by Lee S. Overman (D-NC), it condemns German

propaganda during the war, especially brewing interests based in German Midwestern states.

Senator Walsh adds mandate to Overman committee: Investigate Bolshevism.

-- Condemns Bolshevism as atheistic, bloodthirsty, socialist, kleptocratic (all true)

-- Says propaganda and election money has been transferred to U.S. to impact elections (true for Germans, in a smaller way true for Bolsheviks)

-- Most witnesses before the committee are BOI agents, and some condemnations are “guilt by association”

Overman Committee on Bolshevism

“The radical revolutionary elements in this country and the Bolshevik government of Russia … are both fanning the flame of discontent and endeavoring to incite revolution. Numerous newspapers are openly advocating revolution. Literature and circular matter demanding a resort to violence are being widely circulated. Bombs and high explosives have been used in many parts of the country in an attempt to inaugurate a reign of terror and to accomplish the assassination of public officials.”

Luigi GalleaniLuigi Galleani

Italian immigrant anarchist:

• Supports violence

• Edits Cronaca SovversivaCronaca Sovversiva (meaning (meaning Subversive ChronicleSubversive Chronicle)) from Lynn, Mass., which is written largely in Italian and distributed mostly to Italian anarchists in the Northeast.

• Writes (in 1924), explaining his philosophy of “Propaganda of the Deed”: “We do not believe there are useless or harmful acts of rebellion.... No act of rebellion is useless; no act of rebellion is harmful.”

• Deported to Italy after June 1919 bombings.

Sacco-Vanzetti TrialSacco-Vanzetti TrialNicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti:Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti:

• Italian immigrantsItalian immigrants

• Accused of robbing shoe factory payrolls in Bridgewater and Accused of robbing shoe factory payrolls in Bridgewater and Braintree, Mass. (Braintree robbery involved double murder with a Braintree, Mass. (Braintree robbery involved double murder with a 32 caliber automatic pistol)32 caliber automatic pistol)

• Both contributed to the anarchist newsletter Both contributed to the anarchist newsletter Cronaca SovversivaCronaca Sovversiva (Subversive Chronicle), which was edited by Luigi Galleani and (Subversive Chronicle), which was edited by Luigi Galleani and written in Italian.written in Italian.

• Receive death penalty August 23, 1927 Receive death penalty August 23, 1927

Trial and conviction becomes global cause against American persecution Trial and conviction becomes global cause against American persecution of anarchists, with global protests and strikes. The new American Civil of anarchists, with global protests and strikes. The new American Civil Liberties Union backs new trials for Sacco and Vanzetti, along with most Liberties Union backs new trials for Sacco and Vanzetti, along with most left-leaning intellectuals. A juror's home in the case was bombed, as were left-leaning intellectuals. A juror's home in the case was bombed, as were half a dozen U.S. embassies abroad.half a dozen U.S. embassies abroad.

Trial evidence: Trial evidence:

• Three witnesses identify defendants at the sceneThree witnesses identify defendants at the scene

• Three alibi witnesses (all anarchists)Three alibi witnesses (all anarchists)

• One prosecution witness recants (and then says she was One prosecution witness recants (and then says she was intimidated into a recantation, reiterating her initial claims the next intimidated into a recantation, reiterating her initial claims the next day)day)

• Strongest evidence is the guns found on defendants:Strongest evidence is the guns found on defendants:

Sacco had .32 automatic handgun which was identified as the Sacco had .32 automatic handgun which was identified as the gun that shot Berrardelli (re-verified in 1960s ballistics test)gun that shot Berrardelli (re-verified in 1960s ballistics test)

Vanzetti was arrested with a .38 revolver like that carried by Vanzetti was arrested with a .38 revolver like that carried by Braintree victim Alessandro Berardelli (whose corpse had an Braintree victim Alessandro Berardelli (whose corpse had an empty holster)empty holster)

Sacco-Vanzetti Trial, cont'dSacco-Vanzetti Trial, cont'd

Industrial Workers of the World

Called “Wobblies”, it was a socialist labor union, organized by mostly by socialists, communists and anarchists … rival to more moderate American Federation of Labor

100 leaders prosecuted for protesting war

Called more than 100 strikes after the war, violence follows many strikes (both Wobbly violence and vigilante violence against Wobblies)

Famous Wobblies: William D. “Big Bill” Haywood, Eugene Debs, “Mother” Mary Harris Jones

Organization declines in 1920s with economic prosperity, Palmer deportations, internal split in organization

Ohio Senator Warren G. Harding – a Republican – elected President in 1920, proclaims “return to normalcy” and calls for spending cuts, along with tax cuts.

Generally marks the end of the progressive era.

Federal spending cuts – already being cut with war demobilization under Wilson – continues until 1924.

Despite tax cuts, U.S. government pays down war debt.

Back to Normalcy

Federal government spending is cut by ¾ from 1919 to 1921

Demobilization

Definition of economic terms:Recession: An economic contraction marked by at least two quarters of negative economic growth as measured by GDP, usually involving higher unemployment and other factors such as stock market contractions, bank runs, bankruptcies, etc.Depression: A particularly severe recession, usually lasting several years or including exceptionally high unemployment levels.Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The total value of everything produced in a country in a year, counting only domestic production. It's the modern measurement of an economy (since the 1970s). Gross National Product (GNP): The total value of everything produced in a country in a year, counting production by U.S.-owned companies abroad, but not foreign-owned corporations produced here. It was the primary measurement of an economy before the 1970s.

“Great Depression” of 1920U.S. faced a severe financial contraction in 1920-21,

brought on by:

• Cuts in spending for military contractors (and unemployment over 10 percent)

• Soldiers employed by the armed forces were turned back into the workforce

• War-driven inflation pullback (Higher interest rates to drawn down inflation)

• Stock market crash 1919-21 (Dow shrinks 47%)

• But NO bank runs, and Federal Reserve pushes record high interest rates (more than 6 percent)

The economy in 1920

Wholesale prices fall by more than 33 percent from 1920-21

Retail prices fall 18 percent from 1920-21, and continue to fall until 1923.

Production (GDP) falls more than 3 percent 1920-21 in constant, deflation-adjusted prices (20 percent in dollar prices)

Unemployment peaks at 11.9 percent in 1921

The Economic plan:

Federal Reserve bank does opposite of 1929-40 (and opposite of today), and raises interest rates to record levels – more than six percent in a time of deflation!

Federal government pursues financial “austerity”

• Economy recovers in 18 months, and there is essentially zero unemployment by 1924.

• Federal Reserve lowers interest rates beginning in 1924-25, creating booming 1920s and preparing for Great Depression.

Two federal conservation forests, Teapot Dome, Wyoming, and Elk Hills, California were known to have oil reserves.

Harding's Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall took bribes for leases enabling private companies to extract the oil, which resulted in a congressional investigation.

The scandal taints the Harding Administration, and Warren Harding's presidency is regarded by many historians as a failure because of the scandal.

Fall and Edward L. Doheny of Pan American Petroleum (who made the bribe) were fined and sentenced to prison after a lengthy congressional investigation and criminal prosecution. Fall was the first cabinet official to be sentenced to prison for behavior while in office.

Teapot Dome scandal

Immigration and Race Relations

Section 3

The Ku Klux Klan 1915: Reconstruction-era Ku Klux Klan re-founded on

Stone Mountain, Georgia by dentist Hiram W. Evans, who is able to market the KKK using modern media.

The new Klan attacked not only blacks. It added Catholics, Jews, and immigrants to its list of enemies under the slogan “100 percent American.”

1915: Film Birth of a Nation is released, and it portrays KKK as heroes. KKK benefits after Woodrow Wilson praises the film as historically accurate.

1921: KKK claims over 3 million members and is a powerful political force in the Democratic South and controlled the Republican Party in Indiana.

25

The women's auxillary of the KKK attracted 500,000 members by 1921.

KKK and Post-war Race Relations

Before the war, 1890-1910, 5,000 blacks move North every day from the South in an event called “The Great Migration”

Many black veterans return from the war expecting equality, but find Jim Crow laws intact.

Lynchings continue in the South (higher numbers in 1919 than during the war, but lower than the 1890s).

Race Riots erupt after the war in many cities, especially in Chicago and Tulsa (site of the “black Wall Street”).

Strange Fruit: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h4ZyuULy9zs

Tulsa RiotsTulsa Riots May 31-June 1, 1921 May 31-June 1, 1921

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yxA1lfV6bew

History of Lynching

• Lynching originated in Virginia during the American Revolution.

• It was created by Charles Lynch who was a Justice of the Peace who ordered mob punishment on Tory sympathizers.

• Lynching then became synonymous with Charles Lynch.

• Lynchings were then used in the South against abolitionists or any whites that sympathized with the anti-slave movement

Lynchings in America

18821884

18861888

18901892

18941896

18981900

19021904

19061908

19101912

19141916

19181920

19221924

19261928

19301932

19341936

19381940

19421944

19461948

19501952

19541956

19581960

19621964

19661968

0

50

100

150

200

250

Nu

mb

er o

f ly

nch

ing

s

Year

Legend:Legend:White LynchingsWhite LynchingsBlack LynchingsBlack Lynchings

Source: Tuskegee Institute ArchivesSource: Tuskegee Institute Archives

LynchingLynching

Statistics:Statistics:• Between 1882 and 1964 there were 3,445 lynchings of Between 1882 and 1964 there were 3,445 lynchings of

blacks in America (plus 1,297 whites), according to the blacks in America (plus 1,297 whites), according to the Tuskegee Institute.Tuskegee Institute.

• 1880-85: More whites than blacks lynched (mostly for 1880-85: More whites than blacks lynched (mostly for sympathy with blacks). 1880s were the only decade sympathy with blacks). 1880s were the only decade where whites were more heavily targeted.where whites were more heavily targeted.

• 1890s: Peak lynching numbers (gradual decrease from 1890s: Peak lynching numbers (gradual decrease from that time period through to 1960s)that time period through to 1960s)

• 1919: Sudden one-year rise in lynchings (83, from 64)1919: Sudden one-year rise in lynchings (83, from 64)

Lynchings of 1919Lynchings of 1919

• According to Ida Barnett, “Lynching in According to Ida Barnett, “Lynching in America was perpetrated by the white America was perpetrated by the white community as a way of keeping the black community as a way of keeping the black community from rising up the social ladder.” community from rising up the social ladder.”

• She went on to state that “the white She went on to state that “the white communities justification for its atrocities was communities justification for its atrocities was to fabricate crimes.”to fabricate crimes.”

• ““The whites just needed to keep the black The whites just needed to keep the black man down.”man down.”

May 13, 1919- Vicksburg

• A twenty-three year old black man by the name of Lloyd Clay was lynched on May 13, 1919.

• Mob accused Mr. Clay of entering the bedroom of a 19 year old white girl.

• The girl claimed that Lloyd Clay had attempted to violate her.

• Clay was first placed in jail, where the young girl went to identify Clay.

Vicksburg Cont.

• The young girl was unable to clearly identify the accused.

• That night the mob consisting of men, women and children took Clay from the jail and lit Clay’s body on fire.

• As the body burned, the mob proceeded to hang Clay higher and higher up the tree.

• As the burning body hung from the tree branch, men, women and children began to fire bullets into him.

Vicksburg cont.

• When the body was finally lowered a child in the crowd was heard yelling, “ Mother get me a piece of the nigger’s finger.”

Conclusion of Lloyd Clay Case

• Miss Hattie Hudson, who accused Clay of entering her room, never identified him when she was brought to the station.

• The Sheriff stood by and watched the mob destroy Lloyd Clay and never attempted to prevent it.

• Later it was discovered that the perpetrator was in fact her boyfriend whom she had an argument with, but didn’t want to get him in trouble.

• Nobody was ever prosecuted for this crime.

“[The congressman] thought it of importance to fill the country with useful men, such as farmers, mechanics and manufacturers, and, therefore, would hold our every encouragement for them to emigrate to America.... But there is another class also I would interdict, that is, the convicts and criminals which they pour out of British jails. I wish sincerely some mode could be adopted to prevent the importation of such; but that, perhaps, is not in our power.”

– South Carolina Congressman Aedanus Burke, on the floor of the House of Representatives (1790)

History of U.S. Immigration laws

History of U.S. Immigration laws 1788-1890: No federal controls on immigration,

immigrants processed by states, or no controls at all. 1875: Supreme Court in Chy Lung v. Freeman

overturns California immigration law (which gives state Commissioner of Immigration a discretionary right to extract a “bond” from immigrants from Asia). Case is used as justification later for making immigration a federal responsibility.

1875: Page Act: First federal law sponsored by Horace F. Page (R-CA) restricting immigration, banning “coolie” slave labor imports from Asia (esp. China and Japan) and importation of prostitutes.

History of U.S. Immigration laws

1882: Chinese Exclusion Act: Banned large-scale immigration of Chinese to U.S., but not enforceable because of lack of federal immigration officials.

1891: Congress sets up first federal immigration office under the guise of keeping wages up.

1892: Ellis Island opens up in New York City to quarantine immigrants until they can be admitted to U.S. 12,000,000 immigrants processed there. Closed in 1954. (100 million Americans trace their roots to Ellis Island – one third of the nation.)

1907: “Gentleman's Agreement”: Informal agreement between U.S. and Japan to stop Japanese immigration to U.S.

History of U.S. Immigration laws

39

Emergency Quota Act of 1921: Imposes national (i.e., racial) quotas for immigration (using ethnic ratios from 1910 census) as an attempt to stem immigration from Southern European nations, but no limits on immigration overall.

Immigration Act of 1924: Builds upon 1921 law but also puts a cap of 100,000 immigrants per year. National quotas stay in place. (at that time, immigrants are 13 percent of total U.S. population … same as today)

History of U.S. Immigration laws